Geologi Mineral Industri

Geology and Applications of

Industrial Clay

Dr.-rer.nat. I Wayan WARMADA

Laboratorium Bahan Galian,
Departemen Teknik Geologi
warmada@ugm.ac.id
Introduction
 The term clay is somewhat ambiguous unless specifically
defined, because it is used in three ways:
 As a diverse group of fine-grained minerals
 As a rock term
 As a particle size term
 As a rock term, clay is difficult to define because of the wide
variety of materials that comprise it; therefore, the definition
must be general.
 As a particle size term, clay is used for the category that
includes the smallest particles.
 The maximum size particles in the clay size grade are defined
differently on various grade scales.
Clay minerals
 According to AIPEA Nomenclature Committee (Brindley &
Pedro, 1972; vide Bailey, 1980), “Clay minerals belong to the
family of phyllosilicates and contain continuous two-dimensional
tetrahedra sheets of composition T2O5 (T = Si, Al, Be, ...) with
tetrahedra linked by sharing three corners of each, and with the fourth
corner pointing in any direction. The tetrahedra sheets are linked in
the unit structure to octahedral sheets, or to groups of coordinated
cations, or individual cations.”
 The term ‘clay mineral’ is difficult to define. As a first
approximation, the term signifies a class of hydrated
phyllosilicates making up the fine-grained fraction of rocks,
sediments, and soils.
Clay minerals
 The definition that the JNC’s have proposed is “…
phyllosilicate mienrals and minerals which impart plasticity
to clay and which harden upon drying or firing”
(Guggenheim and Martin, 1995).
 Grim (1962) defined clay as a fine-grained, natural, earthy,
argillaceous material.
 The particle size of clays is very fine and is generally
considered to be about 2 μm or less by most clay scientist.
 These minerals are hydrous silicates composed mainly of
silica, alumina, and water.
 Several of these minerals also contain appreciable quantities of
magnesium, iron, alkalis, and alkaline earths.
Distinction–clay & clay minerals
Clay Clay mineral

Natural Natural and synthetic

Fine-grained (<2µm or <4µm) No size criterion

Phyllosilicates as principal
May include non-phyllosilicates
constituents
Plastica Plastic

Hardens on drying and firing Hardens on drying and firing

awithsome exceptions like flint clays
Source: Bergaya & Lagaly (2006, p. 8).
Clay mineral properties
 a layer structure with one dimension in the nanometer range;
the thickness of the 1:1 (TO) layer is about 0.7 nm, and that of
the 2:1 (TOT) layer is about 1 nm,
 the anisotropy of the layers or particles,
 the existence of several types of surfaces: external basal
(planar) and edge surfaces as well as internal (interlayer)
surfaces,
 the ease with which the external, and often also the internal,
surface can be modified (by adsorption, ion exchange, or
grafting),
 plasticity, and
 hardening on drying or firing; this applies to most (but not all)
clay minerals.
Clay mineral properties
most people associated clay mineral with smectites, where the
properties of smectite are:
 particles of colloidal size,
 high degree of layer stacking disorder,
 high specific surface area,
 moderate layer charge,
 large cation exchange capacity that is little dependent on
ambient pH,
 small pH-dependent anion exchange capacity,
 variable interlayer separation, depending on ambient humidity,
Clay mineral properties
 propensity for intercalating1 extraneous substances, including
organic compounds and macromolecules, and
 ability of some members (e.g., Li+– and Na+–exchanged
forms) to show extensive interlayer swelling in water; under
optimum conditions, the layers can completely dissociate
(delaminate).

__________________
1The term ‘intercalation’ denotes both interlayer adsorption and

interlayer ion exchange reactions.

Clay mineral group/species
Layer Group (x=charge per
type formula unit) Subgroup Subspecies*
Kaolinite-serpentine Kaolinite Kaolinite, dickite, halloysite
1:1 x~0 Serpentine Chrysotile, lizardite, amesite
Pyrophyllite-talc Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite
x~0 Talc Talc
Smectite Dioctahedral smectite Montmorillonite, beidellite
x ~ 0.2–0.6 Trioctahedral smectite Saponite, hectorite, sauconite
Vermiculite Dioctahedral vermiculite Dioctahedral vermiculite
x ~ 0.6–0.9 Trioctahedral vermiculite Trioctahedral vermiculite
2:1 Mica§ Dioctahedral mica Muscovite, paragonite
x~1 Trioctahedral mica Phlogopite, biotite, lepidolite
Brittle mica Dioctahedral brittle mica Margarite
x~2 Trioctahedral brittle mica Clintonite,anandite
Chlorite Dioctahedral chlorite Donbassite
x variable Di, Trioctahedral chlorite Cookeite, sudoite
Trioctahedral chlorite Clinochlore, chamosite, nimite
*Only a few examples are given. §The status of illite (or hydromica), sericite, etc. must be left open at
present, because it is not clear whether or at what level they would enter the table: many materials so
designated may be interstratified.
Clay minerals and environment
The interaction between clay minerals and extraneous substances
(i.e., in the environment) is influenced by many factors, such as
 the acid–basic character (pH and ionic strength), and
 thermodynamic condition (pressure and temperature)

of the surrounding medium.

Clay minerals and environment

Diagram showing (A) a clay mineral layer; (B) a particle, made up of stacked layers;
layer translation and deformation can give rise to a lenticular pore; (C) an aggregate,
showing an interlayer space and an interparticle space; and (D) an assembly of
aggregates, enclosing an interaggregate space (pore). Source: Bergaya et al. (2006).
Clay minerals and environment

Transmission electron micrographs of some clay minerals with varied particle morphology: (A) kaolinite
from Sasso (Italy) showing typical books of particles; (B) high-quality flint clay from Gasconade County,
Missouri, USA; (C) tubular halloysite particles alongside kaolinite plates from Sasso, Italy; (D) smectite or
illite/smectite from Sasso, Italy; (E) filamentous illite from sandstones in offshore Netherlands; (F) lath-
shaped illite from sandstones in offshore Netherlands; (G) pseudo-hexagonal illite particles from
sandstones in offshore Netherlands; (H) fibrous palygorskite from Southern Georgia (USA). Source:
Bergaya et al. (2006, p. 13)
Clay minerals and environment

Diagram showing the interactions of

clay minerals with the environment.
Source: Bergaya et al. (2006).
Structure and mineralogy
 Phyllosilicates ideally contain a continuous tetrahedral sheet.
 Each tetrahedron consists of a cation, T, coordinated to four
atoms, and linked to adjacent tetrahedra by sharing three
corners (the basal oxygen atoms, Ob ) to form an infinite two-
dimensional ’hexagonal’ mesh pattern along the a, b
crystallographic direction.
 In the octahedral sheet, connections between each octahedron,
M, to neighbouring octahedra are made by sharing edges.
 The edge-shared octahedra form sheets of hexagonal or
pseudo-hexagonal symmetry
 Common tetrahedral cations are Si4+, Al3+, and Fe3+.
Octahedral cations are usually Al3+, Fe3+, Mg2+, and Fe2+, but
other cations, such as Li+, Mn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, V3+,
Cr3+, and Ti4+ were identified.
Structure and mineralogy

(a) Tetrahedron [TO4]; (b) tetrahedral

sheet. Oa and Ob refer to apical and basal
oxygen atoms, respectively. a and b refer
to unit-cell parameters.

(a) Ooct (OH, F, Cl) orientation in cis-

octahedron and trans-octahedron; (b)
location of cis- and trans-sites in the
octahedral sheet. Oa and Ob refer to
apical and basal oxygen atoms,
respectively. a and b refer to unit cell
parameters.
Structure and mineralogy

Models of a 1:1 and 2:1 layer structure. Oa,

Ob, and Ooct refer to tetrahedral basal,
tetrahedral apical, and octahedral anionic
position, respectively. M and T indicate the
octahedral and tetrahedral cation,
respectively.

(a) trioctahedral sheet; (b) dioctahedral sheet. O a represents the apical oxygen
atoms shared with tetrahedra, and Ooct is the anionic site shared between adjacent
octahedra. a and b are unit-cell parameters.
Structure and mineralogy

Different layer structures: (a) 1:1 layer (i.e., kaolinite- and serpentine-like layer); (b) 2:1 layer
(i.e., pyrophillite- and talc-like layer); (c) 2:1 layer with anhydrous interlayer cations (i.e., the
mica-like layer); (d) 2:1 layer with hydrated interlayer cations (i.e., smectite- and vermiculite-like
layer); (e) 2:1 layer with octahedrally coordinated interlayer cations (i.e., chlorite-like layer).
Classification of clay minerals
I. Amorphous
Allophane group
II. Crystalline
A. Two-layer type (sheet structures composed of units of one layer of
silica tetrahedrons and one layer of alumina octahedrons)
1. Equidimentional
Kaolinite group
Kaolinite, dickite, and nacrite
2. Elongate
Halloysite
B. Three-layer types (sheet structures composed of two layers of silica
tetrahedrons and one central dioctahedral or trioctahedral layer)
1 Expanding lattice
a. Equidimentional
Smectite group
Sodium montmorillonite, calcium montmorillonite, and
beidellite
Vermiculite
Classification of clay minerals
b. Elongate
Smectite
Nontronite, saponite, hectorite
2. Non-expanding lattice
Illite group
C. Regular mixed-layer types (ordered stacking of alternate layers of
different types)
Chlorite group
D. Chain-structure types (hornblende-like chains of silica tetrahedrons
linked together by octahedral groups of oxygens and hydroxyls
containing Al and Mg atoms)
Sepiolite
Palygorskite (attapulgite)
Clay usage
Clay family Industry Use
Kaolin Paper, plastics, Filler
rubber
Pesticides Carrier, diluent
Vermiculite Building Heat insulation, sound
dissipation
Packaging Shock-proof materials, thermal
protection, liquid absorption
Foundries Thermal protection
Mica Electrical Insulation
Paints UV-, heat-stable and underwater
paints
Cosmetics Nacreous pigments
Clay usage (cont’d)
Clay family Industry Use
Mica (cont'd) Coatings Corrosion proofing, polymer
coatings, underseal
Talcum, Plastics, rubber, paper Filler
pyrophyllite
Cosmetics, Powders, pastes, ointments, lotions
pharmaceuticals
Refractories Refractories
Palygorskite, Pesticides Carrier for insecticides and
sepiolite herbicides
Chemicals Catalyst carrier, filter material,
anticaking agent
Cosmetics, plastics Filler
Source: Harvey & Murray (2006, p. 336)
Kaolin minerals
 The basic kaolin mineral structure comprising the minerals
kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, and halloysite is a layer of a single
tetrahedral sheet and a single octahedral sheet.
 The structural formula for kaolinite is Al4Si4O10(OH)8 and
the theoretical chemical composition is SiO2, 46.54%; Al2O3,
39.50%; and H2O, 13.96%.
 Only two-thirds of the
octahedral positions are
filled by an aluminum
atom. The aluminum atoms
are surrounded by four
oxygens and eight
hydroxyls.
(Schroeder & Erickson, 2014)
Kaolin minerals

A) Kaolin quarries in Wood

Mountain, Canada.
B) Deposits also in GA,
between Columbus and
Augusta.
C) Jubilee Church – Rome,
Italy: metakaolin with
white cement.
Kaolin in culture history

(Schroeder & Erickson, 2014)

Kaolin in culture history
Explanation of previous slide: Eight ceramic wares depicting
the dominance of Chinese influences and stylistic changes
through time. (A) Chinese, Northern Song dynasty, late 11 th –
12 th century, Ding ware. (B) Chinese, Song dynasty, 12 th
century, Jingdezhen ware. (C) Chinese, Yuan dynasty, 14th
century, Jingdezhen ware. (D) Italian, Deruta, ca 1520–1525,
maiolica, tin-glazed and cobalt blue. (E) Chinese, Ming
dynasty, ca 1610–1620, Jingdezhen Kraak blue underglaze. (F)
Chinese, Qing dynasty, 1723–1735, Jingdezhen ware, cobalt
blue underglaze and yellow enamel overglaze. (G) German,
Meissen factory, ca 1725–1730, hard-paste porcelain with blue
underglaze, enamel colors, and lustered. (H) English, modern
ca 2011, Wedgwood earthenware. Details of plates in photos
A–G (and photo credits) can be found in Emerson et al.
(2000). Source: Schroeder & Erickson (2014).
Mineralogy kaolins
 Halloysite has two layers of water
between each TO layer in its
hydrated form. Hydrated
halloysite is also refered to as
10Å-halloysite, indianaite, and
endellite. Dehydrated halloysite is
called 7Å-halloysite or
metahalloysite.

Halloysite
en.wikimedia.org
Geology of kaolins

A deposit of kaolin near Cantarrana in Bolivar state.

https://www.worldatlas.com
Kaolin applications
Kaolin applications

Plastic

Ink

Fiberglass
Bentonite minerals
 Bentonites are clay rocks consisting predominantly of
smectite, which form mainly fromalteration of
pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks.
 The major smectite minerals are: Na–montmorillonite, Ca–
montmorillonite, saponite (Mg–montm), nontronite (Fe–
montm), hectorite (Li–montm), and beidellite (Al–montm),
volkonskoite (Cr–montm), and sauconite (Zn–montm).
 Smectite minerals are composed of two silica tetrahedral
sheets with a central octahedral sheet and are designated as a
2:1 layer mineral.
 The theoretical formula is (OH)4Si8Al4O20·nH2O (interlayer)
and the theoretical composition without the interlayer material
is SiO2, 66.7%; Al2O3, 28.3%; and H2O, 5%.
Smectite properties
Important physical and chemical properties of
smectites
 2:1 Expandable layers
 High layer charge
 High base exchange capacity
 Very thin flakes
 Large surface area (up to 800 m²/g)
 Significant negative layer charge (≈120 meq/100g)
 High absorption capacity
 High swelling capacity
 High viscosity
 Thixotropic
 Color: tan, olive green, brown, blue-gray, white.
Source: Murray (2007); Eisenhour & Brown (2009)
Characteristics of bentonite
What do K-bentonites look
like?
Here are some examples. (A)
Drill core show-ing a K-
bentonite bed (arrow) in a
carbonate section; (B) a road
cut near Gladeville, Tennes-
see, showing the centimetre-
thick Deicke (D) and Millbrig
(M) K-bentonites separated
by about 4 m of limestone;
(C) the Deicke (D) and
Millbrig (M) K-bentonites
exposed near Minke Hollow,
Missouri; (D) the Deicke K-
bentonite in a road cut near
Carthage, Tennessee
(Christidis & Huff, 2009).
Characteristics of bentonite

Alligator-hide (A) and popcorn (B) textures are characteristic of

bentonite outcrops (Eisenhour & Brown, 2009).
Characteristics of bentonite

Photomicrographs of montmorilonitic claystone thin sections, showing that a part

of volcanic glass (vlcg) has altered to secon-dary minerals (Yulianti et al. 2011).
Characteristics of bentonite

A: XPL microscopy with gypsum plate; B–D: SEM observation

(Yulianti et al. 2011).
Geology of bentonite

Bentonite deposit formed from pyroclastic flows, Milos Island, Greece. Deposition and
alteration of the parent rocks took place in a marine environment. Individual flows can
be identified by variation in colour. Red marl overlies the bentonite. The deposit is ~60 m
thick but its lateral extent is limited by the dimensions of the pyroclastic flows.
Bentonite applications

2006 USA bentonite end use statistics (Source: Eisenhour & Brown, 2009)
Bentonite applications
Bentonite applications
Clay nanocomposites …
Nanotechnology
 Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of
materials at atomic, macromolecular and at molecular scales,
where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale
(Saba et al. 2014).
 The term “nanotechnology” was invented by Taniguchi in
1974 and is defined as “the science of nano materials (1–100
nm)” and systems with structures and components displaying
improved chemical, physical, thermal and biological
properties”.
 Nanotechnology is the advanced technology that deals and
describes the design, production, characterization, and
application of nano based materials and systems.
 Nanotechnology
 The field of nanoscience and nanotechnology has blossomed
over the last 20 years (Galpaya 2012; Kuilla et al. 2010) and
gaining significance in areas of biosensors, biomedical,
nanomedicine, computing, aeronautics, polymer modification
and many other applications owing to their high surface area
with better tendency to amend materials properties.

A new Copper Graphene
(G/Cu) nanocomposite has
been developed recently: the
addition of 3% graphene to
pure copper has proven to be a
material that significantly
improves the yield strength,
tensile strength, and elastic
modulus if compared to pure
copper.
Nanotechnology

Diverse applications of nanotechnology

Nanoclay
 Nanoclays are generally used for a clay mineral having a
phyllosilicate or sheet structure with a thickness of about 1 nm
and surfaces about 50–150 nm in one dimension
 Nanoclays are thus the general term for the layered mineral
silicates nanoparticles having high aspect ratio.
 Depending on morphology of nano particles and chemical
composition nanoclays are organized into various classes such
as illite, halloysite, bentonite, kaolinite, montmorillonite,
hectorite and chlorite.
 Researchers explored that the nanoclays can be obtained from
raw clay minerals through fewer steps, instead of the several
general synthesis techniques of nano particles.
Nanoclay

Stages involved in the conversion of crude clay into

nanoclays (Uddin, 2013)
Platy and Tubular Nanoclay
 The 2:1 phyllosilicates family of nanoclay is the most
commonly used layered silicate in polymer nanocomposites.
 Their two-dimensional layers are made up of two tetrahedral
coordinated silicon atoms fused to an edge-shared octahedral
sheet of either aluminium or magnesium hydroxide.
 MMT, talc, hectorite, pyrophyllite, nontronite and saponite are
the members of the layered smectite clay group.
 Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) were firstly reported by Berthier
as a di-octahedral 1:1 clay mineral of the kaolin group in 1826,
and its deposits are extensively found widely in the soils of
countries such as France, China, Belgium, New Zealand and
Australia.
Platy and Tubular Nanoclay

a) Raw halloysite and b) ground halloysite (Liu et al. 2014)

Nanocomposites
 Nanocomposites are a broad range of
materials consisting of two or more
components, with at least one
component having dimensions in the
nm regime (i.e., between 1 and 100
nm)
 Typically consists of a macroscopic
matrix or host with the addition of
nanometer-sized particulates or filler
❖ Filler can be: 0 D (nano-particles),
1 D (nano-wires, nano-tubes), 2 D
(thin film coatings, quantum wells),
or 3 D (embedded networks, co-
polymers)
❖ e.g. CNTs in a polymer matrix
Nanocomposites
 Common matrix materials are rubber, engineering plastics or
polyolefines with a small content of nanoscale materials.
Usually less than 5% of nanomaterials are used to improve
thermal or mechanical properties
 Typical ways to produce Nanocomposites are In-Situ-
Polymerization and melt blending / compounding
 Three types of nano material are commonly melt blended with
plastics: Nano clay, nano tubes and nano scale particles (SiO 2,
ZrO2, Ag)
Nanocomposits

Clays are the oldest and potentially one of the most interesting and versatile nanofillers.
The blending of surface-functionalized clay platelets with a polymer matrix can yield a
new class of hybrid materials, commonly known as clay-containing polymer nanocom-
posites (PCNs), where 1-5 % (in general) clay particles by volume are molecularly
dispersed within the polymer matrix.
Nanocomposits
 Resulting nanocomposite
may exhibit drastically
different (often enhanced)
properties than the
individual components
 Electrical, magnetic,
electrochemical,
catalytic, optical,
structural, and
mechanical properties Lycurgus Cup is made of
glass.
Roman ~400 AD,
Myth of King Lycurgus
Appears green in
reflected light and red in
transmitted light
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/t/the_lycurgus_cup.aspx
 Nanocomposits

Technology re-discovered
in the 1600s and used for
colored stained glass
windows
The Institute of Nanotechnology
http://www.nano.org.uk/
Nano effect
 Very high surface area to volume ratios in nanostructures
 Nanocomposites provide large interface areas between the
constituent, intermixed phases
 Allow significant property improvements with very low
loading levels (Traditional micro-particle additives require
much higher loading levels to achieve similar performance)
 Apart from the properties of the individual components in a
nanocomposite, the interfaces play an important role in
enhancing or limiting overall properties of system
 Controls the degree of interaction between the filler and the
matrix and thus influences the properties
 Alters chemistry, polymer chain mobility, degree of cure,
crystallinity, etc.
Nano effect

Si Cube with (100)-Directed Faces

Surface-
to-
Si Cube
Volume
Volume
Atomic
Ratio

(1 m)3 0.081%
(100 nm)3 0.81%
(10 nm)3 8.1%
(5 nm)3 16%
(2 nm)3 41%
(1 nm)3 82%
Nano effect
 Surface and interface properties (e.g. adhesive and frictional
forces) become critical as materials become smaller
 High surface area materials have applications in: energy
storage, catalysis, battery/capacitor elements, gas separation
and filtering, biochemical separations, etc.
Nanocomposits
Other Properties and Benefits
 Interaction of phases at interface is key:
 Adding nanotubes to a polymer can improve the strength
(due to superior mechanical properties of the NTs)
 A non-interacting interface serves only to create weak
regions in the composite resulting in no enhancement
 Most nano-particles do not scatter light significantly
 Possible to make composites with altered electrical or
mechanical properties while retaining optical clarity
 CNTs and other nano-particles are often essentially defect free
NC and Applications
Nanoclay in Polymers
 Liquid and Gaseous barriers
 Food packaging applications (processed meats, cheese,
cereals) to enhance shelf life
 Reduce solvent transmission through polymers such as
polyamides for fuel tank and fuel line components
 Reduce water absorption in polymers (environmental
protection)
 Reduction of flammability of polymeric materials (e.g.
polypropylene) with as little as 2% nanoclay loading
NC and Applications
Nanotubes in Polymers
 High strength materials
 Modulus as high as 1 TPa and strengths as high as 500 GPa
 Significant weight reductions for similar performance,
greater strength for similar dimensions (military and
aerospace applications)
 Electrically conductive polymers
Nanoclay in Polymer NC
 Improved properties related to the dispersion and nano-
structure (aspect ratio, etc.) of the layered silicate in polymer
 The greatest improvement of
these benefits often comes with
exfoliated samples.
 Intercalate: Organic component
inserted between the layers of
the clay
 Inter-layer spacing is
expanded, but the layers still
bear a well-defined spatial
relationship to each other

http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=936
Nanoclay in Polymer NC
 Exfoliated: Layers of the clay
have been completely separated
and the individual layers are
distributed throughout the
organic matrix
 Results from extensive
polymer penetration and
delamination of the silicate
crystallites

http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=936
Nanoclay in Polymer NC
 Organoclay nanocomposite (10%
in Novalac-Based Cyanate Ester)
 XRD gives average interlayer d-
spacing while TEM can give site
specific morphology and d-spacing
 In this case, XRD gave no peaks
 Many factors such as
concentration and order of the clay
can influence the XRD patterns
 XRD often inconclusive when
used alone

TEM of Intercalated Nanoclay

J. Applied Polymer Science, 87 1329-1338 (2003)
Nanoclay in Polymer NC
 In the author’s own words:
“The majority of PLSNs that we
investigated were best described as
intercalated/exfoliated. By XRD,
they would be simply defined as
intercalated, in that there was an
observed increase in the d-spacing Small Intercalated
as compared to the original clay d- Clay Layers
spacing. However, the TEM
images showed that although there
were indeed intercalated multilayer
crystallites present, single exfoliated Exfoliated
silicate layers were also prevalent, Single Layers
hence, the designation of an
intercalated/exfoliated type of
PLSNs.”

TEM Image of an Intercalated/Exfoliated PS

Nanocomposite: J. Applied Polymer Science, 87 1329-1338 (2003)
TEM images of CNC

 Change of basal spacing of organo-clay nanocomposites during

processing of epoxy/clay nanocomposites by the sonication technique
 TEM images of nanoclay in different epoxy systems showing
intercalated(white arrows)/exfoliated (black arrows) nanocomposite
hybrids
 Increase in basal d-spacings in nanoclay platelets observed by TEM and
XRD
 In some cases from 1.8 nm up to 8.72 nm
Polymer Engineering and Science, 46(4) 452-463 (2006)
Further Readings
 Bergaya, F., Theng, B.K.G., Lagaly, G. (eds) (2006) Handbook of
Clay Sciences. Devel in Clay Sci, vol. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
 Galimberti, M. (eds) (2011). Rubber-Clay Nanocomposites:
Science, Technology, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, New
Jersey.
 Jawaid, M., Qaiss, A.K., Bouhfid, R. (eds) (2016). Nanoclay
Reinforced Polymer Composites: Natural Fibre/Nanoclay Hybrid
Composites. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
 Kogel, J.E., Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M., Krukowski, S.T. (eds)
(2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks, 7th Edition, SME, Inc.,
Colorado.
 Laske, S. (ed) (2015). Polymer Nanoclay Composites. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
 Murray, H.H. (2007). Applied Clay Mineralogy. Devel in Clay Sci,
Vol. 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Thank you …