Acoustics of Wood - 02 Acoustics PDF

Course in Non Destructive Testing of Wood 02 Acoustics – Pág.
1
ETSI Montes, ETS Arquitectura – Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Madrid, Junio 2005
Acoustics of wood
Introduction
* Acoustical parameters
* Stress wave propagation in 1D and 3D
* Stress wave velocity, relationship with
MOE, MOR, density and fiber length
* Practical application:
- evaluation of urban trees, defect detection
- wood selection for musical instruments
1
Course in Non Destructive Testing of Wood 02 Acoustics – Pág. 2
Acoustic parameters of wood are:

- sound velocity,
- acoustic impedance
- damping, logarithmic decrement
Sound velocity in homogeneous solids

velocity:
MOE 1 −ν
Wave forms: longitudinal (pressure) Vl =
ρ (1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
transverse (shear)
0,87 + 1,12ν
Vs = Vt
surface 1 +ν
MOE: modulus of elasticity
G : shear modulus
ν : Poisson ratio
Stress wave is the mixture of the 3 wave forms.
2
Sonic velocities
of orthotropic
solids like wood:
Longitudinal (p)
waves: V11, V22,
V33
Transverse waves
V44 =VRT
deduced from
V23 and V32
Figure from V. Bucur:

Acoustics of wood
Longitudinal
velocity surface
Velocity depends on
the direction of the
propagation.
Velocity of the p
waves are the highest
Figure from V. Bucur:

Acoustics of wood
3
Hankinson’s formula
V(α)=V0 V90/(V0 sin(α)n+V90 cos(α)n) n=2
5
Velocity (km/s)
Hankinson
4
3
Velocity (km/s)
Demonstration: 1
Material: beech 0
veneer 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
L Angle (degree)
R
4
Attenuation
figure from F. C.
Beall article
Acoustic impedance (z) : z=Vρ

zwood⊥= 0,5 MPa s/m
zwood =2,5 MPa s/m zair =0,4 KPa s/m
Reflection coefficient (R) reflected wave energy/
incident wave energy
Wave propagation is perpendicular to the
surface:
R=
(q − 1)
2
(q + 1)2
z1
q=z1/z2 woodz1>z2
qwood/air=6000
Rwood/air=0,9993 z2 air
5
Damping characterisation by the logarithmic

decrement (δ)
δ=ln(A1/A2)=λT
1,5
1 A1
A2
0,5 Ae-λt
T
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-0,5
-1
Time
Logarithmic decrement determination
δ=ln(a1/a2)/dt/f
vibration
a1: amplitude (black)

a2: amplitude at the
spectra delayed spectra (white)
a1 dt: delay
a1
f : frequency
a2
6
Experimental set-up for

logarithmic decrement determination
Sound propagation around knot
7
p-Wave propagation around knot in spruce lumber
Grid size is 10 by 10 mm
Pendulum was used for making uniform start signal
8
9
10
11
12
13
Determination of the stress wave time

Amplitude
starter signal
receiver
signal
Measured time depends on the receiver signal level

treshold
Time
14
TOF slope technique for velocity determination
400
y = 1,8039x + 6,9
300
time [µ s ]
R2 = 0,9999
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200
dis tance [cm]
Velocity is determined by the slope.

Accurate test
Stress wave velocity, relationship with

MOE, MOR, density and fiber length
Effect of time on MOE determination
10,4
MOE[GPa]
MOEdynamic= ρ V2 10,2
10,0
9,8
MOEstatic < MOEdynamic (Reason is creep) 9,6
9,4
y = -0,1988x + 9,5186
2
9,2
R = 0,9875 9,0
Velocity is a good predictor of MOE 8,8
-4 -2 0 2 4
log(characteristic time[s])
MOE and MOR correlation is rather high (0,7-0,8), so transitive

there is correlation between V and MOR ( 0,6 - 0,7)
(correlation coefficients are in the brackets)
15
Velocity and density

There is no correlation between velocity in grain direction
and density. Foresters in Australia and Japan are predicting
density by stress wave velocity perpendicular to the grain.
Velocity and fiber length

There is correlation between fiber length and velocity in fiber
direction. Longer fibers resulting higher MOE and MOR.
Velocity and microfibril angle

There is correlation between microfibril angle and velocity in
fiber direction. Lower angle results higher velocity and MOE
Practical applications:
- Predicting tree stiffness
- Evaluation of urban trees, defect detection
16
Stiffness grading of trees by stress wave velocity

determination
Background:
MOE= ρV2
Director ST300 tool

by Fiber-gen, NZ
Stiffness grading of trees by stress wave

velocity determination
TreeSonic tool by
Fakopp and Weyerhaeuser
17
Tree evaluation using the stress wave technique
Sound propagates faster in intact than in decayed wood.

By simply hitting on the tree and measuring the radial
stress waves velocity, internal defects are detectable.
Stress waves are generated by hitting the start transducer
using a hammer.
The principle
Figure shows the sound propagation in an intact and in a decayed tree.
18
FAKOPP Microsecond Timer
Measurement perpendicular to the grain
Evaluation
The evaluation is rather simple. If the measured velocity

is lower than 90% of the velocity in an intact tree, the
tree contains an internal defect, in the line between the
transducers. Is the deviation is higher the defect size is
also higher. The relative velocity change (RVC) is a
measure of the defect size.
Vreference − Vmeasured
RVC = *100
Vreference
19
Reference velocity examples:
Tree Radial Tree Radial

species velocity [m/s] species velocity [m/s]
Poplar 1140 Larch 1490

Spruce 1410 Oak 1620
Silver fir 1360 Beech 1670
Scotch fir 1470 Linden 1650
Black fir 1480 Maple 1690
Examples:
We are testing big trees.

Poplar trees in a
protected area.
20
The extention of the

decay is the question.

21


22
A huge plane tree in a play ground
Some defect
found by
stress wave
technique.
Defect was
invisible on
the outside.
23
Acoustic tomography
Using multiple measurements in a plane,

2D imaging of a decay is possible.
Experiment with
artificial defect.
Velocity decreases
greater than 7% are
indicated by bold
numbers.
24
Self calibration
Self calibration is possible based on the velocity

measurement between the neighboring sensors. This
direction is near tangential. Wood material close to the
bark, between two neighboring sensors is usually healthy,
or a defect is visible from outside, like frost vibs. The
average of the near tangential velocity data of the healthy
sections is the basic reference velocity data.
Ratio of the stress wave velocity

measured in different anatomical
orientations, relative to the near-
tangential direction. Valid for the 6-
point setup.
25
Acoustic tomography
Typically 6 to 32 acoustic sensors are placed around the tree
at the level to be tested. Each sensor is equipped with a spike
which is tapped through the bark, into contact with the wood
material. A hammer tap on a sensor generates stress waves
propagates through the tree, which are received and measured
by all the other sensors.
A software takes all of transit time data. Using the distance

between sensors, velocity is calculated. The end result is a two
dimensional velocity distribution (tomogram) of the tree at the
test level.
Decay or cavity appear on the tomogram image.

Detecting internal decay by sensors located at the surface is
possible, because decay modify the sound propagation.
Sound propagation
Oak disk, grid size is 2 by 2 cm, time resolution is 20 µs.
26
Sound propagation in a larch disk
Grid size is 3 by 3 cm, time resolution is 20 µs
20 µs
27
40 µs
60 µs
28
80 µs
100 µs
29
120 µs
140 µs
30
160 µs
180 µs
31
200 µs
220 µs
32
240 µs
260 µs
33
280 µs
300 µs
34
320 µs
340 µs
35
360 µs
Acoustic tomography systems:

- PICUS SONIC TOMOGRAPH
- ARBOTOM ®
- FAKOPP 2D Timer
36
PICUS SONIC TOMOGRAPH
Image source is www.tree-test.com
ARBOTOM®
Image source:
www.rinntech.de
37
FAKOPP 2D Timer
38
Example images:
Linden and
Nut tree
39
Evaluation methods
• Relative line velocity decrease

• Cell based backprojection
• Filtered backprojection
Relative line velocity decrease

1. Calculate reference velocity from the
average of line velocities between
neighboring sensors.
2. Select a line between any two sensors
as a „defect line” if its velocity is lower
than 85% of reference velocity
3. Draw a spot where two defect lines
intersecting each other.
40
Example image,
Relative line
velocity decrease
method
Cell based backprojection

1. Divide the area into cells.
2. The slowness (reciprocal of velocity) of
each cell is calculated by the average of
line slownesses intersecting the cell.
41
Example image,
Cell based
backprojection
Filtered backprojection
• Theoretical basis by J. Radon in 1917
• Used in:
- Medicine (CT, NMR)
- Geology
- Astronomy
- Ocean research
- Wood NDT
- etc.
42
• Radon transform of f(x,y):
• Our case:
where ti,j is the time measured between the ith and jth sensors
Xj and Xj are the coordinates of the ith and jth sensors
v(x,y) is the velocity at the (x,y) point
We know ti,j and need v(x,y) => INVERSION
• Solution: projection-slice theorem by Bracewell:

connection between Radon and Fourier transform
where: : Radon transform

: 1-dimensional inverse Fourirer transform
: 2-dimensional Fourirer transform
• Discrete version: filtered backprojection algorithm
43
Example image,
Filtered
backprojection
„3D” test
44
Acoustic tomography
demonstration in the arboretum
45

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Course in Non Destructive Testing of Wood 02 Acoustics – Pág.

Acoustic parameters of wood are:

Sound velocity in homogeneous solids

Figure from V. Bucur:

Figure from V. Bucur:

Acoustic impedance (z) : z=Vρ

Damping characterisation by the logarithmic

Logarithmic decrement determination

a1: amplitude (black)

Experimental set-up for

Sound propagation around knot

p-Wave propagation around knot in spruce lumber

Determination of the stress wave time

Measured time depends on the receiver signal level

TOF slope technique for velocity determination

Velocity is determined by the slope.

Stress wave velocity, relationship with

MOE and MOR correlation is rather high (0,7-0,8), so transitive

Velocity and density

Velocity and fiber length

Velocity and microfibril angle

Stiffness grading of trees by stress wave velocity

Director ST300 tool

Stiffness grading of trees by stress wave

Tree evaluation using the stress wave technique

Sound propagates faster in intact than in decayed wood.

Figure shows the sound propagation in an intact and in a decayed tree.

FAKOPP Microsecond Timer

Measurement perpendicular to the grain

The evaluation is rather simple. If the measured velocity

Reference velocity examples:

Tree Radial Tree Radial

Poplar 1140 Larch 1490

We are testing big trees.

The extention of the

The extention of the

The extention of the

The extention of the

A huge plane tree in a play ground

Using multiple measurements in a plane,

Self calibration is possible based on the velocity

Ratio of the stress wave velocity

A software takes all of transit time data. Using the distance

Decay or cavity appear on the tomogram image.

Oak disk, grid size is 2 by 2 cm, time resolution is 20 µs.

Sound propagation in a larch disk

Grid size is 3 by 3 cm, time resolution is 20 µs

Acoustic tomography systems:

PICUS SONIC TOMOGRAPH

Image source is www.tree-test.com

• Relative line velocity decrease

Relative line velocity decrease

Cell based backprojection

• Radon transform of f(x,y):

We know ti,j and need v(x,y) => INVERSION

• Solution: projection-slice theorem by Bracewell:

where: : Radon transform

• Discrete version: filtered backprojection algorithm

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