Chapter 5: Chemicals for Consumers

Soap

 Soap = sodium salts (RCOO-Na+) / potassium salts (RCOO-K+)  of long-chain fatty acids
 Alkalis + fatty acids = soap

**Fatty acids = animal fats or vegetable oils

Soap preparation

 Saponification: hydrolysing fats or oils under alkaline condition.

 Saponification process – boiling fats / oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or
concentrated potassium hydroxide solution to produce glycerol + salts of fatty acids (soap)
 Saponification steps:
o Hydrolysis of fats / oils –> glycerol + fatty acids.
o Neutralisation of fatty acids + concentrated alkali –> soap + water

 Overall equation: Fats / oils + alkali –> glycerol + soap

 Sodium chloride – reduces the solubility of soap in water

Liquid soap Solid soap

Sodium hydroxide + saturated oils (coconut oil) Potassium hydroxide + unsaturated oil
(sunflower oil / olive oil)
Uses: bathing purposes Uses: shaving cream

Detergent

 Detergent = sodium salt of sulphonic acid

 Alkalis react with sulphonic acid –> detergent
 Common detergent: sodium alkyl sulphate & sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate.
 Other type of detergents:
o Anionic detergent (dishwashing liquid detergent)
o Cationic detergent (hair conditioner)
o Non-ionic detergent (car washing detergent).

Detergent preparation- 2 processes:

1. Sulphonation: Petroleum fraction (long chain hydrocarbon compounds) converted into sulphonic
acid with the present of concentration sulphuric acid. Water molecule is removed.
2. Neutralisation: sulphonic acid neutralised with sodium hydroxide to form detergent (water
molecule is formed).

Cleansing action of soap and detergent

 Soap and detergent are surfactants. Surfactants are organic compounds that lower the surface
tension of a liquid.
 Surfactants act as emulsifiers and foaming agents.
 Anion soap consists of carboxylate ion (hydrophilic = soluble in water) and long
hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic = soluble in grease /oils).
  Anion detergent consists of sulphate ion/sulphonate ion (hydrophilic = soluable in water) and
long hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic = soluble in grease / oils).

The action process

1. Soap or detergent is added to water.

2. This has lower the surface tension of water and increases the wetting ability of water.

o Hydrophilic part of the anion dissolves in water.

o Hydrophobic part dissolves in grease.

3. Scrubbing helps to pull the grease free and break the grease into small droplets.
4. These droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth. It is because the
repulsion between negative charges on the surface.
5. The droplets are suspended in water forming an emulsion.
6. Foam produces to float the emulsion.
7. Rinsing helps to remove these droplets.

The effectiveness of the cleansing action of soap and detergent

Condition Soap Detergent

Hard water Form soap scum (causes wastage Detergent is effective cleaner.
(contain calcium & of soap) Do not form scum.
magnesium ion) Form soluble substances - calcium or
magnesium salts
Soft water (do not contain Soap is effective cleaner. Detergent is effective cleaner.
calcium & magnesium ion)
Acidic water (contain Form insoluble long-chain fatty Detergent is effective cleaner. Form
hydrogen ion) acids (reduces the amount of soap soluble substances. Do not form scum.
used for cleaning)
Environment Soap is biodegradable Soap is non-biodegradable

Additives in detergent

Additives Function Example

Biological enzyme Remove protein stains Amylase, lipase & protease
Foam control agent Control foaming in detergent Silicones
Builder Enhance the surfactant efficiency Sodium phosphate
Filler Make the solid detergent dry and enable the Sodium silicate
liquid detergent to be poured easily
Fragrance Add fragrance -
Optical brightener Add brightness by convert UV radiation to blue Fluorescent dye
light and whiteness
Stabilising agent Lower the production of foam Silicones
Suspension agent Prevent the dirt particles removed from Sodium
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics carboxymethylcellulose
Whitening agent Bleach stains Sodium hypochlorite
Food Additives

Food additive = a natural / synthetic substance that is added to food to

 prevent spoilage
 extend food storage life
 improve food appearance
 improve food taste
 improve food texture

A. Preservatives
Function:
 slow down / prevent the growth of microorganisms / bacteria / fungi
 extend food storage life
Preservatives Functions Example Side effect
Salt Draws the water out of the cells of Salted vegetables Increase the risk of
microorganisms. cardiovascular
Retards the growth of microorganisms. diseases
Sugar Draws the water out of the cells of Fruit jam Tooth decay,
microorganisms. diabetes and
Retards the growth of microorganisms. obesity
Vinegar Inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Pickled cucumber
Sodium nitrite / Slows down the growth of Sausage Carcinogenic
sodium nitrate microorganisms.
Stabilise red colour in meats.
Benzoic acid / Slows down the growth of Tomato sauce
sodium benzoate microorganisms.
Sulphur dioxide Slows down the growth of Grape juice Asthma and
microorganisms. allergies

B. Antioxidant
Function:
 prevent oxidation (causes rancid fats and brown fruits)

Antioxidant Functions Example Side effect

Vitamin E Prevent oils from turns rancid Palm oil & No
sunflower oil
Vitamin C Preserve the colour of fruit Fruit juice & cured No
juice and the formation of meat
nitrosamines
Sodium citrate Stop rancidity in fats Ice-cream -
BHA (Butylated Retard rancidity in fats, oils Margarine & cereal Carcinogenic
hydroxyanisole) BHT and oil-containing foods
(Butylated
hydroxytoluene)

C. Flavouring
Functions:
 improve the taste
 improve the smell
 restore taste loss due to food process
Flavouring Functions Example Side effect
MSG (monosodium Bring out the flavor Salad dressing & Headache, thirsty,
glutamate) canned soup nausea & chest pain.
Aspartame (non- Sweeten food (about Soft drinks & diet Increase the risk of
sugar sweetener) 180 – 200 times than drinks leukaemia, cancer
sugar) and neurological
problems
Synthetic essences Produce artificial Methyl butanoate -
(esters) flavours = natural (apple flavour) &
flavour. Cheaper to use octyl ethanoate
than the real fruits (orange flavour)

D. Stabilisers
Functions:
 prevent an emulsion from separating out

Stabilisers Functions Example

Monoglycerides Mix oil and water Ice-cream, chewing gum, beverages,
of fatty acids whipped topping and margarine
Acacia gum Mix two liquids that do not mix Marshmallow, gumdrop, edible
together. Forms an emulsion. glitter, carbonated drink syrup &
gummy candies
Lecithin Reduces viscosity. Replaces more Margarine, dough, candy bar &
expensive ingredients. Controls cocoa powder
sugar crystallisation and the flow
properties of chocolate. Helps in the
homogeneous mixing of ingredients.
Uses as a coating.
Gelatin Mixture of peptides and proteins of Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells of
collagen extracted from the boiled pharmaceutical capsules, margarine
bones, connective tissues, organs and & yogurt
some intestines of animals
E. Thickeners
Functions:
 thicken food
 give the food dense, smooth and uniform texture

Thickener Functions Example Side

s effect
Acacia Mix two liquids that do not mix together. Marshmallow, gumdrop, -
gum Forms an emulsion. edible glitter, carbonated drink
syrup & gummy candies
Gelatin Mixture of peptides and proteins of Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells -
collagen extracted from the boiled bones, of pharmaceutical capsules,
connective tissues, organs and some margarine & yogurt
intestines of animals.
Pectin Dietary fiber Fruit jam -
Starch Thicken food Soup, custard, pudding, -
noodles and  pasta
Modified Increase their visco-stability Instant soups & cheese sauce -
starch granules
Xanthan Helps to prevent oil separation. Increase Sauce & salad dressing Allergies
gum in the viscosity of a liquid.

F. Dyes or Colourings
Functions:
 add colour vanished during food processing
 replace colour vanished during food processing
 make food appear more attractive

Dyes / Colourings Function Examples Side effect

Tartrazine E102 / Sunset Yellow azo dye Orange drinks, sweet & Hyperactive
yellow E110 (artificial dye) custard powder in children
Brilliant blue  FCF Blue 1 Blue triphenyl dye Ice-cream, beverages, Allergic
(artificial dye) jellies & blue raspberries
flavoured product.
Carmosine E122/ Azorubine Red azo dye Sweet, jellies & confections Carcinogenic
(artificial dye) ,
allergic
Anthocyanin (natural dye – Natural red colouring Ice-cream & sweet -
red grape, red cabbages,
sweet potatoes and
tomatoes)
Carotenoids / saffron Natural red colouring Cooking oil & confections -
(natural dye – carrots, sweet
potatoes and palm oil)
Paprika Natural red colouring Dessert food -
Butterfly pea (clitoria A blue food dye Dessert food & confections -
ternatea)
Pandan (pandanus A green food dye Noodles & confections -
amaryllifolius)