Techniques and Terms in a Rhetorical Analysis or Argument

Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants for emphasis or poetic effect.

Amplification (also, copiousness) means saying much about one thing. Writers may
intentionally develop a point in many ways so that it can be shown in different lights or
emphasized.

An allusion is a brief reference to a historical or literary figure, event, or object that the target
audience would respect, thus bringing respect to the writer using the reference. For example,
allusions to the Bible and Shakespeare are common among English and American writers.

An analogy is a comparison between two things. Analogies can be used to make a point or idea
memorable: comparing lips to a rose or school to a prison. They are often used in extended form
in arguments. An argument based on analogy, for example, is as follows: advertising cigarettes is
like manslaughter. Arguments by analogy are easily refuted since analogies can only hold so far.
A false analogy is one that breaks down easily, for example, baseball is like ballet. (Baseball and
ballet don’t have enough in common for the analogy to hold.) See also metaphor and simile.

An appeal is an attempt to earn audience approval or agreement by means of persuasive

techniques. Three common methods include appeals through logos (logic of the argument),
pathos (appeal to the emotion of the argument), or ethos (character or authority of the writer).

Arrangement (also, organization)deals with how the parts of an essay are ordered. Points of
emphasis, for example, include both the beginnings or ends of paragraphs and the introduction or
conclusion to the whole essay. Arrangement should be considered in light of the audience and
purpose of the paper. For example, writers who want to make a strong argument against an
opponent may move the refutation section of an essay to the beginning or end, but they will not
bury it in the middle.

An assumption is a step in the process of argument which writers hope (or assume) their target
audiences will take for granted as true or logical. If the assumption is warranted, justified, or
proven to be true, the argument will be recognized as sound. However, if writers miscalculate
their audience’s acceptance of the assumption, that is, if the audience judges it as unwarranted,
untrue, or based purely on opinion, the argument will be built on a weak foundation and may fail.

The writer has authority when the audience believes the author knows what he or she is talking
about. Writers may appeal to external and respected authorities (experts) to strengthen their
arguments.

Argument using cause and effect makes claims about real, or potential, consequences of an
action or proposal.
Although absolute and distinct causes are hard to prove, writers may argue that a particular
effect was caused by something. Or, inversely, writers may argue that the effect of a certain
action has a specific cause.

A claim (also assertion) is a statement that something is, or is not, so. Claims may be taken at
face value because the writer is sincere or believable. However, if a claim is not likely to be
readily accepted, it must be supported by evidence. A claim backed by evidence is an argument.
The thesis statement of an essay often contains its major claim.

Common ground is the point at which groups in general disagreement can agree. Writers use
the technique of starting from common ground if their target audience is likely to oppose their
claim or reject their arguments.

An argument from definition is based on definitions of key words, including arguing from
nature, category, or class. Writers may argue against euthanasia by defining the nature of
euthanasia as murder, which they can assume their target audience will consider unacceptable.
Or writers may argue that athletes are dancers by defining athlete and dancer and showing that
they belong in the same category. Finally, writers may argue by placing all members of a group
in classes which they have defined. They might classify Aggies according to their social and
political activism: heavily involved, involved in one cause, participants only for personal gain,
and apathetic. Each class would be defined, and examples of such Aggies would be presented.

Key terms must be defined, definition of terms, when the target audience is likely to disagree or
when they come from a very different background or discourse community from the writer. For
example, in an argument about UFOs, the writer might need to define unidentified flying
objects—do they include or exclude unidentified flying objects from earth? In an argument about
abortion, a writer must begin with a definition of when life begins.

In oral rhetoric, delivery refers to the ways an orator uses his or her voice and gestures to
accompany the spoken words.

Dialectic describes a process of seeking truth through questioning. The Platonic model of
dialectic is a cooperative exchange between two speakers, beginning with a definition of terms
and ending with synthesis that approaches philosophic, universal understanding. In one respect,
dialectic differs from rhetoric because the former employs the syllogism and aims at certainty,
while the latter employs the enthymeme and aims at establishing probabilities.

A dilemma occurs when all choices presented appear to be unacceptable. Usually a dilemma is
false and easily refuted because other alternatives can be found. Writers may use a dilemma to
make choices appear limited.

An appeal to the emotions (pathos) of the target audience may gain their sympathy and assent.
TV commercials asking viewers to sponsor a third world child rely heavily on emotional appeals.
Enthymeme uses an unstated premise. The effectiveness of the enthymeme depends upon the
acceptance of the premise being drawn not from certainties, as with the syllogism, but from the
beliefs and presuppositions of the audience.

In rhetorical theory, the appeal of speakers or writers to their own credibility and character is
called ethics (ethos). The Greek term ethos is sometimes called the ethical appeal in modern
rhetoric handbooks.

Writers use evidence (support) to back up assertions or claims to persuade an audience to accept
their argument as being grounded. Evidence takes many forms, including testimony, appeal to
experts, facts, statistics, logic, and scientific data.

Exaggeration means overstating to emphasize or illustrate a point, appeal to emotion, or get

attention. An effective technique, especially when writers are using humor or irony, it is also
called hyperbole.

An example is one specific instance used by writers to illustrate, clarify, or bolster an argument
by showing precedents. Anecdotes may serve as extended examples. Although most people find
examples helpful and entertaining, they are not considered sufficient for evidence.

Fallacy is the use of faulty logic or poor arguments.

As opposed to an opinion, a fact is an assertion supported by solid, irrefutable, quantifiable or

empirical evidence or by expert testimony. A fact is usually widely accepted as true. Writers use
facts as one way to support a claim.

A philosophy of good reasons teaches that through a pluralistic process of full exchange,
opposing parties can come to a sharing and tolerance of each other's views.

The origin of the word imagination can be traced to the Greek phantasia, which stood for
cognition in general. Phantasia, or phantasy, is the process of combining and storing phantasms
in the mind: as such, phantasy is the basis for the production of human language. Human
image-making capacity (phantasy) is the origin of our word-making capacity, as words are
themselves understood to be images, or phantasms.

Irony means stating the opposite of what is really meant. An ironic tone may be funny or
shocking. Writers must have a good idea of whether the target audience will understand the
irony. For example, a parent who claims he or she wants to keep his or her children in ignorance
and darkness is using irony if he or she actually means to point out the value of education.

Loaded diction (slanted language) means using biased or prejudiced word choices that
predispose a reader to one position. Though it may be under suspect to reasonable audience
members, loaded diction may also be an effective way to sway an audience.
Appeals to logic (logos) show readers that writers are sensible and thoughtful. The basis of logic
is the deductive syllogism, a series of generalizations (premises) that lead to a conclusion. Logic
can also be inductive, as are classical scientific experiments. From a mass of specific and
particular data, a conclusion is drawn.

Paradox means a seeming contradiction but one which does contain some truth, such as “so
close and yet so far” or “a youthful octogenarian.” Paradox is usually used to show the
complexity of an idea, to make a point, or for poetic effect.

Parallelism means repetition of a word or grammatical structure for effect. The classic example
comes from Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech, with the repetition of the phrase “I
have a dream.” Usually the repetition will follow the same grammatical pattern (such as
Subject-Verb-Object). Parallelism is used for emphasis, rhythm, and poetic effect.

Writers use red herrings when they distract an audience’s attention from the main point. This
technique is often pointed out as a fallacy.

To refute (rebut) is to successfully argue against an argument. Many arguments contain a

refutation section in which the writer points out fallacies in his opponent’s argument.

A rhetorical question is a question not meant to be answered but to be pondered. A rhetorical

question will be ineffective if it can be answered with a simple yes or no. Feminist abolitionist
Sojourner Truth is known for her rhetorical question, “Ain’t I a woman?”

A slippery slope assumes that if one action is taken, it will lead to inevitable and inexorable
consequences. For example, if one Aggie sits down during a football game, soon everyone will;
then all our traditions will be ruined. Often considered a fallacy, a slippery slope can easily be
refuted by invoking other consequences.

Statistics are facts expressed in quantifiable form such as numbers, charts, or graphs that can
lend support to a claim or warrant but that are not irrefutable proof. Although statistics can be
manipulated to misrepresent the facts, they are usually quite convincing.

Writers using a straw man will claim their opponents hold a position they do not in fact hold,
and then attack that position. It is mainly a diversionary tactic. The straw man is considered a
fallacy.

Testimony (also, citation) is using the words or ideas of an expert to give an argument greater
credibility. Doubt can be cast on testimony by showing equally qualified experts disagree. Or the
expert’s credentials or qualifications can be questioned.

As a stylistic technique, tone can be effective in imparting emotion. It is the predominant

character of a prose style, how writers sound to an audience: arrogant, silly, serious,
authoritative, celebratory, sarcastic, worried, etc. A writer’s tone is achieved by using persuasive
techniques, by word choice, and by other means.
Warrants are the assumptions, the general principles, the conventions of specific disciplines,
widely held values, commonly accepted beliefs, or appeals to human motives that are an
important part of any argument.

Sources
Covino, William A. and David A. Jolliffe. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, Boundaries.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon-Simon & Schuster, 1995.
Wood, Nancy V. Perspectives on Argument. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1995, 1998.