Cement Industry

Cement
 Cement is the mixture of calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous (oxides of calcium,
silicon, iron and aluminum) and other substances.
 It is used as a binding material in mortar, concrete, etc
 Hydraulic material which develops strength when it reacts with water.
 Phases in Cement
 C3 S (Alite)
 C2 S (Belite)
 C3 A (celite)
 C4 AF (Brown millerite)

C - CaO , S - SiO2 , A - Al2O3 , F - Fe2O3


Typical Chemical Composition

 Lime 63%
 Silica 22%
 Alumina 06%
 Iron oxide 03%
 Gypsum 01 to 04%
 History

 It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination

of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolano produces a
hydraulic mixture
 concrete made from such mixtures was first used by
the Ancient Macedonians and three centuries later on a large
scale by Roman engineers. They used both natural pozzolans
(trass or pumice) and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or
pottery) in these concretes.
 Many excellent examples of structures made from these
concretes are still standing, notably the huge dome of
the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla. The
vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of
hydraulic cement.
 Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the
start of the Industrial Revolution (around 1800).
 Cement was first made by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 in
England.
 Pantheon
Temple
The Pantheon is a former Roman
temple, now a Catholic church, in
Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier
temple commissioned by Marcus
Agrippa during the reign of
Augustus. It was rebuilt by the
emperor Hadrian and probably
dedicated about 126 AD
Flavian Amphitheatre or Colossium
Oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of travertine limestone, tuff
(volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete,[1] it was the largest amphitheatre ever built at the
time and held 50,000 spectators. The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum.
Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72[2] and was completed in AD 80
 Common applications of cement

 Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, bricks, mortar, panels,

plaster).
 Transport (roads, pathways, crossings, bridges, sleepers, viaducts, tunnels,
stabilization, runways, parking).
 Water (pipes, culverts, kerbing, drains, canals, weirs, dams, tanks, pools).
 Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing, poles, pylons, fencing).
 Agriculture (buildings, processing, housing, feedlots, irrigation).
 Pakistan cement industry

 The cement industry contributes billions to Pakistan’s economy. In 2016, it contributed

approximately Rs. 20 billion to the national exchequer alone, over Rs. 40 billion is added
to country’s GDP annually.
 Pakistan’s cement industry is currently running at 95 percent capacity that has encouraged
the domestic cement manufacturers to spend an estimated $2.25 billion on new production
capacity.
 These cement plants are distributed across the country; mostly around the population
centers. The Northern Zone consists of Upper Punjab, KP, Azad Kashmir and areas of
Balochistan close to KP and Punjab. The Southern Zone, for the most part, is made up of
Sindh i.e. the areas close to Karachi.
Cement Industry In Pakistan
Manufacturing of
cement
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT:

(1) Mixing and crushing of raw materials

a. Dry process
b. Wet process

(2) Burning
(3) Grinding
(a) Dry process:
 In this process calcareous material such as limestone (calcium carbonate)
and argillaceous material such as clay are ground separately to fine powder
in the absence of water and then are mixed in the desired proportions. Water
is then added to it for getting thick paste and then its cakes are formed, dried
and burnt in kilns. This process is usually used when raw materials are very
strong and hard.
 Raw Material fed to kiln contains 2-4% water by weight
(b) Wet process:
 In this process, the raw materials are changed in powdered form in the
presence of water.
 In this process, raw materials are pulverized by using a Ball mill, which is a
rotary steel cylinder with hardened steel balls. When the mill rotates, steel
balls pulverize the raw materials which form slurry (liquid mixture). The
slurry is then passed into storage tanks, where correct proportioning is done.
 Proper composition of raw materials can be ensured by using wet process
than dry process. Corrected slurry is then fed into rotary kiln for burning.
 Raw feed fed to kiln contains 30-40% water by weight
Contd.

 This process is generally used when raw materials are soft because
complete mixing is not possible unless water is added.
 The purpose of both processes is to change the raw materials to fine
powder
kilns
(2) Burning:

Corrected slurry is fed to rotary kiln, which is a 150-500

feet long, 8-16 feet in diameter and temperature
arrangement is up to 1500-1650 degree C.
At this temperature slurry losses moisture and forms into
small lumps, after that changes to clinkers.
Clinkers are cooled in another inclined tube similar to kiln
but of lesser length.
Clinker
(3) Grinding:

 Now the final process is applied which is grinding of clinker, it is

first cooled down to atmospheric temperature.
 Grinding of clinker is done in large tube mills. After proper grinding
gypsum (Calcium sulphate Ca SO4) in the ratio of 01-04 % is added
for controlling the setting time of cement.
 Finally, fine ground cement is stored in storage tanks from where it
is drawn for packing.
Typical surface areas

 350 m2 / kg (Normal cements)

 500 m2 / kg (High early strength cements
Importance of particle size

 Finer cement = Faster reaction

 Finer cement = Higher heat of hydration
 Large particles do not react with water completely
 Higher fineness
 Higher shrinkage
 Reduced bleeding
 Reduced durability
 More gypsum needed
Functions of Cement
Manufacturing
Constituents
 (i) Lime (CaO):

 Lime forms nearly two-third (2/3) of the cement.

 Calcium oxide is used as an expanding agent to overcome contraction as
cement slurry sets Therefore sufficient quantity of the lime must be in the raw
materials for the manufacturing of cement.
 Sufficient quantity of lime forms di-calcium silicate (C2SiO2) and tri-calcium
silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
 Lime in excess, causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
Silica (SiO2):

 The quantity of silica should be enough to form di-calcium silicate

(C2SiO2) and tri-calcium silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
 Silica gives strength to the cement. Silica in excess causes the
cement to set slowly
Alumina (Al2O3):

 Alumina supports the cement to set quickly. It also lowers the

clinkering temperature.
 Alumina in excess, reduces the strength of the cement
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3):

 Iron oxide gives colour to the cement.

Magnesia (MgO)

• It also helps in giving colour to the cement. Magnesium in excess

makes the cement unsound.
Calcium Sulphate (or) Gypsum (Ca SO4) :

• At the final stage of manufacturing, gypsum is added to increase the

setting of cement.
TYPES OF CEMENT

1. Ordinary Portland Cement

2. Sulphate Resisting Cement
3. Rapid Hardening Cement (or) High Early Strength cement
4. Quick Setting Cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. High Alumina Cement
7. Air Entraining Cement
8. White Cement
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

 It is the variety of artificial cement. It is called Portland cement

because on hardening (setting) its colour resembles to rocks near
Portland in England. It was first of all introduced in 1824 by Joseph
Asp din, a bricklayer of Leeds, England
• O.P.C has the following approximate
chemical composition:
• The major constituents are:
1. Lime (CaO) 60- 63%
2. Silica (SiO2) 17- 25%
3. Alumina (Al2O3) 03- 08%
Chemical Composition of O.P.Cement: Continued-------
The auxiliary constituents are:
1. Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5- 06%
2. Magnesia (MgO) 1.5- 03%
3. Sulphur Tri Oxide (SO3) 01- 02%
4. Gypsum 01 to 04%
(2) SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT:
It is modified form of O.P.C and is specially manufactured to
resist the sulphates. In certain regions/areas where water and soil
may have alkaline contents and O.P.C is liable to disintegrate,
because of unfavourable chemical reaction between cement and
water, S.R.C is used. This cement contains a low %age of C3A
not more than 05%.
This cement requires longer period of curing. This cement is used
for hydraulic structures in alkaline water and for canal and water
courses lining. It develops strength slowly, but ultimately it is as
strong as O.P.C.
(3) RAPID HARDENING CEMENT:
This cement contains more %age of C3S and less %age of
C2S. This is infact high early strength cement. The high
strength at early stage is due to finer grinding, burning at
higher temperature and increased lime content. The strength
obtained by this cement in 04 days is same as obtained by
O.P.C in 14 days. This cement is used in highway slabs
which are to be opened for traffic quickly. This is also suitable
for use in cold weather areas. One type of this cement is
manufactured by adding calcium chloride (CaCl2) to the
O.P.C in small proportions. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) should
not be more than 02%. When this type of cement is used,
shuttering material can be removed earlier.
(4) QUICK SETTING CEMENT:
When concrete is to be laid under water, quick setting
cement is to used. This cement is manufactured by adding
small %age of aluminum sulphate (Al2SO4) which
accelerates the setting action. The setting action of such
cement starts with in 05 minutes after addition of water and
it becomes stone hard in less than half an hour.
( 5) LOW HEAT CEMENT:
In this cement the heat of hydration is reduced by tri calcium
aluminate (C3 A ) content. It contains less %age of lime than
ordinary port land cement. It is used for mass concrete
works such as dams etc.
(6) HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT:
This cement contains high aluminate %age usually
between 35-55%. It gains strength very rapidly with in 24
hours. It is also used for construction of dams and other
heavy structures. It has resistance to sulphates and action
of frost also.
(7) AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT:
This type of cement was first of all developed in U.S.A to produce such
concrete which would have resistance to weathering actions and
particularly to the action of frost. It is found that entrainment of air or gas
bubbles while applying cement, increases resistance to frost action. Air
entraining cement is produced by grinding minute air entraining materials
with clinker or the materials are also added separately while making
concrete. Entrainment of air also improves workability and durability. It is
recommended that air contents should be 03-04 % by volume.
Natural resins, fats, oils are used as air entraining agents.
(8) WHITE CEMENT:

This cement is called snowcrete. As iron oxide gives the grey colour to
cement, it is therefore necessary for white cement to keep the content of iron
oxide as low as possible. Lime stone and china clay free from iron oxide are
suitable for its manufacturing. This cement is costlier than O.P.C. It is
mainly used for architectural finishing in the buildings.
Testing of Cement
1. Field testing
2. Standard consistency test
3. Fineness test
4. Soundness test
5. Strength test
 Field Testing

 Open the bag and take a good look at the cement, then it should not contain any
visible lumps.
 Colour of cement should be greenish grey.
 Should get cool feeling when thrusted.
 When we touch the cement, it should give a smooth &not a gritty feeling.
 When we throw the cement on a bucket full of water before it sinks the particles
should flow.
 When we make a stiff paste of cement & cut it with sharp edges & kept on a
glass plate under water there wont be any disturbance to the shape& should get
strength after 24hours.
Standard Consistency Test

The standard consistency of a cement paste

is defined as that consistency which will
permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm diameter
and 50 mm length to penetrate to a depth of
33-35 mm from the top of the mould.
USE:
Used to find out the percentage of water
required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency.
This is also called normal consistency (CPNC).
 PROCEDURE:

•For first trial, take about 500gms of cement &

water of 24%by weight of cement.

•Fill it in Vicat’s mould with in 3-5min.

•After filling, shake the mould to expel air.

•A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm

long is attached and brought down to touch
the surface of the paste and quickly released.

•Note the reading according to depth of

penetration of the plunger.
 PROCEDURE:

 Conduct trials continuously by taking different water cement ratios till

the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-35mm from top.
 This particular percentage is known as percentage of water required
to produce cement paste of standard consistency.
 This is usually denoted as ‘P’.
 SUITABLE CONDITIONS:
 Conducted in a constant temperature of 270+20C.
 Constant Humidity 90%.
 Setting Time Test:

 An arbitraty division has been made for the setting time of cement.

 Initial setting time &

 Final setting time.

 INITIAL SETTING TIME

 The time elapsed between the moment that the water is added to the cement, to the
time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.
 Normally a minimum of 30min has maintained for mixing & handling operations.
 It should not be less than 30min.
FINAL SETTING TIME

 The time elapsed between the moment the water is added to the cement, and the time when
the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist
certain definite pressure.
 It should not exceed 10hours.
 So that it is avoided from least vulnerable to damages from external activities.
 FINENESS TEST
• The fineness of cement has an important
bearing on the rate of hydration, rate of
gain of strength, evolution of heat.
• Finer cement offers greater surface area.
• Disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is
susceptible to air set & early deterioration.
• Maximum no. of particles in a sample of
cement<100microns.
• The smallest particle should have a size if
1.5microns.
• Large particle should have a size of
10microns.
• Fineness of cement is tested in two ways.
• By sieving.
• By determination specific surface by air
permeability method.
 SIEVE TEST

PROCEDURE:

•Take correctly 100grams of cement on

a standard IS sieve No.9

•Break down the air-set lumps & sieve

it &weigh it.

•This weight shall not exceed 10% for

ordinary cement.

•Sieve test is rarely used.

 SOUNDNESS TEST
 It is very important that the cement after setting shall not undergo any appreciable
change of volume.

 This test is to ensure that the cement does not show any subsequent expansions.

 The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of excess of lime combined with
acidic oxide at the kiln.

 This is due to high proportion of magnesia & calcium sulphate.

 Therefore magnesia content in cement is limited to 6%.

 Gypsum 3-5.
 APPARATUS FOR SOUDNESS TEST
 It consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass.
 It is 30mm diameter & 30mm high.
 Cement is gauged with 0.78 times the one used in normal consistency & filled
into the mould & kept on a glass plate & covered with another glass plate.
 This is immersed in water at a temperature 270c-320c for 24 hours.
 Measure the distance between indicators.
 Heat the water & bring to boiling point of about 25-30min.
 Remove the mould from the water after 3 hours.
 Measure the distance between the indicators.
 This must not exceed 10min for ordinary, rapid hardening, low heat Portland
cements.
 If this expansion is more than 10mm the cement is said to be unsound.
APPARATUS OF SOUNDNESS TEST
 STRENGTH TEST

 This is the most important of all properties of

hardened cement.
 Due to excessive shrinkage and cracking the
strength tests are not made on heat cement paste.
 Standard sand is used for finding the strength of
cement.
(4) Compressive Strength test of Cement:
This test is very important. In this test, three moulds
of (face area 50 cm2) are prepared and cured under
standard temperature conditions and each cube tested
by placing it between movable jaws of the
compressive strength testing machine. The rate of
increasing load is zero in the beginning and varies at
350 kg/cm2 per minute. The load at which the cube
gets fractured divided by the cross sectional area of
the cube, is the compressive strength of the cube. The
average of the compressive strengths of three cubes is
the required compressive strength of the cement
sample.
PROCEDURE

 Take 555gms of standard sand. 185gms of cement (i.e., 1:3 ratio of cement and
sand)
 Mix them for 1min, then add water of quantityp=(Pn/4)+3.0%.
 Mix three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is of uniform colour.
 The time of mixing should not be<3min and >4min.
 Then the mortar is filled into a cube mould of 7.06cm.
 Compact the mortar.
 Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature of 27°C ± 2°C and at
least 90 per cent relative humidity for 24 hours.
 After 24hours the cubes are removed & immersed in clean fresh water until
taken for testing.
Tensile test

• Procedure:
1. Mortar is prepared cement(1) : Sand (3)
2. Water is added 8%
3. Mortar is placed in briquette moulds
briquittes
Cont..,
Cont..,

 Typical briquette is formed.

 A small heap is formed at its top.
 It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the surface.
 Same procedure is repeated for other sides of briquettes.
 12 standard briquettes are prepared
 The quantity of cement may be 600g for 12 briquettes
Cont..,

 It is kept in damp cabin for 24 hrs.

 It is carefully removed from mould and submerged in clean water for curing.
 It is tested in testing machine after 3 and 7 days
 The cross section of briquettes at least section is 6.45 cm 2
 Ultimate tensile stress = failing load
6.45
Cont..,

 After 3 days: > 20 kg/cm2

 After 7 days: > 25 kg/cm2

The End