Mitosis- The process of cell division which
results in the production of two daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
The daughter cells are identical to one
another and to the original parent cell
Stages of Mitosis
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase & Cytokinesis
Interphase- the cell prepares for division
Animal Cell & Plant Cell: DNA & Organelles
Replicated, cell increases in size.
Prophase- the cell prepares for nuclear division
Animal & Plant Cell: Packages DNA into
chromosomes.
Metaphase- the cell prepares chromosomes for
division
Animal & Plant Cell: Chromosomes line up at
the center of the cell; Spindle fibers attach from
daughter cells to chromosomes at the
centromere.
Anaphase- the chromosomes divide
Animal and Plant Cells: Spindle fibers pull
chromosomes apart; ½ of each chromosome
(called chromatid) moves to each daughter cell.
Telophase- the cytoplasm divides
Animal Cell: DNA spreads out, 2 nuclei form;
Cell wall pinches in to form the 2 new daughter
cells
Plant Cell: DNA spreads out, 2 nuclei form; New
cell wall forms between to nuclei to form the 2
new daughter cells
Meiosis- the type of cell division by which germ
cells (eggs and sperm) are produced

One parent cell produces four daughter cells

Daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes found in the original parent cell.
-During meiosis, DNA replicates once,
but nucleus divides twice
-Four stages can be described for each
division of nucleus

Meiosis I- the first division of meiosis

 Prophase I- Each chromosome
duplicates and remains closely
associated. These are called sister
chromatids
 Metaphase I- Chromosomes align at
the center of the cell
 Anaphase I- Chromosomes pair
separate with sister chromatids
remaining together
 Telophase I- Two daughter cells are
formed with each daughter containing
only one chromosome of the Meiosis II- the second division of meiosis
chromosome pair.  Prophase 2- DNA does not replicate
 Metaphase 2- Chromosomes line up at
the center of the cell
 Anaphase 2- Centromeres divide and
sister chromatids move separately to
each pole.
 Telophase 2- Cell division is complete
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Carbon- (Latin: carbo- coal)

- With the symbol C and atomic number6
- Nonmetallic and tetravalent- making 4
electrons available to form bond
together to form covalent chemical
bonds
- All known life on earth needs it
- Iron + Carbon = hard steel
- Carbon in coal form is important fuel

Versatility of carbon
- Has 4 electrons in an outer steel that
holds 8

Difference between Meiosis and Mitosis:

Mitosis
 Asexual
 Cell divides once
 Two daughter cells Hydrocarbons- the simplest carbon
 Genetic info is identical compounds; contains only carbon & hydrogen
atoms
Meiosis
H
 Sexual
l
 Cell divides twice
H-------- C -------- H
 Four haploid daughter cells
l
 Genetic information is different H
Carbons can use its bonds to: attach to other
carbons; Form an endless diversity of carbon
skeletons

Large Hydrocarbons- Several hydrocarbons

bonded together to form different structures
that predict their functions.
Functional Groups- groups of atoms that give
properties to the compounds to which they
attach
- Simplest carbs are Monosaccharides, or
single sugars
- Carbohydrate macromolecules are
polysaccharides, polymers composed of
many sugar building blocks
- Monosaccharides have molecular
formulas but are usually multiples of
CH2O
- Glucose is the most common
monosaccharide

Biological Molecules- within cells, small organic

molecules are joined to form larger molecules.
 Macromolecules- large molecules
composed of thousands of covalently
connected atoms
Most macromolecules are polymers,
built from monomers
A polymer is a long molecule consisting
or many similar building blocks called
monomers.
Formation of Polymers
determined by its
the positions of
Storage Polysaccharides:
Carbohydrates- include sugars and the polymer
of sugars
muscle
Disaccharide- formed when a
dehydration reaction joins two
monosaccharides. This covalent bond is
called a glycosidic bond.
Lactose = Glu + Gal
Maltose = Glu + Glu
Sucrose = Glu + Fru
Polysaccharide- the polymers of sugars,
have storage and structural roles; The
structure and function of a
polysaccharide are
sugar monomers and
glycosidic linkages.
Starch- a storage polysaccharide of
plants consists entirely of
glucose monomers.
-Plants store surplus starch as granules
within chloroplasts and other
plastids.
-Glycogen is a storage polysaccharides
in animals.
-Humans and other vertebrates store
glycogen mainly in liver and
cells.
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose- a major component of the tough wall Phospholipids- two fatty acids and a phosphate
of plant cells group are attached to glycerol.
Chitin- another structural polysaccharide, is - Two fatty acids tails are hydrophobic,
found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. but phosphate group and its
attachments form a hydrophilic head.
LIPIDS
-one class of large biological molecules that do
not form polymers
-no affinity with water
-hydrophobic because they consist mostly of
hydrocarbons, which from nonpolar covalent
bonds.
-fats, phospholipids, steroid

Steroids- are lipids characterized by a

carbon skeleton consisting of four fused
rings.
- Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a
component in animal cell membranes.

PROTEINS
- Account for more than 50% of the dry
mass of most cells.
- Protein functions include;
o Structural support,
o Storage, transport,
o Cellular communications and
movement, and
 o Defense against foreign
substances.
Amino Acids
- Are organic molecules with carboxyl
and amino groups.
- Amino acids differ in their properties
due to differing side chains, called R
groups.
- Cell use 20 amino acids to make
thousands of proteins.

Protein Conformation and Function

-Amino Acids are linked by peptide bonds
-A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
-Polypeptides range in length from a few
monomers to more than a thousand
-Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence
of amino acids.
-Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence
of amino acids, with a carboxyl end (C-
terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)
- A functional protein consists of one or
more polypeptides twisted, folded and
coiled into a unique shape.
- The sequence of amino acids determine
a protein’s three-dimensional
conformation.
- A protein’s conformation determines its
function.
- Ribbon models and space-filling models
can depict a protein’s conformation.

Polypeptides- are polymers of amino acids

- A protein consists of one or more
polypeptides.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

- The primary structure of a protein is its
unique sequence of amino acids
- Secondary structure, found in most
proteins, consists of coils and folds in
the polypeptide chain
- Tertiary structure is determined by
interactions among various side chains
(R Groups)
- Quaternary structure results when a
protein consists of a multiple
polypeptide chains.
- The tertiary structure is primarily due to
interactions between the R groups of
the amino acids that make up the
protein.
- R group interactions that contribute to
tertiary structure include hydrogen
bonding, ionic bonding, and dipole-
dipole interactions, and London
dispersion forces-basically, the whole
- Primary structure, the sequence of
gamut of non-covalent bonds.
amino acids in a protein, is like the
order of letters in a long word
- Primary structure is determined by
inherited genetic information.

- The coils and folds of secondary

structure results from hydrogen bonds
between repeating constituents of the
polypeptide backbone.
- Typical secondary structures are a coil
called an alpha helix and a folded
structure called a beta pleated sheet.
 Quaternary Structure- results when two or
more polypeptide chains from one
macromolecule.
- Collagen is a fibrous protein
consisting of three polypeptides
coiled like a rope.
- Hemoglobin is a globular protein
consisting of four polypeptides: two
alpha and two beta chains.
What determines Protein Conformation?
- In addition to primary structure,
physical and chemical conditions
can affect conformation
- Alterations in pH, salt
concentration, temperature, or
other environmental factors can
cause a protein to unravel.
- The loss of a protein’s native
conformation is called
denaturation.
- A denatured protein is biologically
inactive.

Sickle-Cell Disease: A simple change in Primary

structure
- A slight change in primary structure can
affect a protein’s conformation and
ability to function
- Sickle-Cell Disease is an inherited blood
disorder, results from a single amino
acid substitution in the protein
hemoglobin
- The amino acid sequence of a
polypeptide is programmed by a unit of
inheritance called a gene.
- Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid
- Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information.
 - DNA directs synthesis of messenger
RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA,
controls protein synthesis
- Protein synthesis occur in ribosomes.

The Structure of Nucleic Acids

- Nucleic Acids are polymers called
polynucleotides.
- Each polynucleotide is made of
monomers called nucleotides
- Each nucleotide consists of a
nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and
a phosphate group
- The portion of a nucleotide without the
phosphate group is called a nucleoside.
Nucleotide Monomers
- Nucleotide monomers made up of
nucleosides and phosphate groups.
- Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar
- There are two families of nitrogenous
bases: Pyrimidines, Purines
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose
The Roles of Nucleic Acids
- In RNA, the sugar is ribose.
- There are two types of nucleic acids:
o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
- DNA provides directions for its own
replications
 fashion: A always with T, and G always
with C

DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of

Evolution:
- The linear sequences of nucleotides
in DNA molecules are passed from
parents to offspring
Nucleotide Polymers
- Two closely related species are
- Nucleotide polymers are linked
more similar in DNA than are more
together, building a polynucleotide.
distantly related species
- Adjacent nucleotides are joined by
- Molecular biology can be used to
covalent bonds that form between
assess evolutionary kinship
the –OH group on the 3’ carbon of
one nucleotide and the phosphate
on the 5’ carbon on the next
- These links create a backbone of
sugar-phosphate units with
nitrogenous bases as appendages
- The sequence of bases along a DNA
or mRNA polymer is unique for
each gene.
The DNA Double Helix
- A DNA molecule has two
polynucleotides spiraling around an
imaginary axis, forming a double helix
- In the DNA double helix, the two
backbones run in opposite 5’ to 3’
directions from each other, an
arrangement referred to as antiparallel
- One DNA molecule includes many
genes.
- The nitrogenous bases in DNA form
hydrogen bonds in a complementary