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Money
MONEY
Q.1 What is a barter System? What are the inconveniences of barter
exchange ?
Ans. (1) A BATER ECONOMY
Barter system was prevalent in the oldest method exchange. Even today, in
some of the interior parts of African countries and in backward regions of India,
especially in some rural and Adivasi areas, barter system is in operation.
There is no use of money or any medium of exchange in a barter economy.
“Barter” means direct exchange of good – goods exchanged against goods. House may
be exchanged for horses, lemons for oranges, milk for bananas, shoes for shirts and so
on. In the barter system thus, one has to give some kinds of goods to get some other
kinds of goods.
The barter system is not as simple and smooth a system of exchange as its
meaning shows. Many difficulties and inconvenience are inherent in a simple barter. As
a society becomes more difficult and complicated.
( 2) Functions of Money
MONEY SUPPLY
OUE: 1 Discuss the components and methods of measuring supply of
money by R.B.I. and also discuss the factors affecting supply of
money.
THE SUPPLY OF MONEY
The Supply of Money plays an important part in the determination of the Value of
Money. The supply of money means total stock of money in the economy at particular
point of time. The total stock of money generally described as the quantity of money.
Hence, the supply of money at a ‘point of time’ means the quantity of money in
existence at that time.
In modern economy, the total quantity of money held by the public generally includes:
(a) Currency money, that is, coins and paper notes in circulation issued by
the government or the central bank.
(b) Demand deposits of the commercial banks.
(a)Currency with the Public :
In order to know the total money supply held by the public, we must deduct from the
total quantity of paper currency and coins in circulation that part which is lying as cash
on hand with the banks.
(b)DEMAND DEPOSITS OF THE COMMERCIAL BANKS:
Bank deposits are considered as money because in a modern economy they act as a
medium of exchange and are generally acceptable in the discharge of debts and
obligations. It should, however, be noted that the time deposits of commercial banks
are not money as they can be withdrawn only at the end of affixed period or by
incurring a penalty. At best they can be treated as ‘quasi money’. They are no doubt
liquid assets but they are not liquid enough to rank as money. Thus while the demand
deposits have the status of money, time deposits have the status of quasi-money or
near money.
In short, the total money supply with the public consists of currency
money (coins and paper notes) and the demand deposits with the banks.
Reserve Bank of India has identified four measures of money stock viz. M 1 , M 2 ,
(i) M 1 and
(i) M 1 And
Therefore M 3 = M 1 + TD.
(i) M 3 And
Therefore M 1 = M 3 + TDP.
In India, the currency money is issued by the RBI. It is issued on the principle
of minimum reserve in India. Coins and notes of Rs. 2 and above are issued by the
RBI. In RBI. public deposits have been quite low.
Classical economists have tried to explain with the help of Quantity theory of money,
the determination of general level of prices and the factors causing changes in the value of
money. Here we shall confine to the explanation given by Fisher.
In 1911, Prof. Irving Fisher in his book ‘The Purchasing Power of Money’ presented this
theory very systematically and scientifically in the form of equation. The discussion here is with
reference to Fisher’s equation.
According to Fisher, “if other things being equal, there is direct and proportionate
relationship between Quantity of money and price level, whereas, there is inverse and
proportionate relationship between Quantity of money and value of money”.
This implies that, if there is 10% increase in Quantity of money, there will be 10% rise in
the price level and the value of money reduces to have; and if Quantity of money is reduced to
10%, the price level also reduced to 10% and the value of money doubles.
The direct and proportionate relationship between Quantity of money and price level is
presented in the following diagram.
O
x
M M1
MV = Pt where;
M= Quantity of legal money with the people during the year.
V= Velocity of legal money (velocity of money implies the average exchange of money during a
year).
T= Transaction of goods during the year.
P= Genera price level
Prof. Fisher was aware of bank money and so he modified the equation as follows:
Mv + M1V1 = PT
P = MV+M’V’
T
Where
M’ = Quantity of Bank money
V1 = Velocity of bank money
With the help of this equation of exchange, Fisher tried to prove that the monetary
transaction of goods is equal to Quantity of money.
Suppose, the Quantity of legal money (M) is Rs.1000/-, Quantity of bank of money is
Rs.5000/- velocity of legal money is 5, velocity of bank money is 2, transaction of goods is
30000,
P = MV+M’V’
T
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Assumptions of the Theory : The relationship between Quantity of money and price
level is dependent on following assumptions.
(1) Fisher assumes that in the short-run, V and V1 remain constant, because the
factors which affect Velocity of money do not change, for example
(2) Like V and V1, T (volume of transaction) also remain constant in the short-run. This is
because, methods of production, Supply of factors of production, transportation, monetary and
banking system, etc. do not change in short-run.
(3) Proportion of M and M1 remain constant. Fisher States that with given industrial and
technological development the proportion between legal money and bank money remain
constant.
(4) Money is used only for purchase of goods and Services, meaning thereby that people
spent all the money they have. That is to say money is not saved.
(5) There is full employment in the economy. In this situation, the increase in money will
proportionately increase price level.
(6) International trade does not take place between the countries.
Introduction:
Money does two important things in the modern economy. (1) as medium of exchange
and (2) as store of value. Economists have used the different approaches for explaining the
value of money. Fisher emphasized only exchange value, whereas Cambridge economists
emphasized store value function for explaining the value of money.
Value of Money Based on the Demand for and Supply Money;
For explaining the Quantity theory, Economists like Pigou, Robert son believed that like the
prices of commodities, value of money depends on the demand for and supply of money. After
the value of money is once determined, change in it are the result of demand and supply of
money. If the Quantity of money is held constant, the increase in the demand for money
increases its value, in other words, the price level decline
There is inverse relationship between value of money and price level and the decrease
in the demand for money would lead to fall in the value of money, that is price level increases).
M 25000
P = KR = 1 /5 X 5000 = 25 Rs.
Cash balance theory thus takes into account the effect on prices of changes in the
demand for money along with the supply of money. If the Quantity of money remains constant,
the increase in the demand for money leads to a fall in the price level, the value of money goes
up. On the contrary, the fall in demand for money increases the price level and leads to fall in
the value of money. This is because, when the demand for money increases, it implies that the
people desires to hold larger portion of their real income in the form of cash balances and have
low inclination for holding commodities. As a result of this, the supply of commodities increases
in relation to their demand and so the price level declines. In the reverse situation, the fall in
the demand for money will increase the price level.
Later on, bank money was also included in the equation. This is because, the people do
not keep all the money in the liquid form, but keep some portion of this in the form of bank
deposits. Banks also keep some portion of their deposits in cash reserve, and the rest the keep
for lending.
The revised form of the equation after inclusion of bank money is stated as follows.
M
P = KR [c + h (1-c)] where,
Thus, there are limitations of this equation. However, from analytical point of view
Pigou’s equation is superior to Fisher’s equation.
Introduction:
According to American School, represented by Fisher’s Quantity theory, the value of
money is determined by the Quantity of money, whereas in Cambridge School, represented by
Pigou’s cash balance theory, the demand for money is very important in determining the value
of money. However, in these two ideologies, the explanation for value of money is approached
differently and therefore, it is necessary to understand the similarities and differences between
these two theories.
Points of Similarities:
(1) Value of money is related to the Quantity of money: In these two equations,
crude form of Quantity theory is valid, that is the value of money is determined by the Quantity
of money.
(2) No difference between P and M in two equations: In both the equations, P presents
price level and M presents Quantity of money.
(3) V in Fisher’s equation and K in Cambridge’s equation are mutually related: V in
Fisher’s equation shows velocity of money, whereas K in Cambridge’s equation shows
proportion of real income which people desire to hold in the form of cash balances. In other
words, it shows the demand for money. If the demand for money increases, that is the demand
for commodities decreases and so velocity of money also decreases. Thus, the demand for cash
balances and velocity of money are inversely related.
1
v= k
(4) Similarity between T and R in two equations: Transactions, T in Fisher’s equation and
real R in Pigou’s equation are fundamentally equal. Volume of transactions in Fisher’s equation
is in one way indicates real income, because volume of transaction in the economy-exchange of
goods is dependent on production of goods i.e. real income. Thus, T and R are identified.
Because of similarities between the two equations, one equation can be transformed
from the other.
M
P = KR
M
1 1
T
P= v ( ∵ K = v and R = T)
Mv
P= T
PT = Mv
Thus, Pigou’s equation can be transformed into Fisher’s equation as above.
(1) The important difference between the two equation is that in Fisher’s equation
money is considered as a flow whereas in cash balance equation it is taken as a stock. Fisher
explains the value of money in the context of average quantity of money during the year,
whereas, cash balance equation explains the value of money in the context of stock of money
at a point of time. In Robertson’s who Fisher talks of money on the wings, whereas Cambridge
equation talks of money on the sitting.
(2) In Fisher’s equation demand for money arises only for transaction purposes and
in Cambridge equation it is shown for the purposes of storage.
(3) In Fisher’s equation P shows general price level, whereas in Pigou’s equation P
indicates prices of only consumer goods.
(4) In Fisher’s equation value of money is explained in terms of Quantity of money,
whereas in Cambridge equation value of money is considered in terms of demand for money
and Quantity of money.
(5) There is also difference between V and K. In Fisher’s equation V shows velocity of
money in terms of transaction of goods and services, whereas in Cambridge equation K shows
income velocity of money. Velocity of money considers only institutional factors, whereas K
depends on the habits and behaviour of the people.
is impossible. Inversely, in Cambridge equation, we are required to know only cash balances of
the people to explain the value of money.
In the context of the above discussion, we can say that Cambridge equation is a definite
improvement over Fisher’s equation at least from analytical point of view, if not form
theoretical point of view.