Unit 10 ub UNIT X, 10.1 VOCABULARY These are the words you will practice in this unit VERBS accuse accuse’) act (ina play) aid announee (an-nounce’y aubitvate (arb trate) aronse (ex00se’) aust (arses’) | assign re) attribute (ae wt) (ch lenge) fan offense) cohere (corbere’) collapse (eoltapse’) (eommand’) (com ‘sment) {con-ceai’) (conduct) | confess (comfoss’) conquer (conquer) deceive (deceive) discriminate (iserim“inate} (between) display (aisphy’) dit (oat) entertain (entertain’) | execute ox’ eeute) exercise (0x" erese) hesitate (ies tate} hinder (hin ea) insist (on oF that) (in-sis’) mean to murder (nur aor) neutralize (nout -rabize) | object (10) (od ject’) offend (against) (of Fen) offend (a person) (oP fend’) ine (ot “line) penetrate (pen erate) recommend (e-commend") relax Geax’) | retreat (oertreat’) | rob | via (in) | setup spare surrender (to) {surren” der) 144 (noun tot) (noun) (noun oF that) (+ noun or between) (now) ( nowr) (noun +10} (+ noun +40) (noun) (noun) ti (noun + with) C+ noitn) (or to 4 vert) (noun) ( noun) (noun) (+ noun +10) (noun) (noun) (noun) (+ noun) ( noun) noun) (noun) ( noun) (noun) (ven) (noun) (4 noun) (¢ noun) noun) (noun) (4 noun o into, to, ete.) ( noun or that) (non) noun + of noun) noun) (noun) (noun)10.1 VOCABULARY VERBS (cont.) — NOUNS suspeot (ouspect") [| suspect that (suspect ") uy underlie (ondertie’) | witness (witness) wonder (won’ der) Gif, whether, ete.) [an ac (aes “tion) | an actoe fact") anactress (act 4s) ald {ats-ance) “Wy) | Ganpansiogy anal eHy) rement (an-nounee” ment) arbitration (aehsitta inn) aan article (art ere) | Gina newspaper) an assignment (assignment) an attribute (at uib-ute) a barrier (bar“vien) ease (in lw) 2 category (category) caution (eau ion) a chairman (chaieman) 2 clullenge (challenge) coherence (eorhee ence) (che) collapse (of) (eolnpse’) (command) (comment) (conceal “ment) (con”-fer-enes) a command (a) comment concealment a conference (a) confession (comtes si a contest (contest) (the) contrary (contra ry) a court adebate (@ebate’) deceit (de-eeit) (de-vep tion) a delegate (de tegeate) determin: (detornvin-a tion) | discrimi (diserimvina tion) (against) a) display (aisplay’) *a disposi (dis position} adnma (arama) an edition (of) (edition) an editor (od 102) (an) entertainment (entertain ment) (an) executive (exe! u-tive) a faculty (lac"-whty) 145, (noun + at) (noun) (+ novn) (noun) fine a gap rounds (for) “hardship hesitation a hindrance (to) (the) intellect an intellectual jourwalisin a journalist leisure alie a metaphor (a) murder neutrality an objection an obstacle an offense (ua “an outline a penalty penetrat a precaution the press (2) publication (of) (a) rank a recommendation relaxation a remark a robbery role {a) status (a) stress surrender (a) suspic (a) talent tension a theater atheme 2 trial volition witness (he) will {10 do some- tung, ete.) UNIT 10 (hand ship) (hesitation) (hindrance) (in -no-cencey in Welleer) (in tetlec” tual) Gournatismy Gour nabs) (ei sur) (met-phor) Grae dery (neuteal” sity) (orjee ton) (ob “starcle) (oftense’) (out dino) (pen’ aly) (penetra tion) (precaution) (piv ego) (pubtier sion) Ge-vone- mend tion) (rernea”ti0n (ee-mark) (eob" ery) (sey nae) {stats} (surrender) (sspic’ ion) (eaten (tension) (hea tee) (en) (vost ton) (vit ness)UNIT 10 10.1 VOCABULARY ADJECTIVES ADVERBS, PHRASES --— verse (to) allied (10) analogous (to) armed cautious coherent contrary courent determined (to) dramatic eventual exectve incoherent innocent intellectual involuntary metaphorical val neateat penal popular (with) preliminary rational relaxed ruined single spare substantial suspicious (of) talented tense underlying ‘unpopular voluntary adversely cautiously eventually hardly hence rationalize scarcely contrary to spare (ad verse) (alied’) fan-atog-ous) (caw tious) {coer “ent) (con ““trery) {cur rent) (Gerterm ined) (arama tie) (event wal) (exee’mtive) fineorher ent) fin’ noc-ent) Gtettee“ away (involuntary) (meta:phor real) (nu tral) (neat ral) {penal} (pop “wlan (presim inary) (ra tional) (ietaxed (ruined) (sing’ te) (sub-stan tial) (suspic ious) (talented) (underly ing) (ue-pop war) (vol antary) {ad -verse-ly) (can tiously) (sent ualy) (hard “ly) (oa Wion-atize) (searce” ly) (contrary) ke precautions (precautions) Note; Words marked with an asterisk ate defined in footnotes, exercises, or resding passages 146 |INSTRUCTIONS: (an) offense (against) offend (against) (a) robbery rob (of) (a) murder murder anest suspect (of) (2) suspicion charge (with) accuse (of) an accusation suspicions (of) offend (@ person offense suspect that UNIT 10 unit X 10.2. WORD STUDY Study the following words and the uses of them An action which is not permitted by the laws of a country, which breaks the laws af a ‘country, is often called an offense, or a legal of nse, A person who offends against the laws of a country is one who does something illegal, ic., one who eomn__t an of __nse ‘A-criminal of _nge is ene which is serious enough to be punished by imprisonment (and in ‘some cases even by death). Not all egal of__nses are punishable by impr..___.men; only cri_____al of ___nses can he pun___..ed in this way. Robbery (i.c., theft) isa ot___nal of nse. When a man robsa bank, or robs & person of his money (i.e, steals his money) he cin be sent to prison, When a man com tsa to_.___ry, he of __ nds against the law. Murder is the crime of killing another person without authority from the state (the goverment). Killing a person in wat is not regaled as sma _det, ard hanging a person who has eom_.__ted imu. ts not regarded as m__ de When man murders someone, hee. tsa Tot nse When a m__ der has been com___ted or a r0.___ay his been vo, ed, the police Usually know abou! i. They want t© take the man who has ¢ ed the crime and pput hin) in prison; in other word they want to arrest i But they cannot always ar__st the criminal, Why not? Recause they do not abvays know who he is; they de not always know his identity. Before they ar__._st someone for a crime they must find out who has done it and identity hina eda crime, but bas Sometimes the police are net absolutely sure thal someone has com suspeet him of having done it, [n other words they think i likely or probable that h done if, though they have no definite proof, A man who is sus__..._ed of erime is under suspicion, I the poli the crime, they can ar__.st him. But when they do this they must charge him with the crime; they must say publicly and officially why they are ar___ting him, To do this the police must have a legal document signed by a higher authority. Only the police ean ch__ge a man w__th a crime; this is an offieiat act. To say that a man has done somethi wrong is to aceuse him of it. To ch_..ge him w_th a crime is to ac__se him under the eunthority of the state, A man cannot be ar___sted without being ch__ed: he can only bear... ted when a legal, official accusation is made against him, have a very strong sts. efon that he isthe person responsible for Poo ple are not sus...__ted and ac.__ sed enly in taw-breaking situations, though they ean only be ch___ged and ar___sted by officers of the law. We ean ac__se a man of dishonesty, oF of unkindness, or of neglecting his resp... lites e,, we ean ae___e him of doing something which is morally wrong and undesirable, but which may not be illegal. We can sus... et a gman of dishonesty or untruthfulness, without s,.___eting him (of @ legal of se, We ean be suspicious of a person's motives, the motives for his actions: Not all wrong setions are le. of. nses. A legal of se ig an of se against the laws of the countay, but people often of....nd ag. .__st mvoral principles and laws without being ed or aF___ted and pot in prison, ‘The words offend, offense can also be wsed ip another sense, A person offends another or sives offense when he does or says something which hurts the other persons fetings, especially his feelings of pride and self-respect. When person is treated sudely he fesls offended. When we respect other people we try not toof nd them, Sensitive people 147UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY are easily of ded, Sometimes we pive off nse without meaning (0 do so, ie., without intending to do 50. [n this case we should say that we are sorry and ask for forgiveness for our stupidity of thoughtlessness People quite often do things which they do not m_._1t0 do, and they also Forget to do (ikings they mn do, When people start drinking beer, they do not usually meat ro drink too ‘much and get drunk, but often they do this. A boy who leaves home for several days without informing his parents may not m_..n _.. worry them, bul he does worry them, When you go into the town you may m..,... {0 go 10 the bank, but you may forget to do so anid not carry ‘out your intention, However, “I meant 10 do it” is nol 2 very good excuse. If you are involved in a traffic acefdent and tll the police “I meant to dive slowly when T reached the comes, but I was talking my fiend and forgot,” they will not be very impressed Other Examples: Pol,._.siow of inkars streams and lakes has bees made a legal of nse, The committee of inquiry su,__.cted that the cause of the dis__ter was gas which had leaked through pipes in the drai__ge system. The newspapers ace.__.ed the local authorities of failing to carry out a proper ins__ction of the dra nage system. Recently the peace and security of the inhabitants has been dis.____bed and theit lives end___._red by a number of rob. ies, mis__ets and ather cvimes of vio.,c8. In civilized counties one is not Der ____ted to get £__.. of one’s business competitors by niu....ering them. ‘The shopkeepers were su_____ted of cont,.___ating the flour with powdered chalk and the sugar with powdered glass and sand, The government was ae_._sed of ro... ing the public by imposing enor____s taxes which infl.__ted hardship® and did not sdvance the wel___.re af the community. We ean econ, ze by cutting da te surnbes of legal of ses and rest____ting the activities of the police to ess__tl tasks. Vou nnay be sus. ious of his motives for with___wing his support for the organization, but you eanno! altogether bing a sual salary buys an expensive _eted that bl_me him for doing so. When a government official ea car ancl surrounds himselC with lux ies, people become sus. ious. He sus the failure of his tomato crap was due to a virus disease rather that to an insect pest When you express sus___ion of his motives, he will naturally be of _..nded. Instead of taking of._.nse, you should examine your conscience to find out whether his ace... tion istrue, He was sh_cked and of ded by his son's behavios. I did not m__.n to of __, you. [m__ nt... eritieize their methods, not their a.m or obj.....ves. [Fhe government really m_.._ make this land productive, they must ive loans to the ea__.nts to buy or hire aes ‘The subject of this verb is an action, event, or situation, A person's situation arouses sympathy when poople respond to it with feelings of sy ___thy. An event a__._ses interest when people become interested in i, A man’sactions a _,._se suspicion when he sets in such a way that people feel sus_._..jaus of his motives, intentions, oF plans. Anxiety isa..___sed when people hear of a disaster in which thetr relations or friends may be involved the news of thedis____erar__...esanxiety. People’s hopes are a___._.ed when events make them Feet hopeful. The object of the vesh arouse fsa feeling which Is response to the subject; itis either a fecling of interest or futore-ditected feeling such as hope ot expectation, or an unpleasant feeling such as anxiety, anger, or envy, Sometimes te object of urauise isan activity associsted with a feeling, ¢ ga controversy. Note Lat he object of arouse can only be @ psychological or moral feeling or response, not a physical sensation such as pai. = suffering caused by poverty or deprivation 148unit 10 10.2 WORD STUDY hinder a hindrance (to) n obstacle adverse (to) adversely a court try (a case or a person) The news of the closing of the camp arsed some anxiety among the ref_gees. has boen a____sed by these injust__es. ‘The measures taken by the government ed agoodl dea of contr___.sy. Protest has been a_..__ed by the misuse of the association’s funds by the commitiee. ‘The insan___ry eonditions in which the livestock are kept must a,.__e dis. _1 and can no longer be tol_ated. Our expec ._tons were a___sed by a teport that the U.N. had decked to int_.._ene in the matter. The ‘oppos__ion of selfish landowners to the ref_.ans has a, ._ed the host___ty of the pea__nts, His attempts at peaceful pers____ ion have aed vary little res_nse. Something hinders movement, a development, « process, ete,, when it checks if oF hokds i back (to some extent) from moving, acting, continving, or starting, usually with harmful or troublesome delay of interference; for example, certain policies may h__der progress 10 independence: the growth of a town can Deh dered by unfavorable elreumstanees; a machine cin be h..” red by faulty components from working at full The subject of the verb hacer is usually nonhuman, exeept when the hindrance ( of hinfertag) is physical. child ean hr his mother from working, For example, by holding her deess oF grasping ber legs ‘or, more often, something whick hinders; dhs over 1 gl rying to pass an exantination, A hindrance isthe action of hindesi An obstacle is something which blocks or gels in the way of action or progress, and which 1 therefore be removed or overcome belare Further action is possible, The idea eis the idea of something that actually prevents fusther action or progress (until jt the idea ofa hindrance does not have this tmplieation ainst pollution have by Examples: The government's efforts to onf..c6 laws bret bby powerful private interests. Restr..nlson the import of raw materials are sometimes a h nce to private enterprise, Many of the ob_._cles which prevent educational progress are inl __ent in the nature of oor present school system. ‘The workers have discovered! subtle ways af ii__._sing the operation of these schemes. We cannot al__pt your plan fir irrigating the area without taking into account the ob_____ eles that miust first be overcome. Adverse means “acting agains!” in general, and in varying contexts may mean “opposing, “hostile,” “unfavorable,” or “disadvantageous.” Adverse winds ate those which oppose or hinder progress forward: adverse forces are hostile forces; adverse circumstances are unfavorable eitcumstances, Examples: They were very dis____ointed by the judge’s ad___se decision. He is a__erse fo any remedies which involve the use of force. Because of the a___...se balance of trade, the economic situation has dete... ated, don’t think the film des__ves such ade criticisms. The country's progress towards recovery from the war has been hi_._.red by a number of ade cire nes. Her state of health has been ad_______ly affected by the shock of hey husband’s death an of integrity is not ad_____ly affected by hardships and misfortunes. The commit has reported ad, ly on the prospects for industrial development in this tegion, The basic meaning of a court (derived from Latin) is “an enclosure” or “an enclosed space.” Nowadays the word is used in four main contexts, The eourr of a king is the place (which may be any pltce) in which a king meets his advisers or receives those who wish to approach hin, The evurtpard of a house is the uncovered service area next to-a house or hotel (of the 149SEE UNIT 10 10,2 WORD STUDY ‘case (in law) old type), which ig enclosed by a wall and which includes outhouses, ete.; it is not used L a penalty asa garden, Nowadays itis often wsed for cars. tennis court, a badminton court, ete, a tvial are enclosures used for games. These enclosures need not have walls, and the lines determining. innocent the limits of the gow? are marked on the ground. Finally, a law court is a plave in which a innocence juss sits ana beans and judges disputes or logal offenses which are brought before him,¥e., penalty in aitich he tries cases, The judge and the other people Hearing the case and participating in penal it are also called the court a fine confess (to) a confession itness Every state (e., country with a government) has «system of justice which includ institutions for settling disputes and giving people the opportunity to defend themselves ‘when they are charged with legal offenses (of ._._ses against the laws of the cauntry) ‘Acase is a dispute brought before a judge or the defense of a person charged with an of.__nse. When a judge hears a ee or Mies ac... he must listen to the evi__.wee, liston to the statements made by both parties, and enforce the laws by applying them to the particular circumstances ofthe ee. This means that he oust decide what legal rights are invoived, what laws have been broker, what one party owes (o the other party, aiid what punishment or penalty mugs be imposed (i a person has vomited an offense for whieh he can be punished), When he doos all his, the judge Unies the c.__¢. A tial is the officia} procedure for sry # case. 1 is usually 2 formal procedure, for which there ave ries, and ineludes a certain amount of ritual. 1 allows bos parties and their Inwyers to speak and stare their ease e he has the ie, not guilty ly, Ue judge We can aiso speak of the (of a man, When aman is 1d for an offen right 1o speak, to defend himself, and to attempt Lo prove hat he is innoces He can try Lo establish his innocence, I! his lawyers defend his ¢,._e successf ‘vill find hiv in__cont, and in this ease no punishonent or pew __1y will be imp.._ed on him, But if there is substantial® ev.____.nce against him, the judge will nd img... ty and impose a penalty, A p..___ty isa punishment for « particular of __use which is prescribed (ie, stated and oxdleved to be applied) in the law relating (o that offense. The penal code of a country is the jaw zolating (o offenses and erimes and the pen,__ties preseribed for them. IN is @ code of punishments. The p_._...ty for an of__nse may be death, or imprisonment, ora fine. A Jine isa sun of money which a person is required to pay (as a pen.__ty) by the laws of the country of by some other authority, Sometimes 2 julge orders a {© 60 be paid. Sometimes university amhorities order students lo pay Fes for offenses they commit. Sometimes a factory manager im.._ses a {__¢ ona worker, when he thinks the wosker is to blame for damage to machinery, unpunctwality, et. When a man has com___ted a legal of __nse and (ells the court that he has com____ted it and that he is guilty, he confesses his guilt; he com... sses his crime, If the judge believes his confession, he may imp_.se a pty, suc as impr .__ment ora f__¢ Sometimes people con.,..s8 their sins (the bad things they have done) not to a judge or a court but to a priest. The priest hears their con___ssion, Sometimes they con__ss their sins to other people, When a judge iss @ ¢__¢, he hears the ev__.._.nce and he heats the witnesses. Iii _ ses are people who give ev___nee in ac.._¢ beeause they are in a position to do so and have considerable; important and weighty 150 qUNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY grounds (for) fensts © ¢ been called upon by the e,.__xt to dose, They are people who have seen (i¢,,whinessed) some of the events with which the ease is concerned, or who have special information about these events. They cian help the judge ¢o decide the issues of the case, they may help to establish a man’s in____..nce or his g___M.When a man is ace_sed of a erime he has the Fight to bring his own wit__sses into the e___t to help to prove his in____o. Examples of cow? , ete: The King is holding (his) coust ut Windsor today. The Duke was dismissed from the © et, President Kennedy's social circle was like a ert which included astists, scholars, and public figures from every walk of life. Our tennis eo._tt Those who wish to part cts tis not ft to play on today. The school cannot do without a basketall ate in games must help to pay for the upkeep of the Thave installed a pump in my eousty__d. hey are digging the ground in the e.._ d to repair the drains. The stone floor of the e__ was badly cracked, As we app...._.ehed the house we noticed hat it was ene, ed on three sides by a ¢ a Socrates was con,__mned to death by an Athenian ¢___._. There were not enough seatsin f 1 to acc___odate the crowd. Judges andl lawyers micet in the nw cous £0 ‘r______ot legal business. Visitors are pro___ited fam entering the ¢__._t while a ee is boing tr_d. 1 threa__ned to take him to ¢___tif he did not repay the money. The ed not to make a noise in the &_.. 1. You have aright to dis___pline ‘Ibteating them you will he taken 10 ¢ stuxients were wa_ your children, but if you pet He has been ace_sed of taking bribes and other cor.__pt practices, and his ease will be ted in c____t next month. Mr, X looked forward to the day when he would cont his opponent in the law e___ts and defeat him on legal grounds (1.e., on the basis of the lave; see the next section in Word Study). You must pers.__.de a good lawyer to take up your c.se. One of the wit__sses in the case was a rev ary leader who had 10 be brought out of prison for the tr... When judges are cor__pt, in... cent people are punished, the guilty suffer no pe__Ities, fair t.__Lis impossible and the a_m and purpose of jus_ice is def__ted, ‘The laws are made by Parliaanent or Congress, but the adm. of justice isin the hands of the judges, who tr... et legal business in the law ¢. Mr. X was stis___ted of misusing government funds, but it was impossible to prove anything against him and his ¢__¢ was never brought to __]. People ate often 1_.__pted to commit mes, but are prevented fiom doing so by the thought of the heavy pen___ties if their crimes are discovered. Mr. X’s case ar__sed great sym_____y, and it was elt that he did not ddes__ve the heavy pen,...ties imposed on him, The defendant (ie, the accused person) was not made to pay a fc, but the judge awarded costs* against him, ‘The e's adverse judgment ar_. sed anger among Mr. X’s friends and supporters, who believed that hhe was inn ent A belief, an argument, a legal action, the claim to be an authority or have authority must resi on something or be based on something. The grounds for a belief or a conviction ere the foundation on whiei itis based, ie. the experiences, knowledge, religion, vision of life, cfc., which give rise (0 the belief or support it. The grounds for an argument are the assumptions and facts on which the argument is b_sed, ‘The ge____d for a legal action against someone ase the laws which make it possible to bring a ease against that person, The g...._ds for authority claimed by a mnan are the laws or institutions or superior knowledge which he has (or can claim) that authority, he costs of the case, ie, the money paid to the lawyers, ete 151uniT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY eventually eventual arbitrate (between) arbitration a command command (to) in command (of) execute executive (an) executive Exumples: Some people oppose birth control on religious gr___nds. ‘The gr___ds for Jegal actions ace the laws of the country; the gr_.__ds for the laws themselves are prevailing conceptions of human rights and the desire to settle disputes by peaceful methods. The 8... fora teacher's au____ity are supposed to be his superior knowledge of the subject he teaches, Mr. X claims to be an expert on the gs of thee months’ training in child psychology. 1 app__ve of your decision on moral g..-nds. Their Protest has no real gr; they do not really have anything to complain about, ‘Those ‘wlio adv__ate changes in the constitution do so on the gr__._ that all human beings havea ight to free speech, and thatthe present constitution does not grant them this right. He said we must give pr__sily to agticultural development on the gs that people canaol work efficiently unless they have enough to eat, ‘These words have almost the same meanings as “Final” and “finally,” be earsy the implication ‘hat the event oF happening seferred to will oceur at some indefinite time, after other events, but not as the final or last stage in a regular process. (In fact we cannot speak of ‘an event stage, but only of a final stage. Examples: Ex ntwally dhe plan was fo writer of this book predicted the ev___..ual decay ara downfall of industrial society, ie ly, when he was on his deathived, he con... sed his erime. No one knows what the ev.__val out_.__e of the war will be. We hope that ev______ lly these struggles ant quarzels will be forgotten and peaceful relationships will pv nd £0 be impracticable and was abandoned. The The Latin (and English) word arbiter means a person having the authority to decide a matter in dispute; the English words arbiter and arbitrator ean also mean somoone chosen by parties, or appointed on their behalf by ® court, to seitle a dispute or argument between them. To arbitrate a dispute, then, means to act as arbiter ar judge in a dispule; to arbiinere ‘between yarties means to act as arbiter between them. Arbitration js the act nf trbittating, especially in cases other than those dealt with by judges in courts of law. A case or dispute is submitted to arb____tion when someone is appointed (0 arb. te between the parties to the dispute Examples: The only way to bring about a settfemient of this dispute wil be to subi {0 orb.....tion, When a dispute has heen settled by arb___tion, bath parties must abide by (= conform to and obey) the terms which have been agreed to. When Iwo peo ple ot agree about essentials, i€ is difficult to arb___..ce their quarrel Inlustial dis__tes are often sub ____ted to arb_____tion. The U.N. is sometimes requested to arb______te disagreements between memiber states. When peace terms were signed by the leaders of India and Pakistan in Moscow in 1964, Russa helped to arb__._te the peace terms, A command is an order, especially an order given by x military officer or someone with absolute authority (eg. ¢ king, the captain oa ship). A person who has this kind of ‘authority can command those under iis authority to do things; he does not ask them or Fequest them but eontmands them, ic., le expecis his orders to be exsried out without question or delay. A military officer such asa captain of lieutenant is in command of 8 group of soldiers; a genetal is it ened of an army. He can command the services of the entire amy. A connmand, a purpose, a plan, law, ete.,js executed when itis ried out or put into effect, Le., when the actions are performed which make it effective, An executive committee is ane formed 10 exe_uie plans and carry them outs 182 | | | | | |unit 10 10.2 WORD STUDY an exe__tive authority is an authority which hss powers to ex,...ute the laws of the country; ex. _tive skills skill in ex_._ting plans, schemes, ete, In the context of business, an excentive is one who holds an ad ministrative or managerial position ina business or olhier organization. Examples: Mr. Xis the chief sales exee__ive of ovr organization, The committee has its business today in hal the usual time. The measures you have proposed wil be very dificult (0 ex_....e. ‘The govesnment has done vey little to exe the program on the basis of which it won the election. He said that he would be unable fo ex___te his duties any Jonger, on the gr__nds of il health, He was given full ©x_____ive powers to suppress the revolt. The salaries of ex_____ives have been raised, but the salaries of subordinate officers have not been increased. 1k was his am, ion to become an ex ___. ive in the company. Today there wil be a meeting ‘of the managing director and other ex___ives, ‘The general in com.,__d of an army has full ex____ive powers, I will stay at my post ‘until Tam com___ded to leave. You can ¢_____d my money, my services, and my life. 1 do not requite any reward for ex_...uting these tasks, In England and other omocratic countries tie judges and law courts, though exe.__tive authorities, are autonomous; the g...._.nds for thelr authority are the laws of the country, not instructions from a government whieh lisppens to be in power, The general ¢.___nded his officers to retwat,* but they disobeyed his com__nd and pursued the enemy a faculty In is general sense, a faculty mesns any human powes or disposition,** which may be the £__. ty of hearing, the f. y of digestion, the f__..ty of imagination, the f____ty of saying the right ching at the right time, the musieal fy. ete. Ina amore special sense, the f_. or human f..___ties re the most fundamental psychological (or mental) powers inherent in human nature; those reeagnized in older psychology were the will (or volition, see the next Word Study), intellect (reasoning power), and instinct. To these S. ', Coleridge added imagination, and it nigh be logical to add others, e.., sleep, dreaming, tie (the) will (to do ‘These wordsare associated with human will; purposes and projects. something, ete.) The willis the human, psychological force, faculty, or power which controls wishing. ae purpose, decision, intention, and choice; a snore technical name fori is volition cee Paychoogists ae doubtful whether the wits is eonseaus oF uncon leant at its source, but the mental processes or acts which it controls or activates are all e., wishing, intention, choice, decision, Free will is the power to choose, decide, have Purposes, ete., which every person inherently possesses but which is threatened by forces which compel a person to do whiat he does not himself wish or choose to do, especially by other people who prevent or hinder him from exercising (making active) his own will In the technical, psychological, sense an action is voluntary (4s cont rested with involuntary) when ic is controlled by the mental operations of the w ,..1, not by aulonomie reflexes*** or the autonomic (i2., involuntary) nervous system. Thus sid ‘retreat = go back; withdraw (used of an arn °*a disposition = an inherent or learned capacity for activity ofa certain kind, a tendency or power to act ina certain manner (or way) wader given circumstances (e.g., the disposition of water to dissolve in sugae). tn linguistics “mind,” “intellect,” ete, are suid Co be dpositional terms (a category perhaps fst introduced by Wittgenstein), insofar as they signify not activities but the capacity for activities ***autonomic reflexes = automatic nervous impulses, nt under the contro of higher centets of consciousness or group of soldiers) from a position 183unit 10 10.2 WORD STUDY ary muscle movements are those controlled by wishes and! purposes, and invol_.__ary souscle movements are those not directed by the mind but by unconscious rellexes. Note that ihe will,” “willing,” “volition,” “voluntary,” are dezived from the Latin word ‘The adjective volweary can be used In (uee other related senses. When contrasted with competted, voluntary means “not forced, compelied, or unduly influenced by other people.” An action in this sense is vol___ty when a person acts because he himself wishes fot chooses to aet in this way, not because he is obtiged or compelled to do so by others. In a related sense vol_____ry help, assistance, efe., sometimes means unpaid help, assistance, ete., (because a person who is not paid for his services is not obliged to give them). Ine derived sense a vol___ ary institution or organization is one provided, created or supported by vol._.__-ry action or support, i... xetion o¢ support given by individuals of their own free will, aot provided or ereated by government or state anthotities, A person hesitates, or hes.._.tes to do something, when he thinks nf doing it but is doubsful whether to do il. He is held hack from doing if by dauht, uncertainty oF indecisian, Hesitation is the action (or inaction!) of hesitating. Excessive hesitarion (asin the farnous case of Hamlet) can be ealled a disease of Une w 1 Aid is the action of heiping or help given, often by an organization for some general purpose. 7 «aid (someone or something) is o help, be of use to Uat person oF thing, of 10 contribute to (chat purpose, organization, ete), Examples: Some people believe that the universe is not dizeeted oF guided by will or purpose. John has a strong w___1@ sucveed, but litle capacity to do sa, The ot ofall our roubles is man's attempt to impose his own w.._1on hisenvironmeni. I is God's w.._L tbat men should exeseise their free w__ Is. The precise relation beiween the activities of human w__Is and other forms of activity isa difficult philosophical problems, A democratic government shoukd express the w___|ofthe people asa whote, His wife has no choracter orw__Jofher own, Diseases of the wean also be called moral diseases, ‘You eng.,.ed in this enter... se of your own fiee w___1. A person who m..._.gest0 go ‘woul food and drink for two weeks must have g strong w,.. |. Some people believe that the w.__L can be strengthened by sell-dise.,.._._ne, A social system that sup____sses freedom of choice may giver _¢ to diseases of the w 1, Some writers say that the younger gen..ration asa whole suffers from a disease of the w__.|; but perhaps they have Loo many alternatives on which to ex.___ise their w,._s, not too few. The king said that it was not his W.._1 that any of his subjects (ie., the people unter his ule) showkl st_.__ve. If people earnat see any good moral or social system to ¢__ fortn to, they will lack the Wl to ean, 1m. In place of the comp,..._ory school system he advocated a vol___any sy._.em. In many. societivs 1 marriage is a vol_.__ary contr__1 between two people. Buying and selling are vol__..ary trans___._jons. ‘Phe fist settlers in Australia were not vol.....ary immigrant they were transported to Australia asa pen.._ty for erimes committed in England Subm__.__,..1 40 the rule of invading powers is not vol... any sub. jon. We admire Gandhi for his vol____ary end___nce of poverty and suffering, ‘The Institute for Reclaiming Desert Land is supposted by vol_..ary efforts and contribu: sions, ‘This bridge was built by vol,.....ry labor. ‘The Society for Rural Prosperity isa vol..__ay organization, mainly finaneod by farmers. The closing of the eyes during sleep is invol___any. Digestion is process which is not under the control uf the wit is wot a WoL. ty process, 15aUNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY a category {@) publication an article (in a newspaper, ete.) journalist journalism We hes____ted to renow the contract with this firm because of the poor quality of their work in the ini_fal stages of the projeet. Dr. X h___.__ted to dingnose the disease a teancer because some of the sym___ms were incon..._tent with that disease. Afier some hes_..._tion he agreed to accept the rew__d; he had been uncertain, for prof___ional reasons, whether he should do so, ‘The government of Bolivia has received ad from the United States. This year our govenment decided to cut down for_.__m ad. His fiends refused to come to bis a_d At the time of Presidential clec___ns the p.__ties expect a_d from their supporters in the forts of vol.____ry work and financial contributions. ‘The states in the Fed___tion imvst give military a_d 10 a member state when attached by a foreign power. ‘The function of this committce was to a_d refugees in their application for foreign citizeiiship. am a loyal citizen of the Republic ane! my rst thought is 10 a_d my country in her time of need. (a) ln philosophy or abstract thought, a category is a highly general oF universal concept, a fundamental, controlling conception of inquiry: or a generat class oF concepts {b) Jn common usage, eat. nyis a class, The puspose of several ¢ sies of legal offense, otc.) or in order te make or show comparisons or distinctions (eg, blind children do not belong Co the same eat_____y as mentally deficient children). Often the kind of classification called a eutegory is one which is well established, put to practical use, publicly recognized, etc., though this is not always the FoUp, oF classification, noted or formed for alysis or fisting (e.g, there are three earegories of journalists; there are Examples: (a) The concept of relationship is a highly general eat___ys within this cut,______.y there are the universal subewt..._.._ ies of spatial relationship (in English designoted by prepositions), temporal rel ships, affective x ships ste as cause and effeet, logical r__ ships suck as consistency and implication, and so fon. The mast general themes of essays or connected passages fall within « few cat_...ries such s problem, historical narralive, systematization, itemized description of features, critical appraisal, plan or program of action, ete. The e_____ory of human fa includes all the main human powers and dispositions (b) In Britain, there are two main ¢_____._ies of lawyer, namely solicitors, who experts in the law, and barristers, who axe experts in the prosecution (.,, carrying aut 1 case in bebalf of the complaining party) or defense of cases in a court af law, Prom the point of view of agricultural development, land can be divided into variows ca_ ies, eg.,af_ble land, des__1, forested land, swanip, and so on, From a geo...ieal point of view c. sles will be formed according (o the mineral composition of the soil and surface rocks. The government recognize a number of ea... of persons entitled to public relief, e.g, old people, sick people, disabled persons (e.g, those who have fost the use of ani arm or leg), widows with dependent children, unemployed persons. Families can be classified as happy and unhappy, stable and unstable; but these cat ies are not related because some happy dante are unstable and some stable families are very unhappy. sy day books and newspapers re printed and published, The publication (peblishing) of books, newspapers, and pestodicalsis a vast Industey, The number of public issued by publishers increases ann___Hly. Anything which is pub shed is a pub__cation. n a newspaper or periodical, with its own subject and title or head e people who wiite art les for newspapers ant A separate passa is called an article. Jou 158UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY edit an editor fan) edition (of) the press peri__icals, or provide the material for them, Journalism is the name of the jour____ ists profession, and is also the name of the material written and produced by jour ists Writing produced by j_ ists isjou,,.__fem ‘There are three cat, _sies of jour.__ist; reporters, rewriters, and feature writers, Rep_...ters are thase who r_ post news and provide material fat a_..cles; rewriters are those who rewrite and edit (ie, revise and reshape for publication) material provided by reporters and news agencies. Feature writers compose ar__cles on particular topics of current (i, day-to-ay oF immediate) interest, or of general interest. The man in charge of a book, newspaper, or periodical, who decides what il shall eventually include and exclude, isthe editor. He decides and shapes the entire contents of the publication, ot merely the contents oF individual articles. An edition of a book is the (otal number of eopies printed al a particular lime. Sometimes aan ed___on of a book isa revised edi, sometimes not. A nowspajer ed ed on particular day may also have more than one & ion, e.g.,an eatlier anda later ed_______n,or special e 1s, for different parts of the country containing items of Focal interest in addition to dhe general news whieh is the same for all localities The newspaper industry, the newspapers and all those who work for them are called the press, Articles appear in the p__.ss, When there isa new play at the theater, oF an important meeting oF wedding, the p. are invited (in this ease the pross means newspaper reporters). Like the movies, radio, and television, the pss is vital inf___nee in a countey or city, a force which can shape public opinion. I is Detter to. have the p...._s as your friend than your enemy, Examples: Freedom of speech is end __._ered when publ_____tions are censored For the political opinions they contsin. J..__ralists are often blamed for paying more attention 1 dis..sters and shocking ine, ents than (© happy events ant favorable developmen but peshaps good news is inherently dull (.., uninteresting). One of our local newspapers has published a lending ar__cle calling on the government to ad._pt measures to check erosion and increase the area of cultivatable Jand, You should not have given such an important art_cle (0 one of the junior rewriters. The “Deily Star" isa socfalist newspaper, very r...__al of the admin,.___tion, The ed.tor of the “Daily Star” has devoted the Jatest issue of bis paper 1o an effort to get rd of a Cangressmans he is ace_sed of cor__ption and other undesirable practices. In the evening ed. jon of the paper the Congressman has replied to these charges In most counties the government ean com__} the press to supp....s6 news whose pub..__ation is held to be against the national interest, The p_ ss were invited to the cer___ny, but very few j____alists were present, It is difficult fora President to be €l_cted without the support of some sections of the ps. You will find an analysis of the votes in this district in the local p... ss. The p__.ss has pred_cled a vie ry by a lage maj.__ity for the President's party. Not all Ute points in his speech were rep___ted in the p___ss, Before the elections you can read the biog... ies ofall the loesl cand... tes in the local p__.ss. The freedom of the p....ss is prot__cted by the const. tion in| demo_.tie countries. In p__ss reports of the In|, the names of some of the wit sses were om_____ted, Several members of the pss Were present ine... *A publication is censored when it i subjected fo examination or inspection by a censor, ie., an office! empowered mine printed matter and prohibit publication on the grounds of the contents, 156UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY current The two most important meanings of eurrent (the adjective) aze closely related popular (a) In the fist sense, current events, she current etsis, current efforts to control nnpopular inflation, are happenings or events occuiring in or belonging to the present (ime or occurring at the time spoken of; similarly the ¢_____nt Issue of a newspaper or periodical is the most recent ang; the ni month or year is the aetual month, or year at the time written or spoken of. (h) Curren beliefs, theories, fashions, etc., ate those in general aeceptanec, use practice ((.e., prevalent) at the time spoken of in e_____nt use at most hospitals. The c____nt concep- samples: ‘This drug tion of a scientist as someone with special aceess fo @ spec. body of knowl edge may not be altogether correct. Many ¢,....._-nt ¥em_dies for colds whieh have witde sale do not have any effect on the organisms which give rise to colds. The ¢,..._.nt protest against the rel),_ms recently introduced by the government is not heing fully Teported in the p..ss. C__._.nt ends in mil_tary seience place great emphasis on elab___ate defense sysiems. C. {app,...ehes in edueational th_ ry are concerned with the extent 10 which children actually past. pate in elassroom procedures, and the ‘extent to which they are merely pas..__ve observers (or nonpartiel psa), Popular hus number of elosely selated meanings, all associated with the origin of the word, Le,, dhe Latin werd popus which means "the people.” (a) Popular = of oF relating to the general public, or to the people as a whole (e.g., popular government, truly p____at revolution) (b) Popular = adapted to the understanding, education, ele., of the majority (e.g. popular seience, a po... rsiyle, par drama) (c} Popular = originating among or composed or transmitted by the people (e.g the popular arts of storytelling and dancing) (@) Popular = current or widely accepted among ordinary people (ep., po.__at medicines, po_...ar beliefs) (©) Popuiar = wel liked, asenired or approved by many people (e.g. popular writer, apa hotel, a p. book, p_...arsongs, a p_____F means of transporte: tion) () Popular with © well liked or admired by {e.g., Coes Cola is p.._..ar with youn people.) The most frequent of these senses is (e), and the adjective unpopular follow’ this sense, A person is unp......_.ar when he is disliked by auny people. An idea is un.__lar when many people distike it or disapprove of i Examples: Demo____ie governments are not always pop___arin the sense of repre- senting the nation as a whole; this cannot be the ease when the ruling party hos only 4 savall may... ity or when Ue people are not consulted on major is_ues, he proposel (0 ins, I hydroelectric systems which would raise the level af lakes and destroy their naturat beauty has made the government un... far. You must learn to write in a more pop___r sty... (See sense (b)). The po_.._F idea that plants kept in a room at aight gene te carbon dioxide and dep ve hurnan beings of oxygen is, easy to disprove, (See sense (c)). Mr. Y, the singer, emi,.._ted to Australia, where he became very p, 1. The more p. ra career is, the more obst_. les are met with in its purs.__1; this is t© be seen in c__eers like pop singing ancl anthropological research, where an atmosphere of rivalzy and competition prevails, Rel___ ively un + carvers like hose of dentistry and undertaking (ie, preparing dead human bodies for burial) are Likely to be more prof,.able and provide greater see... ity. The 167UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY talent talented (an) amusem leisure to spare spare tension relaxed tense relax relaxatio stress ‘The lives of the earliest imm_._rants who settled in America must have been dr_.._tie and exciting. Daring my journey around the worli I hacl many colorful experiences and enc____ered many dra___ ie situations. The lives of exp___ers are usually full of dr____..cineidents. The lest days of this exp_....__tioa to an anexplored valley in the Andes were dr____._e. The ev, ual eoafrentation between the leaders af the ‘Wo armies took place in a dre way. He told a d______ie story of his sty__gle (0 s____ive on an uninhabited island and of his veal ree fro that place. AA talent isan innate (or partly trained, partly imate) haven capacity for superior performance in a specific activity, especially a creative or artistic activity. We can speak of aL... cot for musie, a mathematical t.-t,at,._nt for the violin, at... for sociability, a t____nt for gardening, for cooking, for making people Feel i home, for amusing small children, for acting, and so on. A talented person is one who has {L__nts,cither several _ntsor one 1... possessed ta an exceptional degree, Examples: Every human being is bora with ©. ain 1___._ats, but unless they are 11.__ned and cult, __ted he will not be able 40 express them and ex___eise them, Indeed many t___nts ave inhi__ted ersup.___ssed for various seasons a child may have parents who are un: Hic to his (____ats and do not ty to drew them out, Dr parents who are 100 ign___nt to kxiow he has them, of he may not be able 10 ex__ise them because of economic obst_eles. Their development may be hind by physical disabilities, Sometinnes people's (_..ots flourish in their private lives because they have never had an opportunity to exb....it hem in their professions or in public; for exaniple « woman with a tnt for teaching may have children who become famous because she ex..._sed her gilt on them, thotigh she never ewsned penny asa teacher Mrs. X is a highly ¢____fed act__ss, though she never became a prof___.ional. Some people with a ta__1 for poetry or narrative (storytelling) never prodiice books of iBeit ‘own, but become j____._ists, Some people who appear to have ani For making money are actually mathematical geniuses who never had an aea_____mie edneation, Mr. Xisa highly (ted young man, witha wide range of (nts, but he is nach too lazy to utilize them for practical purposes Anamusciment is any oecupation which amases people, an oseu pation without serious purpose which gives enjoyment, Hnterlainmenis are the kind of antusemsent specially organized or provided to amuse people, but am__ements alsa include activites with Which people amuse thenseives, such ss games, dancing, window shopping, playing with animals, People do (or can do) these things metely for annuserteut ie., for any setiows purpose but only to oseupy tennscles pleasantly Aun ments and enter. aments axe feisure oecupations. People need am ment and enter____ment to oee.._y their |__ sure, L_suie, or]... sure time, isthe free time or spare time (Lime left over from other activities) n61 required for work or the Fullitinent of duties. Im modem times b....re has been gained hy thousanxls of people who until recently had no time ¢o spare (= to give away, because not really needed) from work, Thisis the result of dhe mechanization of many processes whieh belore this had to be carried out by human labor, whether in factories or at home. Nowadays more people have more Gime £0 8..___e for _.._we activities, and they ca also sre more money for amusements,UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY “Many other words are d extend, a tendency, When people are working and per___ming their duties they often accumulate tensions, both in the physical and psychological senses of this word, fension is derived from the Latin yerb tendere* = to stretch, When a piece of string oF a lengt} of elastic material is pulled at both ends, it is in a state of ten___n. ‘When itis no longer pulled in opposite ditections (by opposing forces) or is pulled with less force the ten____ is relaxed, in other words, fension disappears or becomes less. When a string hangs loosely by one end there is no tension, When itis pulled hard in both directions there is powerful |_._jon; when itis pulled more gently the t..siom is rel_xed ‘and when it is not pulled at all the (__slon is completely re__ xed. The wo ‘The muscles of the body become tense (stretched) when work is being dene, and are +____.xed when the work is finished, But often some of the t____ion remains, and people try to got r_d of it by resting or doing special physical exercises or by reluxing in other ways, ee. by playing games, which require masc__ar effort but 1__ax the muscles used when working, oF do not use then in the same way. Because of the physical t___ ions ace... lated during work, peopleseek physica! relaxation when work is finished In their work and in their emotional, domestte lives people also ace Je psychological Fenton ar stresses, What do we mean hy this? Stress is the Feeling of pulling and pres- ‘with tens.._1, People experience stresses when pressure is put on them and they res_.st this pressure. Pyople often feel asif they are being pulled nee. Even if they do not outwardly tes_ st, they inwastlly ves. st to do something in two dliteetions ‘ther people's domination or influence, or the foree of ace. sations and other unpleasiat tings which ase said Co them, Fear also creates str_sses and (ions, because peo ple often feel like renning away or es,,..ping from unpleasant things, bel other pressures (e- economic pr_...108) keep them working, sesp._.itg, or doing things they are afraid to do, They often have to lkle their fear, and this gives rise (0 further ten___ns. So people seek not only physical ut also psychical rel_.__tion, They ray not be able tor___x their ps__....___eal 1... ns in “real” life, but they can do so by reading novels, watching movies, or playing games. Making jokes about our fears and othet te___ions is often a very good method of celax_._ion, 1 helps us to express our feelings ina harmless feshion. Hard and difficult physieal work (e.g., climbing a mountain) i also good way of rel__ing psychological t,.. sion, Perhaps the ceason it has this effect is that, as we say “It takes our tninds off our troubles,” in other words, it occupies the mind with efforts of another kind and so releases one of the opposing forces which bring about the ten_ ion. Mechanical work which requires litte effort and presents no problems does not have the same effect. Anything which rel_._ses the mind from its conf__ets is a forsn oft Other Examples: The t a violin string is necessary for the vibr____on af the siting whieh produces sounds; a loose string canuot vib te. Political ton is due 10 the sts_sses which are sot up (created) when hostile nations or groups have agg___ssive intentions but (lor various reasons) hesit_te or are unwilling to act on their intentions The state of ¢__sion whieh at one time exis,...d between the U.S. and Russia was called “The Cold Wer.” The telif of pol_._.._al sion is br_..__ht about when host__ity ceases, either because the attention of one of the opp...nts is drawn to another rival or enemy, oF because one of the opp.....nis attacks anal overcomes the ather (so That the ‘opposing forces are no longer balanced), or because they find a common purpose aud become friends, or because they are both des_..yed. Te__.___n within a family is often rel_._ved for elim_____ted when the family asa whole is threat __ ed by an externa} force ived from tendere (Latin), for example, # tent (Which is « stretched piece of material), tention 160UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY status rank privilege “in session Many doctors and physica science instructors adv... physical ex____ises as « form of ph_...cal relex____n, ‘There are also psyeh_._jeal ex.___isos and techniques for xing the mind, Stx_sses and t_____ns ean be e]__ved or rel__sed if thoughts can be dep....ved of their urgency and emo. sign.___anee. The eat___ry of workers who stand most in need of ro__xation is that of faelory workers, who are obliged to do work which is exhausting, mechanical, and unintesesting so dha it causes extreme physical fatigue (Le, redness) but does nothing ta rel__ve psy____._eal str_sse. Some people seek x_____.tion in games, others in going to the movie or watching tel_...ion, others in drinking or drugs, others in conversation with their friends or families. One of the best forms of r__xation isan absorbing occu tion. In @ perfect society there would be no distinction between work and ve. xation, because all our activities would be simultaneously productive and (in relation to each other) re. xing AA {nse situation isa situation in whieh there is {__sion between people (as rivals, enemies, €tc.)and no one knows exactly how the t_._ sion will be rel__ved. People feel tse ‘when they have strong fechings (usually unpleasant ones) which they axe not in a position torelease or ex ss, People who have a lot of |__._ure are those with a fot of time to sre, People with, imiich 1... wre ave usually w.....tby, though in ou industrial civilization people may have |___ure not because they are rich but because they are unemployed. Under Geveloped nations do not have enough money tos re for the support of their unem yee sick people, or old people, John complet dua he had no se time. Edon’t have enough cloth 10 s_,_¢ for dress for you In its broadest sense status is « cxtegory applying (o persons and distinguished from character, ctfgins, sox, age, ete. (though sex arid age may be included in a person's legal st_tus). In its broad sense a person's st__us is determined by his position, level, and role in relation to others in 2 social ones, community, class, or profession; thus we speak of the st_.s ofa doctor, of «high court judge, ofa father, etc. Since stares refers t0 a level in society (rank) 4s well as to sole, a derived meaning of status is “high or superior rank.” Thus we speale of “connections which give a man st_.us,” and af “s__us symbols," ie., symbols of high Fan or standing in society. A third meaning of stars i 4 person's legal condition, deter mining the legal calegory or categories which efine hinn; hese may include his sex, age, ‘mental capacity or incapacity, criminal career or sbsence ofa criminal career, oceupai and nationality. A man’s legal st___s determines his le__t relations to the state und the relations with other people which the law permits him to have. When a nsn’s stares is determined by a higher or lower position in x group, and a ttle js siven (0 this position which indivates a scale of degrees, we can refer to his rank. Thus a general is bigher in r__k than a eaptain and a eaptatn h k than a lieutenant Ina university the rk of a professor is above that of an assistant or associate professor ‘These titles mark degiees of st...s; they are rks, —-S and 1__k enjoy certain privileges, ie, rights granted as 28, oF favors. Thus members of legislative bodies (such as parliaments or national assemblies) often enjoy the privilege of freedom from arrest (0x: in criminal eases) while their assembly isin session,* tn England, bishops enjoy the Pr___ege of sitting in the House of Lords. But many maxes states grant speci Often people of high st. spevial benefits, avant Wing together and doing official work 161UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY set up pri____eges to all their adult citizens (because of their citizenship), Sometimes parents brant pri s2es lo their elder children which they do not give to the young eg. the right to go to bed when they like, The contexts in which a privilege can be used are fimited in comparison with the contexts in which a ' privilege.” following sentence patierns for “a right” and A RIGHT The constitution gives (awards, grants) certain rights to every adult eit ts We do aot always exercise our rights, enjoy (or have) certain No one can take away (deprive us of 0 rights What rights did they claim (ask for)? Everyone (or every adult citizen) enjoys the right 10 fee speech. Everyone enjoys the right to say what he thinks. TThe right to freedom from slavery is universal {a universal right), Ho claimed the right to bring up his owe chikiren The right to a roasonable standard of living hight in mapty cout. Examples: You misuse your st An assistant professor is lower in ¢ sit is used. Note the A PRIVILEG! The const ion gives (awards, grants) certain privi__gos to every adult citizen, We all enjoy (or have) We do not always ex_, priv___ges ertuin priv___ ges se our No one can take away (deprive us of) our privi__ges What pr_..__._._.ges did they elaim (ask for)? Every adult citizen enjoys the pr gs OF free speech. (Note that a “privilege” is never universal, ‘and cannot be Followed by “to.” Note also that “a privilege” is always acti never ideal.) asa government official when you accept br..bes X than an assosiate professor, When awarding pri_____.ges lo siucents, you should not be governed by considerations of their parents? rk. He has the live in a manner (= way) appropriat cevime because of his legal st_ sas child they may have some of (he pt si____s, he dislikes Iu__ry and lives very simply. People of high r pr___ porous than those of lower st___s. Mis pling effect on a mar For st__.s may have a eor was merely that of an onlooker. Your st in the affair. (n Java people’s multiple ¢ k of second ligutenant (i2.,2n army rank). You must to your st The legal st ls, end Foreigners depr_ves them of the right to vote, though in some countries es granted to normal adult citizens. In spite of his s, Poter cannot be tr__d for the sof children, niad peopl k are sometimes less sis only that ofa peasant. Ambition dls. My st____sin the dispute sas the boy's uncle gives you a special interest Is and stat ses reflect an ela, te social structme, Set up, tivo-part verb, fay the following important senses (a) nase id pla wv in a high position (ser up a flag, set up a sigael, set up. mark to shoot at) (b) to get something eeady and in position for use of performanos (ser up a tent, set ups ichine, set pan experiment) (6) to put in operation asa way of easnin (@) found or institute (ser up a school, set up a hostel one’s living (get up a business, a store) ct up a religious organization, set up firm, set up partnership, set up a committee for the conservation of local animal species) (c) cause (a state or e condition) 40 exist or come into effect (teF up tension, set up vibration in the wires) 162UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY exercise the intellect intellectual an intellectual To exercise (something) ist bring into activity, ativate, or aetively use a part of the body, a human power or faculty, a talent or capacity, a right or authority, ete, The object of the verb may be an organ or disposition naturally or inherently possessed (a kg, muscle, the will, ete.) or possessed through the authority of other people (a right, a privilege, etc). It nay be a power over oneself (eg, self sosteaint) or & power over others (e.g, authority, domion, discipline). ‘The most important gramnoaticl objets following the verb ©%_.cse are listed below (a) exercise a part ofthe body, an organ (the leg, the arms, the abdominal muscles the digestive apparatus, tc.) (b) exereise a faculty or capacity innately or inherently possessed (the will, the intellect, one’s talents, one's imagination, 2 capacity, ete.) (6) exercise acquired of learned powers (skill, strength, ete.) (@) exercise powers granted by others (rights, privileges) (2) exercise powers over oneself or requiring self-contiol (care, caution, restraint, courage, Patience, endurance, tolerance, fortitude, virlue, determination: self-control, self-tiseipline, selfreliance, solf-enial,seif-zestraint, sell-possession, self-command) (0 exercise powers over other people (authority, power, control, dominion, diseipline Note that all these words except “diseiptine™ can be followed by aver.) All these usages require a person 9s grammatical subject. We ean, however, speak of a task, project, ete., which exercises the mind or iarelicct. Note also that the vert “exert” implies “exercise and effort,” so that we speak of exerting one's sirength, one's will, one's authority, or of ex_ting an n effort to s0 something, tence over someone, or ex.__in Intellect, or the intellect, is human reasoning power or capacity, and is one of the “faculties” under which the older psychology categorized human dispositions, When we speak of int_______et or intelleetual powers, we often refer to the “higher” types of reasoning such as ‘mathematical reasoning or reasoning with abstsaetions, We can speak of int____.__.ual functions, faculties, processes, or activities. We ean spes of in______tual analysee or distinetions; of int J evaluation, We can speak of in __.-Linfluence or persuasion. We can speak of an i, Problem), question, or solution. We ean speak of ae in J atmosphere or environment, ot an int________._l civilization or culture. We can speak of an int _..-} man or woman, We can speak of int______....nal saisfaetion and int “Linterests, or a person's in Linterests. We ean speak of a person's int _ background or upbringing or training. We ean speak of a person's int ~al capacity or ability, or his int 1 grasp or understanding of something, We can speak of a person's int_ I conscience, standards, or integrity, or of his in -! goals or ideals. We can speak ofa person's int____ual progress or deterioration, ‘Am intellectuals not merely an intelectual person (4 person with int Sel capacity) but, in modern usage, either (a) a person devoted to study and fundamental thinking on abstract issues or (b) a person devoted to literature and the acts especially at higher levels or (c) person engaged in mental work as distinguished from manual labor oF practical activities or (d) a member of a class whose forward-looking and ofien: nonconformist views on society, polities, and world affats are expressed in periodicals, the press, etc, and are influential, An int J may be one ofthese things or any combination of them--perhaps all of them. When somebody says “I am not an intellectual” he often nveans “I ama practical man, } atm not intestad in abstract issues, 1am not interested inthe “iigher” forms of arto literaue.” 163UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY determined (to) determination caution cautions cautiously take prec (phrase) 2 precattion assign to an assignment ANID Hs not necessirly a wise person; we do not always expect Wis... from him, because w_____mv arises not only (and not mainly) from int_.___ual reasoning or nonconformis! views or knowledge of the arts bul from a person's experience and the way he uses and upplies I. A person is determined to do something when he has devided to do 1 and when notlung will shake his decision, A determined person is one who fitmnly decides to do something fe him “change his and raintains his decision in the Fave af apposition ind.” Determination is the opposition of “hesitation.” aig il a Examples: Det ced poople ave usually people with stzong wills, ie, sttong-willed people. He was dod to get the money, even if he had to r_b a bank to get it To succeed in life it is not suf... jent Lo be det_____ed or strong-willed; one must also have faa, cap. ity, and la ing, To be a secvesstul man Four things are nec ___sysia__at,det__nation, opp______ity, and self__ness. Tom is det ‘ed t0 use his fe_ sure in.» more sensible way in future. John was det__..__.ned nat Lo pay the fe, even if he had to go to prison instead, hecause he believed fe was suffering fiom an inj_tice. Lady Macbeth wi husband to mu. the king, q ed 10 per__ade her A passon who exe .___ses enuition 07 who is eautious or who acts oF proceeds eautiously is one who is very careful how he acts when there is danger, or when something harniful cor unpleasant might ovcur if he did not tuke great care, C._ 1om is necessary when there we dangers or possible dangers, for example when working among elvet real installations where eleetsic eursents ean give sevore or fatal shocks, or when hunting wild animals. peak ¢.____._..sly when they wai hostility. The ex_._cise of c......on isa form of self-control, because when peaple net or speak __sly they nvist be conscious of what they are doing; sak as they would normally and nates act ot speak. Cautiousness has nothing to do with hesitation; « person may be very det. mine Prope also act an to avoid shocking people, bnurting their fe hey carmot act and and yet ca_tious, People take precautions or take pree__.ions against something happening when they adopt measures which will prevent something harmful or injurious from happentag, Nowadays ‘people who clrive automobiles or re in them (ake wasious pr____tions against accidents F they are drivers they study the sulee of the rond to learn how 10 apply them, end make sure that alt the components of the car are in good working order. Drivers and passengers ay went seat belts, and as 4 pr____tion against finaneial loss oF physical injury 1 usually ins..re Uhemselves, Rice and other cer.__Is will det,...._rale and decompose if they are allowed to become moist. Asa pt_tion against det____ration and decom._____tion, farmers dy their rice well before storing it and they store it in a dry place. As. pre__._.tion against destruetio of the sice by rats, farmers make sure tat there are no holes or openings in the rooms or ‘containers in which they store if, People who are in the habit of losing thely keys sometimes: (pr. ns agains! losing them by hanging them around their necks or attaching ‘diem (0 siring tied around the waist (a) A task, a role, a job, a responsibility is assigned Co someone (we assign a tusk, ote.,f0 somone) when itis given or entrusted 10 someone as a responsibil or as somethi is expected to perform or carry out. A ease IS as__gned 10 arbit__tion when itis to the arbitrators to setsle 164 1 |UNIT 10, 10.2 WORD STUDY condwet wthod cof conducting) a chairman preliminary aremark yuneement nounce (that) (b) A person is assigned ro a posta joh, 2 task, etc., when he is appointed to that post, job, etc., or given that tusk to do, (©) People and things are as__gned to cestain categories, groups, ete Examples: Actors and acts_sses do pot always enjoy the ros which are assigned to them, When a certain legal st__e i ass___ed (0 a person if may, under some circumstances. be difficutt to change i1. You have not carried out the duties which were assigned to you, ‘When the workers threat__.¢1o strike, their wage demands were ass___ned to arb___ ation. He has been ass__ned to a post in a mental inst_.._tlon. He wasa___.._ned to the job af checking the insulation, The Labow Party as____ned Mr. X to one of the Manchester lectoral districts as its Parliamentary cand.__te ‘You have classified him as an editor but [ would not ass__n hin co that category, Marijuana is sometimes ass__..ned to the ¢a.,.____ay of dangerous drugs. Fle said that this substance was # metal, bur we had ass_aed it 10 another group of elements, When someone is assigned to a post, a job, ete., we ean speak of his assignment 10 that post job, ete, More commonly, ax assignment isa task bra pieve of work thal is assigned (0 someone; for example, a teacher gives as6_.___ments (a his students (pleees of work or exercises thal he expects them to do}; at he beginning oF the working day the editor Uifferent ass____ments to the reporters on his staff. Sometimes representatives ave abroad on special as._.__ments,eg., 10 conduct trade talks or other negations. or conference neosing People conduct (i¢,, cirry out) a business enterprise 4 meeting of representatives or Hiclivituals for diseussion aid exchange of opinion) when they manage and direct it. The man who con... cs an experiment is the nian whe directs it and carries it out, Note that the object of comduct is seldom (not usually) a permanent organization; it is, rather, an enterprise oF mesting or project of limited duration, sweb as a Aliscussion, a conference, x seminar (a small meeting of experts or students), an experiment, 4 training school or summer scliool (not a permanent school), a radio program, a course of. studies, ete. The conduct of a neeting, experiment, elc,, is He way iL is con.._-cted oF the action of con... ting it. The chairman o'a meeting or conference is the person uppointed to ¢__._ot Ht. The ch_____.man of a committee is the person app......ted fo con._.1 the meetings of the © thee. Before the main business of a con____nee hegins, the ch_.___man or some other person {invited to do this by the eb ....man) usually makes a short preliminary (e., introductory) speech, or makes a few pre__nary remarks- in other words he says few things by way ‘of introduction, A s___rk is something which is said in passing, not in a very formal or connected manner. The eh__.__man also nuakes whatever announcements are necessary for example he may ann__nce the time of the next meeting, or the names of the ehiet speakers, or reasons given fos absence by some people invited to be present, To an_...n1e@ something is (o state something or make it known officially and publicly, Sometimes ann____centenis may appear in the ps for example, the goverment may ann. _ nee rise oF a eut in taxes, People who introduce television and radio programs are called announcers; radio and television an, neers also make commercial ante contents read news summasies snd sports news, identify the radio station, ete 165UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY recommend (that) recommendation object (to) an objection insist (on, that) a delegate = a representative to a conference 1e = to give an outline of; to give x preliminary brief acco 40 out S.C. con_.....fed a farmers’ con_____.nov in Delhi. The Examples: Last month UN. chait___ was Mr. Bhatnagar. He invited the Prime Minister to open the ¢_ and make a few primary 1__1ks. She welcomed the delegates warmly and praised the farmers for recent good har__sts, She promised mare tr_..tors on loan to small farmers, and fer____izersat low priees. She hoped there would be a substantial increase in d__ty farm products. Then the ch___man nade bi anm__nvements, He utlined™* his propossis for the c.__._.ct of the goneral meetings and seminars. He won need several dramatic performances that would be given for the ent___tainment of the del gates. Mrs. X made rude 1___rks about the acl_rts and ac.._._sses, Students wishing to enter the institute must take a pre ary examination, There will bea p. ary tex toe r ts. The construction of the new university is stil in its pe ary stage (i.e, not the initial stage, but the stage before construction has actually begen), The President has just ann__nced the resignation jving up of their posts) of two eabinet menibers. Yesterday the date of the official inspec___n of the factory was an,.....ced, The an__ncemsent of the def (of the Moldavian army eame as a shock {o him, Ti wasan._... ned in the radio nows that the Antarctic exped tion had reached its g__Isafely. According to the ann__.eer, the ters tory visited by the ex__.tion never been ex_._...red before. Two scientists have ann..__ced in “Nature” their discovery of the basée structure of p0,..._ns. ICs often the privi__ge of radio a cers to be the first 10 commn,....eate news of vital interest and importance to the whole nation. The new p___.e. de for dangerous driving will come into force next week and its details will he an At these words signify acts of speaking or writing, When 2 man recommends a person (eg. for a job) ke says that the person ts worthy, aceeptable, suitable, ete, (for the jab. When a man ¢ nds. thing (e.8., medicine) ke says that i€ is worth using or trying, hat itis acceptable. A measure, a plan,a scheme, etc,,isr_ mended when itis put forward ((n speech or writing) as Worth adopting, fit to be adopted or tried ‘Recommendation is the act of recommending someone or something; ¢ recommendation is an act of this kind, in speech or writing (it may be in the Form ofa letter) We object to something (a person's behavior, statement, a plan,a proposal, ete.) when we strongly oppose it or show that we dislike i in words or argument. An objection is an act cor example of objecting, When we raise objections to something, we object fo it. Note that the nouti following object 10 always signifies something done, said, or made by human beings, or at least something under human control. Thus if I “object ¢o my breakfast” Lam really opposing and criticizing the people who provided my breakfast and it “abject to. your dog's behavior” Lam really objecting to your behavior in not keeping your dog under control, ar in not having trained it property A comment isa remark e n seen, 1e4d, heard, or spoken af, When somebody comments on something he makes a remark expressing his opinion about what bas been seen, heard, read, or spoken af; and in doing so he dr aitention to it, A special meaning of w eomament is a nole or observation intended ssing an opinion about what has b of a proposed course of action or study 166UNIT 10 10.2 WORD sTuDY Exercise on recommend, etc, (Followed by that with a should clause) Make sensible sentences from the following table I in m Vv v vl We Fecommended thatthe magazine shoukl_be extended The delegates suggested he taws be forced to confess their The court thought the USA be harvested immediately Some journalists proposed the period for be edited by anbitration a geologist The popular press believed the relief be properly committee entertained One member of sod the murderers be assigned to the committee arbitvation Labor union leaders He gests pay what they owed My encle advocated a team of be reformed experis ‘The ecologists the peasants intervene ‘The Republican the wheat administer party crop the funds Representatives the ease execute the of the immigrants explain, illustrate, oF criticize the meaning of something i & book or a piece of waiting Often such ¢_.___mis are found at the bottom of the page and are called footnotes. (A commentary isa systematic series of explanations or interpretations ofa piece of writing, 8... comm__ary on “The Gita” or on Milton's “Paradis Lost, 1 insist on doing something when Iam det, ned to do it und say and show that Lam et_.mined, When 1 ins__t on a course of aetion I hold fiemly (0 it and will not allew anything to get in my way, | res_._{ any opposition. Whe | insist that something is true | per__stin saying that it is tow inthe face of all opposition; 1am det,_ned to get ay view accepted, or atleast | am det__.mined not to change my view. To bis. _t on something can also meun to bold firmly to an arguinent, an opinion, ete Examples: Seveial delegates at the eon_..__nee s€e._,.__nded thal much greater avtention should be paid to isrigation and dri.._ge, Visitors to dhis country have com....ted op the heavy pen_ties for relatively minor of ses, such as beg land searing one’s heair long (by males), Mr. X has been critic ed for ree ding his nephew for the post. The press has rec___.._._ded that the post af High Court Judge should only be as___ned to men of proved integ_ ity, Some of the del... tes com.._.nted on the efficient way in whieh the con... ene was cond... ted. We have ree 6a different Jocation for the factory ng 167UNIT 10 10,2 WORD STUDY | alie deceive deceit (a) deception conceal concealment Officials ins.__.¢ thet special pre__.tions be taken for the President's visit; they int on a carefully prepared route, the right of police to enter any building along the r__te, : the use ofarmed veh_cles G.¢,, veh eles equipped with weapons), and the exe_._.._n of members of the public and the pr._ss ftom the President's imm___ jate entourage those surrounding him). The President himself com___nts that itis wise to be ¢a__ious, but that itis impossible to take pr ons to cover every possible eventuality, ‘The conmmiltee ins__t _._ prof_____al standards of pre__sion ancl sk__lin the work. ‘The doctor ins....ed on a change in d__.1 for his patient, He in_____ed that the earlier dligg_____is of this patients condition was mistaken. Ee in____ted that all his insts__tions be strictly eartied out, The specialist com __nted on the highly toxic substances that he had discovered in some mem......nes when he had anal._zed the tissues. He seid that even tiny amount of these substances would be fatal, and ins....ted on Further invest......tiea to re cal the origin of the poisons. The patient ins_._.ed ___ remaining at home, (hough his diseass was infeeti__s ed hospital tre__ ment. Any further cont on the con._._of of the war might seer to be unnecessary, in view of what has been said already; everyone Knows that the entire con___et of the war has been dis_....na0s for nur prestige (ie., ow honor and reputation), The author's cents on his own Work are more interesting than his critics’ ©_._..ts. He was aee__tomed to writing co ....nfs in the margins (spies at the sides of the pages) of the books that he fear), There were some aly.se ¢....__tsen the food provided for the del___tes. ‘Aan telis lie when he says something which is no} Lue with the intention of dees his hearer, Le., with the infeation of making him believe whal is not true. There is an tloment of deceit in any speech or action intended to lead people away from the truth, ee. when someone pretends that he likes you but does not really like you. Decew and deception booth mean the act af deceiving, but dee _ption refers only to the act oF (0 a particular deceitful action, while deceit can also refer fo the quatity of deceitfulness in When someone (on purpose, with intention} conceals (hides) the truth from another, oF con._....15 his motives, or his tue feckings he dee__ves the other person; he practices, dec._ption, even though be may have good reasons for doing so. People who tell Les, always intend to dec__ve, though they may fecl obliged to do soy a doctor, for example, may feel ob,_..ged to tell n mother that her son is going to live, when he knows her son will die. Note that the ineaning of conceat is almost exactly the same as fides these two words can nearly always be substituted for each other; conceal is however slightly more bookish, formal word Concealment is the act of hiding or cone ling, Exaraples: A journalist of integrity will never write or publish a Le, though he m: sometimes be guilty of dec_ption by cone,.._ing part of the truth. We people by omi,...ing cts as well as by telling |..s. Sometimes fo cone___| facts because the zovernme! When we con_.._T something we hide iC and cover it up so that people cannot see it know it; when we rev... something we uncover if so that it ean be seen and kno cone.__ling is the rev._rse of rev_.ling. C_.uipt people aften have bad conse....nces, ‘sometimes they are sk led in con. ling their motives even from themselves. People who cannot tol__ate dec.._t in othersare often experts in dee._..ving themselves, Nowadays many people tend to ad_____te and ap___ve of dec_.tion provided it has a prof___ble oul___¢, such as suecess in a comm____ ial enter_ise. requests or orders him not to re__al them, 168,unit 10 10.2 WORD STUDY armed bear arms a contest achallenge challenge adebate surrender (to) surrender conquer All these words ave associated with or ean be associated with conflict, and some of them especially with war, which is armed conflict between two parties or groups on a large scale usually at the national level. People are ar_ed when they bear (i., carty) weapons. Arms re weapons, nowadays usually guns, machine guas, ete. (When we wish to include bombs and other weapons not carried by ar_ed men, we usually speak of armaments), Note that arms i this sense is always phos Other uses of bear, Note: The verb bear may mean “carry,” “endure,” ete., but the contexts in which this verb is used are restricted. The Following usayes are fairly common (a) ( carsy, bear a load) ey, Dear a weight, bear ans, bear weapons, beat gifts, bear greetings Grom), bear a message () (6) ( endure sometining unpleasant or burdensome) & g., bear pain, bear suffesin sorrows, bear discomfort, bear poverty, bear etuelly or unkindness or ill Heatment, bea bear a burden froma natural sounee) produce somethin shear one’s @ pt something as a responsibility, ete.) ey. ear the blame for something, bear the responsibility (for), hear the guill(ol), A contest is any competitive struggle or struggle for superiority or mastery whose aim (For both parties) isa victorious conclusion; con.._.st can be won or lost (like “a battle”), oF its outcome can be inconclusive ar undecided, Jn eaves Gites an ated const was sometimes initiated by a challenge, ic., by 2 threatening invilation to fight and decide the issue, Nowadays this practice is still eared on in games, where one tearm (e.,a tennis or foothall team) will challenge another to a contest, Boxers (men who fight in sport with loves on their hands) and wrestlers (men who use their bodies 1o Hight with, as 4 sport) also issue ch..__nges. A debating team may also ch,......nge snother team toa debate, A debate isa con_,_st in the form of an argument between two sides or teams. In modern War, armies sokdom issue ch ges. To do so would give their opponents the opp. ity lo prepare themselves for the str__ gle or occupy a favorable postion. Nowadays an armay that intends to fight a battle prefers to ret_in the adv. tage by cone___ing ils int, tions ‘An army surrenders when it gives itselt up to an opposing army, ie, when it gives up its own power or autonomy and submits f0 another power, A man sie. ndees his rights, his priv.....ges, his property, his poss.,.__ ions, when he gives chem up. Sometimes people are made to s___._.nder their 1__k or st_._us, for example whien there isa revolution; but most people are not anxious tos, cer the advan__gecand bent which they der_vé from bigh st__us, Surrender (noun) is the act of suitendering, The s der ofan army often means the con,___sion of a war ‘To conquer an army, difficulties, opposition, fears, ete, is to overcome or defeat thems the verb conquer however (in contiast 10 "defeat" implies an impressive, significant victory and one whieh is relatively perananent. The abject of conguer ean be (a) an army, an enemy, ele. (b} opposition of any kind (ec) nbstacies, difficulties (l) fears, jedlousy or other unpleasent feelings. For (¢) and (d) “eonquer” or “overcome” can be used, but not “defeat Exumples: AL the Olympic games nations ch___nge each other to con,__sts of strength and ply, cal skill, Those who eng_ge in these con... sts are highly trained athletes (e., people skilled in physical exercises, sports or games). Most of them are spec. ists, that is to say they are skilled in the ex. cise of a patticulat phy. eal skill, One of the eX,_.____ses af the Olympie games consists in lifting and bea. ing very heavy weighs. 169UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY neutral neutrality neutralize nally (an) aliance allied (to) In some counties adults are per__tted to pur__..se and b__r-a_ms for their own det __ se and protection, o: without having Lo state their purpose. In these countries ‘he police are usually a_med. ‘A war ends when one of the hostile armies is eon_ered by the other, and sur___ders its nue and _.ms to the vicl_._ ious enemy. An army which ref___s to sur__._der ay be quickly of grad____ly dest....yed In dem. ic countries el,__tions are held, which take the form of eon___ts between cand__..tes for "seats" in Parliament or Congress. The can..._te who sec_res the largest number of votes is the vietor in this con.,..._t. When a candidate is el___ted to a leg___fative body such es Parliament o Congress ne will take part in further “sts, ie, in deb_tes on issues of national Importance. These deb_tes are not ‘aca____i¢ arg. ments but arg._tments whose outcome is @ practical dec....ion, such as the 1e) thon of ave_tance of a proposed law, or a dec..ion on x ¥___al point of fo___gn pol__y. In some sports, such as boxing, the obj....tive of the contestants is to sec_re as many points as possible, Those who fail Lo sce_.re many points in the early stages of the const have to with. w from i Sometimes the int__vention ofa major power in a con, ..st between tWo minor powers Jeads to the w._.. drawal or suz__.der of one of the minor powers, but this does 10! always happen. A nation whichis fighting for its freedom res__ts opp..._sion by a suip__tor power and does not easily ser____er (@) A newteal power, nation, country, group, ete, is one not engaged on either side in she cont_stin question, {¢,, not assisting either of twa oF more contending parties. Ne_._ral ters. ory is ter___tory not involved in host__tvs. A petson who remains n___ral in ‘a struggle (sometimes called a rewiral) is one who does nat participate in it, ie., who does not join in it or take part in if, who is inactive in relation to this p conflict Neutrality is the stute of being neutral in these contexts. (b) In chemistry, a neutral substance is one which is neither acid nor alkaline {€)In physies, a nentral particle is one which is not electrically charged (2) In vations contexts, neutral may mean occupying a postion midway between extremes; thus (in phonetics) the tongue is an. position when its postion between extremes. arestin (@) To nentralize something is to destroy or coun._....act its activity or effect; thus an enemy force is n when its effectiveness is reduced or destroyed so that it tan no longer part___pate in the struggle. An argument is n______.ized when its clfectiveness is coun,,...acted by other arguments in sich a way that it no longer has any effect ___alizod when itis mad (OA chemical substance yemieally n__tval (@) An cleeteically charged thing is neu ___ized when itis deprived of Its electric charge by the combination of equal positive and negative quantities (ih) Anally, in the general sense and in the context of war or political associations, is someone (occasionally something) assuclated with another as x helper Examples: The teacher should always be the student's a,._.y, never his enemys Britain, and the US.A. wero a____sin the 1940-1945 war 170UNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY rational rationally {na siifar sense nations may be allied (1e., associated in order to help each other) by ceonomic agreements, or by a common purpose; in World War If Britain and her a. ies were called the alfed powers, Brilain was allied f0 Americ. {nthe stme sense aa alliane is an association for mutual help between 1wo families, states, parties, organizations, or individuals. Thus we can speak of an al___nee between labor unions, between church and state, between industry and government, beiween France and Britain, between two political leaders, ete () Ina specialized sense, plants or animals related to each other by genetic or by evolutionary links s1e ealled ates, We sometimes speak of a fanny alliznce (i.¢.,a lationship of Hkeness in qualities) between 'hings which seem to be alike and have a common source, e.., between primitive drama aed priunitive ritual All senses, ¢__ied sciences, a_._.._d subjects, ad topies, vd metals, ele are those which have important common characteristics or common properties, A rational argument, analysis, iden, opinion és one based upon reasoning or logic, At al policy, explanation, ete, isa reasonable, sensible ane; but with the added implication that i cin be defended in a togial, intellect way (not only for being practical). A ravional person is one who his al ideas, r____ al opinions; but in some contexts, a1 al Iman is anyone who is not ierational, ie, any man who possesses reasoning powers and can tse them. A man argues, behaves rationally when he argues anil behaves in et al Examples: Politicians do not always argue t_fonaily; theit app__ts often to the emotions tather then to reason. Liberals believe in the wie of al persion rather than force. People who act only on imp. cannot be called: 1. People wha are ‘ghly #...____are sometimes too cons_ous af their own sup ity to be tol -ant of people who are merely reas__..ble. Wise people do not form their opinions purely on #1_____al basis; they give some weight to their general imp... sions an feelings about tuations. Her husband asked her ¢0 aban, __ her aggre__ive attitude and sna 2e the sitvation za___ally, but she aec....ed him of using logic as an excuse for his lack of sym_._y and unwaltingness to see her point of view. Human relationships cannot be 12.. ly ¢¥_...ated and 1a___._al altempts to change them are usally a waste of ‘ime, Pop__ur beliefs about foreign cultures and ways of life are not always very tal We discriminate objects when we matk or perceive ther distinguishing features, or pick thei ut anid recognize (or identify) them on account of their distinguishing features. ‘Thus in the slarkness it may be difficult to diser (© fuces in a esowd, We discriminate between things, people, et., when we distinguish between them, often by making critica! \istinctions for example it is sometimes difficult to diser_____ te between a careless inistake and a mistake that js merely ace__._otal, Discrimination is the act of diser ting, ©... “He does not show much dise, fon in his choice of books"; “The eye is capable of much finer disc___.___tion of detail than people realize” Ina specal sere discrimination isthe actor practice of disoriminating accovding to categories rather than according to the characters, qualities, etc, of individual persons, Discriminate (against) ca also carry the same meaning. For example, in modern society theve is stil a ood deal of {ion against women jin some societies cestain clases of penile (because of 1! te housing acl employment isc their colors, origin, ete.) are diser ated against in rey imUNIT 10 10.2 WORD STUDY anattribute attribute to an analogy a metaphor analogous (to) metapho: Examples: Nowadays boys and girls often look su much alike that it is almost impossible to dise_... te between them. People with poor eyesight are often unable 10 dis___ “e the shapes of letters; for example they cannot dis,.___....te “e” from “e.” Dis___.__...tion against people on the grounds of age, sex, color, nationality, or education isan in___bee. A sub___e form of ds, tlon is prtcticed asinst schoolehildven when they aze given “equal opportunities” but their unequal upbringing and back nd is disregarded. British Jaws prohibit dise....___mation against any form of religious pr__.tice or belief; all are tol,_.__teG and they all have the same legal and pol__,..cal status. However, there isa kind of diser_. {on in favor of the Church of England, whose head (the Archbishop of Canterbury) is app___.ted by the Queer An attribute isa quality, character, or chasaeteristic (sometimes a feature or a thing al possessed or pictured) which we commonly betieve » thing ot person to possess, Thus absolute power and gooklness are normally at tes af God, One of the at les fof a good teacher fy patience. The best known at te of the godess Saraswathi is the swan (a large white water bird) on which she sts, “To attribute X to Y may be (a) to say that Y is the cause of X, for example when the failure ofa rebellion ig att... 160 to bick of stsong leadership or (lo) to say that X is something characteristic of ¥, or X is one of Y's quslities, motives, ete, for example when we itt. .1e feelings of jealousy fo someone, of al_..._te rmusival tal... toa persons for (c) say that X was invented, created, written, etc., by ¥, aswhen we al lea corsa drama to Shutkespente, or & {© the invention of the sleam engine piston to James Walt, Note that when the verb atcribure (1a) is used (i contrast 40 the noun) there is no implication that the attribution of the cause, quality, authorship, ete, is coneet or even accepted by others as correct Examples: Don't at se magical powers fo me, One at eof Neptune (the Roman god of the sea) is a trident. Ontstanding cou age was one of Hercules’ ut les, Kindness is not one of your s, Unsatisfietory relationships often found nowadays between teachers and pupils ean be a 10 various f___..ors; among these isthe pupils’ belief that these is mot much ‘connection between the education they are receiving and the world they are entering, The ¢.,..ent loss of faith in science may be a dio the way in which scientific discoveries are used and the uneven distr tiow of the benefits of se__nee. You a Je selfish motives to him; but does ie really deserve this? The discovery of electricity has been at ted to many people, The disaster was a....__ed to negligence on the part of the eng._vets, especially their failure to ins_,_et the pipes regularly, Fluc__ationsin the birth rate are aed toa number coffee mie fuc____s, These writings have been a «to St, Paul, but recently doubt has been thrown on his authorship. In strict (and prefersed) usage, an anatogy (or a “1eal” analogy) is a resemblance between two tlsings or situations in certain particulars or feal ues, suche that further likenesses are expected and found, An an. logy has explanatory value; Ife do not understand A but we understand B, and if B shows an gy to A,B ean be used to explain or help us understand A. In a recem passage, for example, we used the an... gy of physical lensions to explain psychological and political 1! ions.’The word “tension” is more than an ordinary metaphor; there are 2