Lecture 1: Basics of Wave Mechanics and

Interference

1 Hygen’s Principle

All the particles of wavefront vibrate in phase and these vibrating particles become sources
of secondary particles/disturbances and generate secondary wavelets which spread in forward
direction.

2 Reflection from Wave Theory

Consider a plane waveform incident on a plane mirror. A section of the plane waveform is
denoted by ADE, while the reflected waveform is also planar and a section is denoted by CPQ.
A portion of the plane reflecting surface is denoted by ABC. All these details are clearly depicted
in Figure 1. From which we can derive the laws of reflection.

Figure 1: Reflection of light wave from a plane mirror using Hygen’s principle.

Note that after incidence on the reflecting surface, the points A, B and C acts as a source of
secondary wavelets, yielding the reflected ray. Therefore, the triangles ∆APC and ∆BQC are

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similar. Thus it follows that,

BQ BC
= .
AP AC
Moreover, the triangle, ∆CBN and ∆CAM are also similar. From these similar triangles, we
obtain,
BC BN
= .
AC AM
Therefore, we must have (BQ/BN ) = (AP/AM ). Since AM is the distance light would have
travelled if the reflecting medium was absent in a given time t and AP is the distance reflected
light ray has travelled in the same time, it follows that AP = AM and thus we have BQ = BN
as well. From this result it follows that ∆CAM is same as ∆CAP , so the reflected wavefront
coincides with the un-interrupted one.

Thus, from ∆AEC and ∆AP C it follows that,

∠EAC = i = angle of incidence = ∠ACP = r = angle of reflection . (1)
This proves the law of reflection (note that the construction has been done by taking a planar
cross-section). Following, similar geometrical constructions, one can derive laws of refraction
as well using wave theory, i.e., Hygen’s principle. Let us now consider other experiments which
can reinforce the wave nature. This brings us to the study of the interference and diffraction
of the light.

3 Analytical Methods of interference

Figure 2: Interference of light: Here S is the source and S1, S2 are the two slits, separated by
a distance d through which light passes and interfere on the screen, placed at a distance x.

We know that light is an electromagnetic wave involving oscillating electric and magnetic fields,
both of which are perpendicular to the direction of the wave vector. Thus for each ray coming

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out of the slits, one can associate two electric fields E ~ 1 and E~ 2 . According to the principle
of superposition the electric field intensity at point P on the screen (see Figure 2) is E ~ total =
~1 + E
E ~ 2 . These two electric fields can be explicitly written down as,
 
~ 01 cos ~k1 .~r − ωt + 1 ,
~ 1 (t, ~r) = E
E
 
~ 02 cos ~k2 .~r − ωt + 2 ,
~ 2 (t, ~r) = E
E

where, ω 2 = |~k1 |2 = |~k2 |2 and 1 , 2 denotes

D respective
E phases of these two light rays. The total
intensity at point P is given by I = E ~ 2
. Here h...iT denotes the average value of the
total
T
quantity inside the bracket over a time interval T . In the present context the averaging time is
macroscopic, i.e, T is much greater than the period of oscillation of the light ray (T  2π/ω).
Using the expression for individual electric fields written above, we obtain,
~ total = E
E ~1 + E ~2
~ total
=⇒ E 2
= (E~1 + E ~ 2 ).(E~1 + E
~ 2)
~ 1 |2 + |E
= |E ~ 2 |2 + 2E
~ 1 .E
~2
~ 01 |2 cos2 (~k1 .~r1 − ωt + 1 ) + |E
= |E ~ 02 |2 cos2 (~k2 .~r2 − ωt + 2 )
   
+ 2E ~ 02 cos ~k1 .~r1 − ωt + 1 cos ~k2 .~r2 − ωt + 2 .
~ 01 .E (2)

~ 1 |2 over the time T,

The intensity due to the first electric field can be found by averaging |E
yielding,
D E ~ 01 |2
|E
Z T n h io
~ 12
I1 ≡ E = ~
1 + cos 2(k1 .~r1 − ωt + 1 ) dt
T 2T 0
~ 01 |
|E 2
= , (3)
2
where, we have used the fact that average of sinusoidal functions over a long period of time
~ 02 |2 /2). For the third term, we express the cosines as,
vanishes. Similarly, we have I2 = (|E

cos (~k1 .~r1 − ωt + 1 ) cos (~k1 .~r1 − ωt + 1 )

| {z } | {z }
A B
1
= [cos (A + B) + cos (A − B)]
2
1 n h~ i h io
= cos k1 .~r1 + ~k2 .~r2 − 2ωt + 1 + 2 + cos ~k1 .~r1 − ~k2 .~r2 + 1 − 2 . (4)
2
Thus average of the first term will be zero and hence the total intensity becomes,

~ 01 |2 |E
|E ~ 02 |2 1~
I= + +2· E ~
01 · E02 cos δ
2 2 2
= I1 + I2 + E~ 01 .E~ 02 cos δ
= I1 + I2 + |E~ 01 ||E~ 02 | cos ξ cos δ

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p
= I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos ξ cos δ ≡ I1 + I2 + I12 . (5)

where, δ = ~k1 .~r1 + 1 − ~k2 .~r2 − 2 and ξ is the angle between E

~ 01 and E
~ 02 .

If E~ 01 and E
~ 02 are perpendicular, then I12 = 0 and hence I = I⊥ = I1 + I2 , while if the electric
√
fields are parallel then I = I|| = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos δ. Now if the phase difference is integer
multiple of 2π, i.e., δ = ±2nπ, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., then we have the maximum intensity to
be given by
p
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2
p p
= ( I1 + I2 )2 . (6)

This is known as constructive interference. Note that Imax > I1 + I2 . For 0 < cos δ < 1, i.e.,
2nπ ≤ δ ≤ 2nπ + π/2, the total intensity will satisfy the relation I1 + I2 ≤ I ≤ Imax .

On the other hand, if the phase difference is odd multiple of π/2, i.e., if δ = (2n + 1)π/2, where
n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., then we have

I = I1 + I2 . (7)

If the phase difference is odd multiple of π, i.e., if δ = (2n + 1)π, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., then we
have
p
I = I1 + I2 − 2 I1 I2
p p
= ( I1 − I2 )2 . (8)

This is known as destructive interference. When both the intensities are identical then we have,

Itotal = 2I + 2I cos δ
 
2 δ
= 4I cos . (9)
2

In this scenario, if δ = ±2nπ, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., then intensity will be maximum and given
by Imax = 4I. While if δ = ±(2n + 1)π, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., then intensity will be minimum
and given by Imin = 0.

4 Structure of bright and dark fringes

For the two spherical wavefronts considered above, with propagation vectors ~k1 and ~k2 re-
spectively having same magnitude, i.e., |~k1 | = |~k2 | = |~k| (say), the phase difference is given
by,

δ = ~k1 .~r1 − ~k2 .~r2 + 1 − 2

= |~k|(r1 − r2 ) + 1 − 2 . (10)

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Thus for constructive interference, we must have,

|~k|(r1 − r2 ) + 1 − 2 = 2πn
2πn − ∆ λ λ∆
=⇒ r1 − r2 = = (2πn − ∆) = nλ − . (11)
|~k| 2π 2π

Hence the path difference should be integral multiples of λ (for brevity one may assume ∆ = 0).
On the other hand, for destructive interference, we have,
 
(2n + 1)π − ∆ 1 λ∆
r1 − r2 = = n+ λ− . (12)
|~k| 2 2π

Hence for path difference, which is odd multiple of (λ/2), one has destructive interference
(again assuming ∆ = 0). Consider now the locus of the bright fringes arising out of the above
analysis. Following Figure 2, let P be a point on the screen and S1 and S2 are the two point
holes respectively. The distance between the plane of holes and screen is x and the distance of
P from the central point P0 is y. Thus from Figure 2, we have
 2
2 2 d
S1 P = x + y −
2
 2
2 2 d
S2 P = x + y + . (13)
2

For constructive interference the path difference should be even multiple of λ/2, where λ is
wavelength. Hence, the path difference should satisfy the relation, S2 P − S1 P = nλ, where
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. So, we have
"  2 #1/2 "  2 #1/2
d d
S2 P − S1 P = x2 + y + − x2 + y − = nλ . (14)
2 2

Manipulating the above equation we obtain,

2 2
 s 
 2 
d d 
=⇒ x2 + y + = nλ + x2 + y −
2 2
 2  2 s  2
2 d 2 2 2 d d
=⇒ x + y + =n λ +x + y− + 2nλ x2 + y −
2 2 2
 2  2 s  2
d d d
=⇒ y + − y− = n2 λ2 + 2nλ x2 + y −
2 2 2
s  2
d
=⇒ 2yd = n2 λ2 + 2nλ x2 + y −
2
"  2 #
d
=⇒ (2yd − n2 λ2 )2 = 4n2 λ2 x2 + y −
2

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Figure 3: Interference of light: The locus of bright fringes are demonstrated, which are hy-
perbolas with two foci located at S1 and S2 . The intersection point on the screen depicts the
location of bright fringes.

d2
 
2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
=⇒ 4y d + n λ − 4ydn λ = 4n λ x + y − yd +
4
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2
=⇒ (4n λ2)x + y (4n λ − 4d ) = n λ − n λ d
x2 y2
=⇒  2 2 +  =1
n λ − d2 n2 λ2
 

4 4
2 2
y x
=⇒  2 2  −  2  =1. (15)
nλ d − n2 λ2
4 4
This equation represents hyperbola with two foci at S1 and S2 . So the bright fringes are located
on the screen, where the hyperbola intersects the screen (see Figure 3).

Similarly, the dark spots will satisfy hyperbolic equation with S2 P − S1 P = {n + (1/2)} λ.
Thus, the locus of the dark fringes becomes,

y2 x2
 2
 −  2
 =1. (16)
(n+ 12 ) λ2 d2 −(n+ 12 ) λ2
4 4

The location of nth bright fringe on a screen placed at a distance D from the source can be
obtained by choosing x = D and y = yn . Hence,

yn2 D2
−  =1
n2 λ2 d2 − n2 λ2
  

4 4

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4yn2 4D2
=⇒ − =1
n2 λ2 d2 − n2 λ2
4y 2 4D2 d2 − n2 λ2 + 4D2
=⇒ 2 n2 = 1 + 2 = . (17)
nλ d − n2 λ2 d2 − n2 λ2
To proceed further, we may invoke the following approximations, d2  n2 λ2 and D2  d2 .
Under which we obtain,

4yn2 4D2
=
n2 λ2 d2
D2 n2 λ2
=⇒ yn2 =
d2
Dnλ
=⇒ yn = . (18)
d
Hence the fringe width is given by,
Dλ
β ≡ yn+1 − yn = . (19)
d

5 What happens for co-linear sources?

Figure 4: The set up to study interference from co-linear sources has been depicted.

Consider now co-linear sources and the fringe pattern arising thereof. The construction has
been presented in Figure 4. Position of the first source is denoted by S1 with coordinates,
(D + d/2, 0, 0) and the coordinates of the second source S2 is (D − d/2, 0, 0). If P be a point
on the screen as shown in Figure 4, then the path difference of the light rays emitted from two
sources is
s  2 s  2
2 2
d 2 2
d
S1 P − S2 P = y + z + D + − y +z + D− . (20)
2 2

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For constructive interference the path difference should be nλ, while for destructive interference
the path difference should be nλ + (λ/2), where n is an integer. Thus assuming constructive
interference the above path difference can be expressed as,
 2  2 s  2
2 2 d 2 2 2 2 d 2 2
d
y +z + D+ =n λ +y +z + D− + 2nλ y + z + D −
2 2 2
 2  2 s  
d d 2 2 2 2
d
=⇒ D + − D− = n λ + 2nλ (y + z + D −
2 2 2
s  
2 2 2 2
d
=⇒ 2Dd = n λ + 2nλ (y + z + D −
2
s  
2 2 2 2
d
=⇒ 2Dd − n λ = 2nλ (y + z + D − . (21)
2

Squaring the last expression we find the locus of the bright fringes to yield,
"  2 #
d
4D2 d2 + n4 λ4 − 4Ddn2 λ2 = 4n2 λ2 y 2 + z 2 + D −
2
 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 d
=⇒ 4n λ (y + z ) = 4D d + n λ − 4Ddn λ − 4n λ D −
2
d2
 
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2
=⇒ 4n λ (y + z ) = 4D d + n λ − 4Ddn λ − 4n λ D − Dd +
4
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
=⇒ 4n λ (y + z ) = 4D d + n λ − 4D n λ − n λ d
D 2 d2 n2 λ2 d2
=⇒ y 2 + z 2 = 2 2 + − D2 −
n λ 4  4 
d d
=⇒ y 2 + z 2 = D2 +1 −1
nλ nλ
D 2 d2
  
2 2 nλ nλ
=⇒ y + z = 2 2 1 + 1− ≡ Rn2 . (22)
nλ d d
s  
d d
Here, Rn = D +1 − 1 . When n → 0, Rn approaches infinity. So we have
nλ nλ
concentric circles as bright fringes on the screen with circles of smaller radii corresponding to
higher values of n. The fringe width can also be determined.