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ENGINEERING A HYBRID SYSTEM

Technical Report · April 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2474.3043

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M46MAE – ALTERNATIVE PROPULSION SYSTEM

ENGINEERING A HYBRID SYSTEM

Report by:
Kerem Dedebyraktar (Student ID: 5187270)
Swapnil Bhosle (Student ID: 5378487)
Guraz Buhariwala (Student ID: 5397134)
Mubarak Rahiman (Student ID: 5341137)
Afroze Ahamed (Student ID: 5169302)

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Abstract
This report is based on engineering a hybrid system in order to convert the Peugeot 206 1.6L
conventional gasoline engine car in to a hybrid with electric motor as the secondary source of
wheel drive. The benchmarking of the performance characteristics of the conventional Peugeot
206 has been done with respect to the NEDC, in order to be able to match or better these
characteristics after being converted to a hybrid. A parallel hybrid arrangement has been
incorporated for the car; the engine has been downsized whilst choosing a suitable motor and
battery pack to supply the required power by considering the efficiencies and losses of all the
components of the hybrid system. The environmental impact in terms of fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions have been calculated for both the versions and also the well to wheel
efficiencies have been discussed for the hybrid car.

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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 5

1.1 Hybrid Vehicles ............................................................................................................ 5

1.2 New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) .......................................................................... 8

2 PEUGEOT 206 1.6L BENCHMARK CALCULATIONS ........................................................ 9

2.1 Vehicle Specifications .................................................................................................. 9

2.2 NEDC Calculation Steps .............................................................................................10

2.3 Acceleration Calculation Steps....................................................................................13

2.4 Vehicle Top Speed Calculation Steps .........................................................................15

3 DESIGN OF HYBRID SYSTEM .........................................................................................16

3.1 Adding an Electric Drive ..............................................................................................16

3.2 Power Split between Battery and IC Engine Calculations............................................16

3.3 Downsizing the Engine ...............................................................................................18

3.4 Selection of Electric Components ...............................................................................18

3.4.1 Electric Motor .......................................................................................................18

3.4.2 Power Processor .................................................................................................21

3.4.3 Electric Source.....................................................................................................21

3.4.4 Control Unit ..........................................................................................................23

3.5 Regenerative Braking System .....................................................................................23

3.6 NEDC Calculation Steps for Hybrid Vehicle ................................................................24

3.6.1 Acceleration Calculation for Designed Hybrid Vehicle ..........................................26

3.6.2 Hybrid Vehicle Top Speed Calculation Steps .......................................................26

3.7 Efficiencies and Losses ..............................................................................................26

3.7.1 Efficiency of IC Engines .......................................................................................26

3.7.2 Efficiency of Motors:.............................................................................................27

3.7.3 Thermal Losses and Distribution ..........................................................................27

3.7.4 Losses for Electronics ..........................................................................................27

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 3.7.5 Losses due to Aerodynamic and Rolling Resistance ............................................27

3.8 Packaging ...................................................................................................................28

4 Converted Hybrid Peugeot 206 1.0 L Specifications ..........................................................30

5 Well to wheel CO2 emissions and energy consumption .....................................................31

6 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................32

7 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................33

List of Figures
Figure 1 – Schematic Diagram of Parallel Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003)................................... 5
Figure 2 – Schematic Diagram of Series Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003) .................................... 6
Figure 3 – Schematic Diagram of Combination Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003)........................... 7
Figure 4 – NEDC Cycle .............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 5 – Electric Drive System Employing Power Electronic Converter (Ghioni, n.d.) ............16
Figure 6 : Simplified diagram of Synchronous motor .................................................................19
Figure 7 : ZF make SG-269 Excited synchronous motor ...........................................................20
Figure 8 : Efficiency vs Load Curve for Electric Motor ...............................................................27
Figure 9: Parallel hybrid proposed layout ..................................................................................29
Figure 10: Schematic representation of parallel hybrid system ..................................................29
Figure 11: Well to wheel schematic representation ...................................................................31

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1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this coursework is to modify and compare a Peugeot 206 with a 1.6l engine to a
hybrid powertrain system taking into account overall performance and packaging constraints.
The Peugeot 206 car was benchmarked using the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), which
was used as a reference in converting the gasoline engine Peugeot 206 to a hybrid system.
The required outcome of designing the hybrid system is to obtain the following:
• Improved fuel consumption in NEDC cycle compared to gasoline engine
• Matched or better acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h
• Matched top speed or a minimum of 130 km/h

1.1 Hybrid Vehicles

A vehicle with more than one source of power is termed as a hybrid vehicle. The most popular
versions of hybrid vehicles consist of a gasoline engine as the primary source of energy and an
electric motor powered by batteries, as the secondary source of energy (Hantula, 2010).
Typically three types of arrangement are possible with respect to the power transmission from
the energy sources to the wheels as follows:
1. Parallel Hybrid

Figure 1 – Schematic Diagram of Parallel Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003)

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In a parallel hybrid system, both the engine and the electric motor drive the wheels, and the
drive power obtained from these two sources can be utilized according to the power
requirement. In this system, the motor converts the electric energy from the battery into the
mechanical energy to drive the wheels. Since the engine and motor are connected in parallel to
the transmission, the drive can be derived from engine, motor or both. The battery can be
recharged by the process of regenerative braking and cruising by the motor acting as a
generator when the IC engine power produced is more than the power needed for propulsion.
Although it has a simple structure, the parallel hybrid system cannot drive the wheels from the
electric motor while simultaneously charging the battery since the system has only one motor.
(Toyota, 2003).

2. Series Hybrid

Figure 2 – Schematic Diagram of Series Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003)

The engine drives a generator instead of driving the wheels. This generator charges the battery
which in turn powers the electric motor thus providing the drive to the wheels. This arrangement
enables the motor to draw current form the battery alone or in case of high power requirements
from both, generator and battery. (Toyota, 2003)

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 3. Series/Parallel Hybrid System

Figure 3 – Schematic Diagram of Combination Hybrid Vehicle (Toyota, 2003)

A series-parallel hybrid system also known as a power split system is a combination of both the
series and parallel arrangements of the motor with respect to the engine. This system
maximizes the benefits of both. The system consists of two motors, one in series with the
engine and the other in parallel. The motor in series arrangement is a smaller size motor also
known as the boost motor and its function is to supply the additional power to drive the wheels
in peak power requirements. The motor in parallel arrangement is relatively bigger in size and is
known as the traction motor, it has the capacity to drive the wheel on its own. Depending on the
driving conditions, the power is extracted from only the electric motor or from both the electric
motor and the engine, in order to achieve the highest efficiency level. This arrangement also
provides an option to drive the wheels while simultaneously generating electricity using a
generator. (Toyota, 2003)

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1.2 New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)

NEDC
140

120

100
Speed (km/h)

80

60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (s)

Figure 4 – NEDC Cycle

The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) represents typical usage of light-duty vehicles in
Europe. The main aim of this cycle is to keep a check on the emission levels of vehicle engines
and better the fuel economy of passenger cars. It is a type of framed driving conditions which
includes constant speeds and low acceleration, also different idling conditions. It consists of four
recurring urban driving cycle over a total of 4067 meters and 780 seconds with an average
speed of 18.77 km/h along with an extra urban driving cycle over 6956 meters and 400 seconds
with an average speed of 62.6 km/h and a maximum speed of 120 km/h. (Mock, 2012)

The Peugeot 206 which is converted to hybrid vehicle is benchmarked using the NEDC cycle to
compare its fuel consumption and emission in conventional and hybrid forms.

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2 PEUGEOT 206 1.6L BENCHMARK CALCULATIONS

2.1 Vehicle Specifications

The car Peugeot 206 1.6L has been provided and the specifications of this car’s engine have
been assumed in order to calculate acceleration and top speed of this vehicle. The
specifications are as follows: (Cars-data, n.d.)

Cylinders 4, inline
Valve per cylinder 4
Capacity 1587cc
Bore X Stroke 78.5 X 82.0 mm
Compression ratio 11.0 : 1
Max Power 80 kW
Max Power RPM 5750 rpm
Max Torque 147 Nm
Max Torque RPM 4000 rpm
Fuel Petrol
Fuel Tank 50 L
Table 1 – Original Vehicle Specifications (Cars-data, n.d.)

The transmission and gearbox specifications of the Peugeot 206 have been also assumed to
calculate engine speed in each gear and torque at the wheels. The gear ratios of the Peugeot
206 are as follow: (Cars-data, n.d.)
Gear Ratios
1st Gear Ratio 3.42:1
2nd Gear Ratio 1.95:1
rd
3 Gear Ratio 1.36:1
th
4 Gear Ratio 1.05:1
th
5 Gear Ratio 0.85:1
Final Drive Ratio 3.77:1
RPM at 120 km/h (theoretical) 3400 rpm
Table 2 – Vehicle’s Gear Ratios (Cars-data, n.d.)

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2.2 NEDC Calculation Steps
The calculations were carried out to determine the fuel consumption for Peugeot 206 1.6L
gasoline engine car in the NEDC cycle, in the following way (sample calculations are shown for
maximum engine power obtained from NEDC spreadsheet):

Velocity at each time step was calculated using the following equations of motion.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Where,
• 𝑣 is final velocity, m/s
• 𝑢 is initial velocity, m/s
• 𝑎 is acceleration, m/s2
• 𝑡 is time interval which is 1 second for whole cycle
Displacement in NEDC was calculated cumulatively in order to justify the final displacement in
meters:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢 ∗ 𝑡 + ( ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑡2)
2

The force due acceleration (N):

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎 = 434.84 𝑁
Where,
• 𝑚 is the assumed laden mass of the car 1553 kg (Cars-data, n.d.)
Force due to aerodynamic drag (N):
1
𝐹𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 = ∗ 𝐶 𝐴 ∗ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ (𝑣)2 = 449.17 𝑁
2 𝐷
Where,
• 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 - 0.66 m2 (Carinf, n.d.)
• 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 - 1.225 kg/m3
• 𝑣 - velocity of the car at the specific time of the NEDC, m/s

Force due to rolling resistance (N):

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑓𝑟 = 228.52 𝑁

Where,
• 𝑔 - 9.81 m/s2
• 𝑓𝑟 - rolling resistance coefficient given as 0.015

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Total resistance force at wheels (N):
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1112.53 𝑁

Power at engine (kW):

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∗ 𝑣 1112.53 ∗ 33.33
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = = 39 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑔 ∗ 1000 0.95 ∗ 1000
Where,
• 𝜂𝑔 is the gearbox efficiency given as 95%

Power required to accelerate from the speed of V1 to V2 (kW):

𝑚(𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 12.151 𝑘𝑊
2 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 1000

Power, kW, required to move the vehicle at a certain speed:

�𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 � ∗ 𝑣
𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 = = 22.59 𝑘𝑊
1000

Power available at wheels, (kW):

𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 = 34.74 𝑘𝑊
As the engine speed cannot be lower than its idling speed and hence the idling speed is
assumed to be 1000 rpm. The engine speed at a time instance can be calculated as follows,
rpm:
60 ∗ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 60 ∗ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝐼𝑓 𝑁 = ≤ 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑁 = = 3511.27 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒
Where,
• 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ∗ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, is the overall gear ratio. Gear to be used at a
specific speed is given in the NEDC regulations; in addition, gear ratios and final drive
ratio are assumed with reference to the Peugeot 206 1.6L vehicle specifications. (Cars-
data, n.d.)
• 𝑟𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒 (m) is the vehicle’s tire radius. The car was assumed to have tire size of
195/55HR15 (Cars-data, n.d.). The numbers represent the section width of tire in mm,
the tire’s aspect ratio or profile and the rim diameter in inches respectively (Tire Rack,
n.d.). Rim diameter is 15 inches = 0.381 meters.

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 • The tire thickness was assumed as 200 mm making the tire diameter 0.581 meters. As
a result, 𝑟𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒 = 0.2905 𝑚.

Torque at engine, (Nm):

𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 60 ∗ 1000
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 106.16 𝑁𝑚
2∗𝜋∗𝑁

Torque at wheels, Nm:

𝑇𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 340.2 𝑁𝑚

Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), (bar):

𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 1000 ∗ 𝑛𝑟 39 ∗ 1000 ∗ 2
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = ∗ 10−5 = ∗ 10−5 = 8.34 𝑏𝑎𝑟
(𝑉𝑠/1000) ∗ (𝑁/60) 1.6 3511.27
�1000� ∗ �
60 �
Where,
• 𝑛𝑟 is number of crank revolutions which is equal to 2 for 4 stroke internal combustion
engines
• 𝑉𝑠 is swept volume of the engine which is 1.6 L in gasoline engine case.
Air flow rate, (kg/h):
𝑉 1.6 3511.27
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ � 𝑠�1000� ∗ �𝑁�60� ∗ 𝜂𝑣 1.225 ∗ �1000� ∗ � 60 �
𝑚̇𝑎 = � � ∗ 3600 = = 165.17 𝑘𝑔/ℎ
2 2

Fuel flow rate, (kg/h):

𝑚̇𝑎
𝑚̇𝑓 = = 11.24
𝐴𝐹𝑅
Where,
• AFR is air-fuel ratio which is given as 14.7

Energy Input, (MJ/h):

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ∗ 𝑄𝐻𝑉 = 11.24 ∗ 43.18 = 485.17 𝑀𝐽/ℎ
Where,
• 𝑄𝐻𝑉 is lower heating value which is given as 43.18 MJ/kg

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Thermal Efficiency:
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = 0.29 = 29%
𝑚̇ 𝑄
� 𝑓�3600� ∗ � 𝐻𝑉� 3 �
10

Mechanical Energy output, (MJ/h):

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = 140.53 𝑀𝐽/ℎ
𝜂𝑡ℎ
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc), (kg/kWh):
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 = = 0.288 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
Fuel consumption in litre per 100 km is nothing but unit conversion of bsfc value. The
conversion is as follows: (Juraj, 2013)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚3 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 1000 𝑙
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 � � → 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 � � → � �→ � �
𝑘𝑊 ∗ ℎ ℎ 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ℎ 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ℎ
𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 1000 𝑙 100 ∗ 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 1000 𝑙
→ � �→ � �
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝑣 𝑘𝑚 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝑣 100𝑘𝑚
𝐹𝐶 = 13 𝑙/100𝑘𝑚
In order to find CO2 emission, fuel consumption that was found needs to be converted from
l/100km to g/km. The conversion is as follows:
𝑙 𝑙 𝐹𝐶 𝑚3 𝐹𝐶 ∗ 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝑂2 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹𝐶 � � → 𝐹𝐶�100 � � → � �→ � �
100𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚 100 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑚 100 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑚
𝐹𝐶 ∗ 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 1000 𝑔 𝐹𝐶 ∗ 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 0.8 𝑔
→ � � → � �
100 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑚 100 𝑘𝑚
𝐶𝑂2 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 74.91 𝑔/𝑘𝑚
The carbon content in the fuel is only 80 percent in the fuel. The number 0.8 is that content
because only the carbon is emitted from the car.

2.3 Acceleration Calculation Steps

Acceleration time of original vehicle between 0 and 100 km/h was found to compare the hybrid
vehicle’s acceleration time. The requirement is to match or increase the time calculated for
original vehicle to converted hybrid vehicle. Time of acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h was
calculated using original vehicle specification. Because the car cannot accelerate at a constant
rate, the gear ratios need to be considered in order to find acceptable result.

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Overall gear ratios that was found in NEDC cycle was used to calculate acceleration as well.
Maximum vehicle speed in each gear was calculated. This means that the driver needs to shift
the gear from 1st gear to 2nd gear and so on. The formula necessary for this calculation is, (m/s):
�𝑁�60� ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣=
𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡
Where,
• Tire circumference was calculated using; 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒
• 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 is overall gear ratio in each different gear
• 𝑁, rps, is the engine speed which was assumed to shift gear. It is assumed as 3000 rpm.
This means that the driver needs to shift the gear once the engine speed reached to
3000 rpm.
The torque values at the wheels in each gear, (Nm):
𝑇𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡
Where,
• 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 (Nm) is the original vehicle’s maximum torque values which were assumed 147
Nm as shown at the vehicle specification table (Cars-data, n.d.).
Number of revolution that the wheels are making in each gear, rps:
𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Where,
• Vehicle speed is increasing continuously in every gear; therefore, number of revolutions
of the wheels at last gear should be higher than the first gear.
After finding number of revolutions that the wheels are making, the angular velocity of the
wheels can be found using, rad/s:
𝜔 = 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟𝑒𝑣
Power at the wheels required at each gear can now be calculated using, (kW):
𝑇𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 ∗ 𝜔
𝑃𝑤 =
1000
After each parameter necessary was found, the acceleration at each gear can be calculated:
𝑃𝑤 ∗ 1000
𝑎=
𝑚∗𝑣
Where,
• 𝑚, kg, is the un-laden mass of the car with only the driver. The driver weight was
assumed to be 72 kg. The empty mass of the car was assumed to be 988 kg (Cars-data,

14 | P a g e
 n.d.). The summation of these two weights gives the mass of the vehicle assumed in
acceleration calculation as 1060 kg.
After finding out acceleration at each gear, equation of motion was used to find vehicle speed till
it reaches 100 km/h using 0.1 s time interval.
Velocity, (m/s):
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Where,
• 𝑣 is final velocity, m/s
• 𝑢 is initial velocity, m/s
• 𝑎 is acceleration, m/s2, at each gear found above
• 𝑡 is time interval which is 0.1 second for the acceleration calculation
Once the car reaches the speed to shift the gear from 1st to 2nd, the acceleration parameter
found in 2nd gear was used and so on, and once it reaches 100 km/h, the time passed to reach
that particular speed was accepted as the original vehicle’s acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h.
Acceleration found for the original vehicle using above equations is 10.7 second from 0 to 100
km/h.

2.4 Vehicle Top Speed Calculation Steps

Top speed of the original vehicle was calculated in order to compare with that of the converted
hybrid vehicle. Top speed can be calculated using the following formula, (m/s):
(𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟) ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 (0.5 ∗ 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 ∗ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑓𝑟 ) ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝜂𝑔 ∗ 1000 𝜂𝑔 ∗ 1000
→ 0.5 ∗ 0.66 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 3 + 1553 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.015 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 80000 ∗ 0.95
→ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 195 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Where,
• 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 , N, is the summation of aerodynamic and rolling forces
• 𝜂𝑔 is the gearbox efficiency
• 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 , kW, is the maximum power of the engine that was assumed as per vehicle
specification table which was 80 kW (Cars-data, n.d.).

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3 DESIGN OF HYBRID SYSTEM

3.1 Adding an Electric Drive

Drives that use electric motors as the prime movers are known as electrical drives. There are
several advantages of electrical drives: (Ghioni, n.d.)
• Flexible control characteristic.
• Available in wide range of speed, torque and power
• High efficiency, lower noise, low maintenance requirements and cleaner operation
• Electric energy is easy to be transported.
The electric drive system shown below is used to convert the gasoline engine Peugeot 206 to
the hybrid.

Figure 5 – Electric Drive System Employing Power Electronic Converter (Ghioni, n.d.)

3.2 Power Split between Battery and IC Engine Calculations

The total power of 80 KW needs to be split between the IC engine and the battery. Hybrid
engines are able to perform well with lower rated engines plus electric power of 6.74 KW/100kg.
Therefore the power split can be done in the following way (Miller, 2004):
𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 6.74 � � ∗ 1600
100𝑘𝑔
Where, 1600 kg is the assumed un-laden mass of vehicle.
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 107.84 𝑘𝑊
As the total rated power = 80 kW
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 107.84 − 80 = 27.84 𝑘𝑊 ≅ 30 𝑘𝑊
Hence the power required at the engine:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 80 − 30 = 50𝑘𝑊

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The total power of 80 KW needs to be split between the IC engine and the battery. Therefore
the power split can be done based on the below model:

Battery Inverter Motor Gearbox Wheels

Each component of the model has a conversion efficiency which is assumed as 95%. These
efficiencies need to be taken in to account to find power required for electric motor and battery.
In urban driving condition the battery usage is necessary, the maximum power at the wheels
found in urban NEDC spreadsheet is 18kW. Therefore, power required for motor is:
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠 17
𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 18 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑔 0.95
Where,
• 𝜂𝑔 is the gearbox efficiency
The battery power that is required for the vehicle in NEDC cycle is:
𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 18
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = = = 19𝑘𝑊 ≅ 20 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑚 0.95
Where,
• 𝜂𝑚 is the motor efficiency

In order to compensate for any adverse power requirements, the motor power was considered
to be 20kW and the battery was considered with a power rating of 30kW.

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3.3 Downsizing the Engine
The internal combustion engine of 1.6L was downsized by replacing it with a 1.0 L engine in
order to satisfy the power requirement and also volume compensation for incorporating the
electric drive components. The comparison of both engines is as follows: (Toyota-Europe, n.d.)

Description Engine size

1.0 litre 1.6 litre
Cylinders 3 4
Valves per
4 4
cylinders
Power 50kW 80kW
Torque 93Nm 147Nm
Capacity 998cc 1587cc
Compression ratio 10.5:1 11.0:1
Bore X Stroke 71.0 X 84.0 mm 78.5 X 82.0 mm
Max power rpm 6000rpm 5750rpm
Max torque rpm 3600 4000
Fuel Petrol Petrol

There are various reasons for selecting a 1.0litre engine over 1.6litre as follows:
• Price of the 1.0L is much cheaper in comparison with 1.6L.
• Size of the engine is compact and lighter which allows space to fix other electric
components and gain weight advantage.
• More efficient for city driving conditions.
• Decreased fuel consumption.
The internal combustion engine was downsized by 30 kW, to a new power rating of 50 kW since
the engine power needed for NEDC cycle was not more than 43 kW.

3.4 Selection of Electric Components

3.4.1 Electric Motor

The main function of an electric motor is to convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Electric motors are generally classified into two types: (Eiranova, n.d.)
• Direct Current (DC-Motor)

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• Alternate Current (AC-Motor)
In the case of conversion of Peugeot 206 to hybrid car, permanent excited synchronous
motor was considered.
In a hybrid vehicle the electric motor is used for two purposes. Firstly, it provides torque to
drive the wheels and secondly, to function as a generator at the time of deceleration thus
charging the batteries (Eiranova, n.d.).

Figure 6 : Simplified diagram of Synchronous motor

The permanent excited synchronous motor consists of stator windings, as the current flows
through the windings; a rotating magnetic field is generated around the air gap between the
stator and the rotor. The rotor is built with a number of poles corresponding to the number
of stator windings. The stator and rotor are perfectly synchronous under normal conditions
and hence no induced voltage. The excitation occurs by means of a DC system through a
brushless arrangement and polarizes the poles magnetically into north and south (Weg,
2014).
Advantages of using AC motor: (Ghioni, n.d.)
• Higher mileage
• Less maintenance requirements
• Lighter and cheaper
• High speed.
Disadvantages of using AC motor: (Ghioni, n.d.)
• Speed control is difficult compared to DC motor
• More complicated drive compared to DC motor
• AC motor may produce more noise in comparison with DC

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The electric motors usually used in hybrid vehicles can vary according to the vehicle’s
design (i.e. mild or full) and system’s arrangement type (series or parallel).
ZF make SG-269 internal rotor type (ZF Friedrichshafen AG, 2011) was selected for the
hybrid system and its specifications are listed below:

Power (kW) 20 - 70
Torque (Nm) 230
Voltage (V) 120 – 650
External diameters (mm) 270
Electric active length (mm) 80
Fuel reduction Up to 30%
Electrical range (km) 1–5
Maximum RPM 6500
Table 3 – Specification of Electric Motor

Figure 7 : ZF make SG-269 Excited synchronous motor

The electric motor which can be added in the Peugeot is about 20 kW so that it can achieve
necessary power requirement in NEDC urban driving condition which is only 18 kW.
Because full hybrid is considered for the design, the chosen motor needs to be able to drive
the car without the help of internal combustion engine.

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3.4.2 Power Processor
It is used to control the flow of power to the motor and functions to reverse, brake or
operate the motor at variable speeds. (Ghioni, n.d.)
Furthermore, convertors are used to convert and regulate the energy source as per the
motor requirement. Several conversions are possible such as AC to DC, DC to AC, DC to
DC and AC to AC. A DC to AC convertor will be required in this case to choreograph the
divergent voltage and currents in order to supply the required power to the motor. In
addition, converter/inverter provides electricity to the motor/generator for vehicle propulsion
and current to the battery pack for recharging during regenerative braking. (Gable & Gable,
n.d.)

3.4.3 Electric Source

Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors (Ghioni,
n.d.). Source used in hybrid vehicles is the batteries.
Batteries are energy storage devices which release stored energy through electrochemical
reactions. The two important characteristics that affect a battery performance are:
• Power Density
• Energy Density

Power density is the amount of energy that a battery can provide for a given period of time
directly affecting the vehicles acceleration while energy density is the capacity to store
energy. This parameter affects the total range of travel. It is often desirable to have both high
power density as well as high energy density in order to match up or compete with that of
gasoline engines. (Canis, 2013)

The various types of batteries used in hybrid vehicles are lead-acid batteries, nickel-metal
hydride, sodium-nickel chloride, lithium-ion, etc. Lithium-ion batteries are most suitable for
automotive applications because: (Ron Hodkinson, 2001)
• They have high energy and power output per unit mass thus making them lighter
compared to others.
• Smaller in size
• High cell voltage and therefore fewer cells required.

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 Figure 7 – Discharge Mechanism of Lithium-ion Battery

Lithium ion batteries have 5 basic components: cathode, anode, separator, electrolyte
solution and a case. At the anode, current flows into the battery while at the cathode it flows
out of the battery. During time of discharge, the lithium anode gets ionized and emits itself
along the electrons into the electrolyte. These ions and electrons move through the
separator and into the cathode where the electric current is being discharged thus
completing the circuit. (Canis, 2013)
The electric motor runs with the help of this discharge current from the battery. However,
the battery charges while decelerating because of the regenerating system that is added in
the car in order to be more efficient.

Determining the number of cells and dimensions of the battery pack:

Powerbattery = (Veach cell ∗ No. of cells in series) ∗ (Ieach cell ∗ No. of cells in parallel)
Rated Voltage of each cell = 3.7 V (Ho Teng, 2012)
Rated current of each cell = 70Ah (Ho Teng, 2012)
Ah ∗ V
kWh =
1000
30000 = 140 Ah ∗ 215 V

Total voltage 215

∴ No. of cells in series = = = 58
Rated voltage of each cell 3.7
Total current 140
∴ No. of cells in parallel = = =2
Rated current of each cell 70
∴ Total number of cells in battery back = 58 ∗ 2 = 116 cells

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 Mass of each cell = 1.45 kg
∴ Total mass of battery pack = 1.45 ∗ 116 = 168.2 ≅ 170 Kg

Dimension of each cell = 11mm ∗ 248mm ∗ 260 mm = 709280 mm3 = 7.0928 ∗ 10−4 𝑚3
Total volume occupied by battery pack = 116 ∗ 0.00070928 m3 ≅ 83 litres

3.4.4 Control Unit

The complexity of the control unit depends on the desired drive performance and the type
of motors used. The types of the main controller can be: (Ghioni, n.d.)
• Analogue is noisy and inflexible; however, analogue circuit ideally has infinite bandwidth.
• Digital; this is immune to noise. The bandwidth is smaller than the analogue controller’s
depending on sampling frequency.
• DSP/microprocessor, which is flexible and has lower bandwidth compared to above.
DSPs perform faster operation than microprocessors. With DSP/microprocessor,
complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
• Considering the noise immunity, a digital control unit is used.

3.5 Regenerative Braking System

In conventional vehicles, when brakes are applied, the kinetic energy is converted into heat
because of the friction between the wheels and brake pads. This heat energy is carried away
into the air stream and is wasted. A regenerative braking system is one in which a part of the
kinetic energy dissipated due to the frictional heat is stored into a system by the help of
converter. The torque at wheels while breaking helps turning the motor in the opposite way and
by the help of converter, this energy goes to the battery and charges it. This energy is stored
during the vehicles deceleration until required.
Since there is an increase in energy output for the same amount of energy input, the efficiency
of vehicle is improved. The regenerative system should ideally be compact, durable and
capable of storing high energy levels (Clegg, 1996). The advantages of regenerative braking
are:
• Improves fuel economy
• Reduces the emissions
• Downsizing the fuel tank size.

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3.6 NEDC Calculation Steps for Hybrid Vehicle
NEDC calculations were carried out for 1.0 L with battery pack and electric motor. All of the
NEDC calculations steps are the same as original vehicle; however, the car’s laden mass has
been changed by adding an electric drive with AC synchronous permanent magnet motor and
lithium-ion battery pack and downsizing the internal combustion engine to 1.0 litre. 1800 kg was
assumed as laden mass because 170 kg battery packs was added making the original car’s
weight 1553+170=1723 kg. However, downsizing the engine from 1.6 L to 1.0 L makes a lot of
difference in weight and adding an electric motor approximately makes an un-laden mass of
1600 kg. In addition, adding at least two drivers with assumption of 150 kg and luggage weight
of 50 kg would make the laden mass 1800 kg. The calculations were carried out based on this
mass. Moreover, energy needs to remain at the same state of charge at the end of NEDC. The
calculation steps are as follows:

• Using the model of power split, the power at the motor and battery can be calculated
using following formula:
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
𝑃𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜂𝑔
Where,
o 𝜂𝑔 is gearbox efficiency given as 95%
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 =
𝜂𝑔 ∗ 𝜂𝑏 ∗ 𝜂𝑑𝑡
Where,
o 𝜂𝑏 is the battery efficiency given as 95%
o 𝜂𝑑𝑡 is the drivetrain efficiency given as 95%
Power at the motor and battery would be zero while my engine is working; on the other
hand, while motor driving the wheels engine power would be zero. How much the battery
would be used was calculated by finding state of charge.
• After finding power at the wheels, the kinetic energy change while accelerating and
decelerating was found:
1
∗ 𝑚 ∗ (𝑣 2 ∗ 𝑢2 )�
𝐾𝐸 = 2 1000 (𝑘𝐽)

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• Finding kinetic energy change allows the calculation of energy recovery while
deceleration because the car regenerates energy instead of wasting it while breaking.
Energy recovered was found:
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 < 0 → 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑 = 𝐾𝐸 ∗ 0.25 ∗ 0.60 ∗ 0.65 ∗ 0.90 (𝑘𝐽)
Where,
o Total kinetic energy available at the front wheels during braking – 65% (Ehsani,
2005)
o Regenerative co-efficient – 25%
o The transmission efficiency of the motor – 90% (Freedom Formula Foundation,
2006)
o Combined efficiency of all the electric components was assumed to be 60%

• Energy used was calculated using power at the wheels because this power is moving
the car. The formula used is as follows:
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 > 0 → 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑 = ∗ 𝜂𝑔 ∗ 𝜂𝑏 (𝑘𝐽)
𝑡
Where,
o 𝜂𝑔 and 𝜂𝑏 are gearbox and battery efficiency respectively
o 𝑡 is the time step which is only 1 second
• Charge and discharge should be equal to get the same state of charge; as a result, the
battery and electric motor is working for only 126 second in NEDC cycle. Checking the
state of charge whether it is the same at end of the cycle or not was calculated as
follows:
𝑡=1180

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = � 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑡) = 193.75 𝑘𝐽

𝑡=1
𝑡=126

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = � 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑡) = 191.60 𝑘𝐽

𝑡=1

Since the electric motor is working only for the first 126 second, the fuel consumption
and CO2 emission would be zero for this time and it is calculated using the same formula
that was shown above.
• The fuel consumption in NEDC cycle for hybrid car is at maximum engine power was
found 8.13 L/100 km.
• The CO2 emission for the same was found 46.82 g/km.

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3.6.1 Acceleration Calculation for Designed Hybrid Vehicle
The acceleration for hybrid vehicle was calculated using the same formula as that of
original vehicle. Because electric motor’s torque is helping the acceleration, the torque at
the wheels would be much more compared to the original Peugeot 206. On the other
hand, acceleration could decrease and the time to reach 100 km/h could increase due to
the vehicle being heavier. However, the acceleration time between 0 to 100 km/h was
found 10.8 second which is almost the same acceleration as that of original vehicle by
assuming the same engine speed necessary to shift the gear as the original vehicle which
could be more.

3.6.2 Hybrid Vehicle Top Speed Calculation Steps

Top speed of the hybrid vehicle was calculated using the following formula, (m/s):
(𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟) ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 (0.5 ∗ 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 ∗ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑓𝑟 ) ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝜂𝑔 ∗ 1000 𝜂𝑔 ∗ 1000
→ 0.5 ∗ 0.66 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 3 + 1800 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.015 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 50000 ∗ 0.95
→ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 162 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Where,
• 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 , kW, is the maximum power of the downsized engine that was assumed as per
vehicle specification table which was 50 kW (Toyota-Europe, n.d.).

3.7 Efficiencies and Losses

3.7.1 Efficiency of IC Engines

• Thermal efficiency of gasoline IC Engines vary between 25-30%
• Volumetric efficiency of naturally aspirated gasoline engines is approximately 80-90%

Losses in IC Engines
• During expansion and compression, there is some amount of heat loss due to the heat
transfer between the working fluid and the cylinder.
• Friction loss between the piston skirt, piston rings and cylinder wall during reciprocation
of piston in the cylinder.
• Incomplete combustion since some of the unburnt fuel escapes with the exhaust gases.
• To account for blow down losses, the exhaust valve opens a few degrees before BDC
due to which the work pf expansion remains incomplete. (Penninger, 2006)

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3.7.2 Efficiency of Motors:

Figure 8 : Efficiency vs Load Curve for Electric Motor

• Motors must run between 50% - 100% of their rated load. The maximum efficiency can
be obtained at around 75% of rated load. (U.S. Department of Energy, 2012)

Losses in Motor
• Core Losses – These are the losses incurred while magnetizing the core material also
called as hysteresis. This loss can be reduced by improving the core’s permeability and
also increasing its length.
• Windage losses due to air resistance and bearing friction. These losses are independent
of motor load and can be reduced by improving the air-flow and fan design. (McCoy,
1993)
• Stator winding losses also known as the I2R losses.

3.7.3 Thermal Losses and Distribution

• Thermal losses occur when the amount of heat gets transferred from one system to the
other due to the difference in temperature.
• Battery thermal management system includes climate control in which the temperature
of the battery pack is generated which influences the discharge of power (Park, 2011)

3.7.4 Losses for Electronics

When the electricity is transferred around the control system, due to the fluctuation,
losses can be found at the time of conversion. (Ghioni, n.d.)

3.7.5 Losses due to Aerodynamic and Rolling Resistance

The losses or forces needed to overcome aerodynamic drag and rolling resistances
have also been considered.
Note: All the losses have been considered in the calculations

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3.8 Packaging
The free spaces available in the car were measured and are as follows:
1. Free Space available in boot:
40 inch ∗ 25 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ ∗ 32 inch = 32000 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 0.52438 𝑚3
Therefore, Total boot space available = 525 litres.

2. Space available under Front bonnet :

10 inch ∗ 18 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ ∗ 18 inch = 3240 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 0.05309𝑚3
Therefore, Total boot space available = 53 litres

3. As per the limitation constraints in packaging:

• 50% of initial luggage space (boot space) must remain available
0.5 ∗ 525 = 262.5 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
∴ 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 525 − 262.5 = 262.5 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
• No components must pass through the passengers’ compartment.

4. As per the battery volume calculations in section 3.4.3,

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 83 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠

The battery pack has a total of 116 cells with 58 cells in series and 2 in parallel. This
configuration can easily be placed in the boot space.

5. Motor
The electric motor selected for the hybrid system ZF make SG-329 has an external
diameter of 0.27m and will fit quite easily in the free space available under the front
bonnet near the engine. This serves two purposes. Firstly, it can be cooled easily due to
the air flowing right into it. Secondly, transmission losses are minimized.

6. 1.0 Litre Gasoline Engine

The 1.0 litre engine will be much smaller than the 1.6 litre engine. Hence it will fit into the
original space of the engine conveniently.

28 | P a g e
7. The control unit is not very big in size and can be placed in the boot near the battery
pack itself since there was quite a bit of space available after placing the battery pack as
well as adhering to the luggage limitations.

Figure 9: Parallel hybrid proposed layout

Figure 10: Schematic representation of parallel hybrid system

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4 Converted Hybrid Peugeot 206 1.0 L Specifications
The designed and engineered Peugeot 206 1.0 L Hybrid vehicle’s specifications is as follows:

Internal Combustion Engine Electric Motor Battery

AC Synchronous Lithium-Ion Rechargeable
Cylinders 3
Permanent Magnet Motor Battery
Valve/Cylinder 4 Power 20 kW Power 30 kW
Rated
Capacity 998 cc Torque 230 Nm Voltage of 3.7 V
each cell
Rated
Bore X Stroke 71X84 mm Voltage 300 V Current of 70 Ah
each cell
Compression External No. of cells
10.5:1 270 mm 58
ratio diameters in series
Electric
No. of cells
Max Power 50 kW active 80 mm 2
in parallel
length
Max Power Fuel Total No. of
6000 Up to 30% 116
RPM reduction cells
Electrical Mass of
Max Torque 93 Nm 1 to 5 km 1.45 kg
range each cell
Max Torque Maximum Total Mass
3600 6500 170 kg
RPM RPM of battery
Maximum 11X248X226
Fuel Petrol 440 A Dimensions
Current mm

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5 Well to wheel CO2 emissions and energy consumption
The fuel has to pass a number of stages before it is delivered and burnt in a vehicle. A lot of
energy is lost in the different stages of the fuel cycle. Hence the energy consumption at each
stage has to be analysed which is called as Well to Wheel analysis (Brinkman, 2005)

Figure 11: Well to wheel schematic representation

The CO2 emissions and energy consumption and energy consumptions are generally assessed
in two phases:
- Well to tank
- Tank to wheel
The well to tank CO2 emissions and energy consumption is based on the following factors
(Bakker, 2010):
a. Energy consumed and the respective CO2 emission in the extraction of the
source material for the battery. For e.g. extraction of lithium from its hard mining
based sources.
b. Energy consumed and coherent CO2 emissions in distribution and refinement.
c. Energy consumed and CO2 emission in extraction of crude oil as the fuel source
for transportation.
Lithium (Li) is the main source for the Li-ion battery. It can be extracted from a number of varied
sources. It is very complex to evaluate the CO2 emissions and the energy consumption as there
as there are various methods of extraction and the scale of extraction depends on the
requirement and purpose.

The following is the approximation of energy efficiency and CO2 emission refining and
distribution (Bakker, 2010):
- Crude oil energy conversion efficiency for gasoline used as the transport fuel:

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 95 – 97%.
- Refinery energy conversion efficiency: 94%.
- Energy lost in transport: 1%.
- CO2 emission for gasoline used as transport fuel: 12.45 g/MJf.
- CO2 emission for diesel as transport fuel: 12.9 g/MJf.

6 Conclusion
The Peugeot 206 conventional car was converted in to a parallel hybrid system with ICE and
batteries as the two sources of energy. The hybrid version showed significant reductions in the
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. A sample comparison for the same has been tabulated
below:
PARAMETERS
ORIGINAL VEHICLE HYBRID VEHICLE MODEL
(at max ICE power)
Fuel consumed 13.01 l/100km 8.13 l/100km
CO2 Emissions 74.91 g/km 46.82 g/km
Brake Specific Fuel
0.287 kg/kWh 0.164 kg/kWh
Consumption
Thermal Efficiency 29% 51%

A 37% reduction in the fuel consumption and CO2 emissions was obtained with the parallel
hybrid version of the Peugeot 206 1.0 L engine.
However, these calculations were based on the NEDC which is not a true representation of real
case scenario. In the real scenario the acceleration and speeds of the vehicle can be much
higher and are also dependant on road and traffic conditions, therefore the designed engine and
battery pack can be subjected to higher or lower rate of fuel consumption and discharge
respectively, depending on the conditions.

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