Unit 1X 9.1 VOCABULARY ‘These are the words you will practice in this unit ~ appeal te argue argue with argue that conchide consist of consult convince (that encourage encourage intend to justify look up omit ‘omitted realize realize that VERBS 7 recognize teat an appeal (to, for, ete.) an appendix an attitude an aspect an author a biologist we (= an example} talogue a chapter () civilization a conclusion a consequence courage (a) culture (a) detail docu NOUNS ———»——— ent encouragement (the) essentials appeal argue argue argue consul ) con-vinee’ en courage en-cour'age iaus-trate intend’ just ih y omit omitted real realize recog am-be-tion ap-pea? ap-pen"alix arguement attitude aspect author beol-o-gist bi-olo-gy cat adogue chap'ter eiveiaa™tion conclusion con’secquence cour’ age Pohure decal en-cour'agesment essentials 263 (noun) ( noun) (+ noun) (noun) (noun) (noun) (4 noun) (noun + to + stem) (nou) (+ stom) noun) (+ noun) (noun) (noun) (noun noun) (+ noun + adverb, ete) evidence ev'ider an exception exception aheading hread"-ng anillustration ——ildus-tra’tion am index in'dex ‘an institution institution intelligence intl sigence (an) intention gton’ion (@) justification just fication a matter (some- master thing talked about) amodel mod an opportunity op-por-tu’aalty recog.ni tion a stage (in a process) a) succession gue-cos'-sion summary summary a title ude (a) tradition tration (a) treatment treat"-ment view (of a matter; n opinion)9.1 VOCABULARY ADJECTIVES ——___ ADVERBS ——___. PHRASES — ambitious am-bi-tious itelligent intel tegent aware (of) aware! major ma’jor aware (that) aware minor i Ror bio.log’ical previous pre'vious civilized prin’-tive concerned with concerned” subject 10 sub’ject cultural cu?-tural successive sue-ces'sive cultured cultured traditional tra-di-tion.al detailed dstailed” typical typ"icat essential essential apparently apparently SEEEEEEEE — comparatively comparatively essentially essentially previously previously relatively reP actively at once in detail destai! subject to (= liable sub’.ject t0, exposed to) in suecession with the exeeption of suc-ces'sion ex-cep'-tion exception without’ ex.cep"-tion 264INSTRUCTIONS: at once an attitude (+0 ‘or toward) apparently % Note that immedi Unit IX 9.2 WORD STUDY Study the following words and the uses of them immediately,* without delay al the sime time sxumples: Please come here af once! We must appoint a new manager... You san occupy the house... iF you wish, I will lend you two bumdred dollars —— and the rest later, If the food is not disteibuted the people will die, He responded to my suggestion, You must cane the tickets otherwise you will not gel your money back. [tis impossiole to do two things at once (12, af the same time), I don't advise you to attempt to solve all your problems —_. .__.. The channel provided by a laser beam ean carry several lelevision progy With this insurance policy you I your possessions four house, your furniture, and all your personal belongings An attitude is a way of feeling or thinking which tends to make people behave in a certain way, usually in s particular situation or relationship, but sometimes in a more general context. My nd the uttinide toward (0: to) a pesson is the way I habitually feel or think about a person way I behave toward him (or her) because of my feelings and beliefs about him What is your attitude foward this problem? © What do you think about this problem, what do you propose fo do about it? He has changed his attitude. = He has changed his feelings and jdeas and therefore his way of bbchaving (in relation to a particular problem, situation, miderstand your attitude toward life. * {don’t understand the feelings, motives, eas, at (in general) govern your responses to situations. Dehave to us often 9 hostile that 1 was Examples: What is your a... tude toward the dispute? The way pe depends on our own a_.tude toward them, His a alo was afvaid of him. duink th ile of the university authorities toward your project will be quite favorable, You cannot maintain this a indefinitely, Many people inherit Anonn-08 toward religion and polities from their parents, His a_ fe toward crime and punishment is not a conventional one. Their a_—_..e 10 your request will depend on various factors. Her toward other people's confliets is one of non-interference, No offers of money, jobs, o: of any other advantages of benefits will influence hit or ela their work. What is her @ ¢ toward the managernent? He said his a toward vio_...nce changed while he was in prison. ‘This adverb is Ceived from the adjective apparent which is formed from the verb anpear Apparentiy = it appears that; it secms that. Apparently itis no longer the policy of the gove ‘ment fo maintain full employment = I¢ appears that (or it sms that) iis no longer the policy Gf the government to maintsin full employment. Apparently the document was never signed W appears tha (or it seems that) the document was never signed. ‘ely and at once only share the first sense, 265Unit 1X 9.2 WORD STUDY INSTRUCTIONS: Study the following words and the uses of them at once nedintely,* without delay at the same time Examples: Please come here at once! We must appoint a new manager... You can occupy the house... if you wish, will lend you two hundred dollars —___, ‘and the rest later, If the food is not distributed the people will die. He responded — to my suggestion. You must cancel the tickets —— otherwise you will not get your money back, Its impossible to do two things at once (i.e. af the same time), T don’t advise you to attempt to solve all your problems —. ...-. The channel provided by a laser beam can carry several {clevision programs _. With this insurance policy you can insure all your possessions your house, your furniture, and all your personal belongings, anattitude (+0 An attitude is a way of feeling or thinking which tends to make people behave in a certain way, ‘or toward) usually in & particular situation or selationship, but sometimes in a more general context, My attitude toward (ot 10) « person is the way I habitually fee] or think about a person and the ‘way [behave toward him (or her) because of my feelings and beliefs about him. What is your attitude towaed this problem? = What do you think about this problem, what do you propose to do about it? He has changed his attitude, = He has changed his feelings and ideas and therefore his way of behaving (in relation to a particular problem, situation, ete.) I don’t understand your attitude toward life. ~ 1 don’t understand the feelings, motives, ideas, ete, that (in general) govern your responses to situations. ‘xamples: What is your 2....tude toward the dispute? The way people behave to us often depends on our own a___tude toward them. His a Ade was so hostile that 1 was affraid of him. I think the a....——de of the university authorities toward your project will be quite favorable, You cannot maintain this a— indefinitely. Many people inherit a { Loward religion and politics from their parents. His © toward erime and punishment is not a conventional one. ‘Their 2 _e to your request will depend on ‘various factors, Her a___.__ toward other people's confliets is one of non-interference, [No offers of money, jobs, or of any other advantages or benefits will influence him or chasge ‘their work, What is her =_—__.¢ toward the management? He said his a toward vio....nce changed while he was in prison, apparently ‘This adverb is derived from the adjective apparent which is Formed from the verb appear. Apparently = it appears tht; seems that, Apparently it is no longer the poliey of the govern ‘ment to maintain fall employment = I¢ appears that (or it seems that) it Is no longer the policy ‘of the government to maintain full employment. Apparently the document was never signed = I. appears that (or if seems that} the document was never signed * Note that immediately amd at once only share the frst sense 2659.2. WORD STUDY ease (+ of) aware of aware that recognize recognition (oncountable) Examples: App————ly the bombs, which all exploded at once, had been placed in different rooms, You should take the job; a__._rently the salary is quite adequate. The vegetables have paid for themselves this year, and next year there will a amaly Be a surplus. A. ly he invested all his capftal in a Russian gold mine and Jose it at the time of the 1917 revolution, A. ly the letter did not reach them, because I received no reply to my.requ..t. (Note: Apparently has the same position in relation to the verb as adverbs of frequency, probability, ete.) A case (of something, e.g, a case of malaria, a ease of robbery with viole is e particular oceusrence of a cestain type of event or effect 1 case of cheating) Examples: There have been several c___s of smallpox in the next town, Because of the crisis, trade has suffered, and 1 know hundreds of ¢____s of small businessmen who have been Forced to close their stores, The judge said that this was the worst c__ of child neglect that hhad ever come before hisn. Parents should not interfere in their children’s quartels exeept in certain special c__._s, for example, if one or bath children are provided with dangerous weapons. Statisticians are not interested in individual ¢...-s but in comparisons between numerically large groups or classes of events, effects, ete, There have been several cs of people who att__pted to av__d payment of the extra taxes. | am aware of something (e.g. fact, situation, a feature ofa situation, especially something ‘occurring nov or having an effect now) when I have noticed or discovered it or have been informed of it and have not forgotten it, but still have it in mind, Tam aware of responsibilities, duties, needs, feelings, motives, etc. (my own or other people's) when I understand them and accept the fact of their existence. 1 become awure of something when I notice it und respond to it for the fist time, or understand it for the first time, and accept the fact of its existence Jam aware that something is true when I have noticed it or have been informed of it and accept its truth (and Keep it in mind). Tam aware that something has happened when I have noticed or been informed of the event and have not forgotten about it Examples: Jam ae of yout motives for coming here. He is not a the circum: stances of the dispute, Are you a____ of his request for an official investigation? 1am quite a of my responsibility for the accident and the suffering it has caused, Suddenly he became a______. the presence of another person in the room. The authorities are aradually. becoming a... the need for # national health service scheme, He said he was not a___e of the propa Are you a___e that the war may continue indefinitely? You do not seem to be a this land is private. They are a snimunications with the interior have been broken, but they don’t do anything about it. I was not a__. — he was abroad. Are you a____ that some members of the co___.__¢e are hast....¢ to the prop.” Ate you a____ that one of your back wheols is loose? (Note: As you see from the examples given above, aware is used in order to remove some doubt about whether a person has noticed something, kept it in mind, understood it, or accepted it as a fact.) I recognize a person when 1 see hint and know that | have seen him before: 1 recognize him when his face is familiar, (We can say that we ¢_...._-nize a person even if we do not remember his name or the exact circumstances under which we savy hin: before.) Ire. or a thing when I know that I have seen it before, I1___nize a tune when | know ze place 266EEE eee UNIT 9 9.2 WORD STUDY have heard it before, When we are faced with people, places, things, etc, which are quite new to us, which we have never seen bofore, we do not s———nize them, (Recognize is. derived from two Latin words meaning “know” (cognoscere) and “again” (te).) We r_....onize a government, a mans claim (to some land, etc.) when we accept the govern: rent or accept the claim, usually because we believe that it has law or right to support it Recognition ‘ecognizing or being secognized in the above senses. Examples: My niece visited me yesterday, but she was so changed that I did not r her. Do you r _ve that tune? We have a record of it at home. When he revisited his home town after 40 years he re. zed the surrounding countryside better than the streets themselves, which had been reconstructed after the bombing. Yesterday we had a competition at school; to show that we re ‘zed certain lines of poetry, we had to give the names of poems they were taken from. Frequent rep_tions of words help ws to . ze them, There are certain conventional sig_—Is which sais at sea must learn to recog__ze, ‘The Chinese Communist Government is now 1. zed by most countries. The speaker's claim to represent the interests of the public as well as of the mine owners was not r.....—...2ed by the vest of the committee, A public authority is in a very unstable position until it has been or_—rs unl__s we ro --2ed by the people it elaims to govern. We do not usually ot r ‘ve the auih.._ty of the person who gives them. typical (of) ‘A member or example of a class of things is Q/pical when it clearly and unmistakably possesses: the most important features of ils class and can therefore represent its class or be a good example of it, A member of a class is nor ¢ypical fit does not possess (or does not det ‘possess all the important features of the clas. nitely A feature is typical of a class of things if tis one of the defining or important features of ‘Oat class of things or i itis one of the features by whaich we recognize that class of things, i if it isa feature which enables us to distinguish it from other classes. Examples: This does not appear to be a ty. ease of measles because the patient does not have any spots on his face, A t_....—I desert plant has thick fleshy leaves in whieh it stores water. It is doubtful whether Boston is a LI American city The capacity 1o store water in their leaves is ....cal of desert plants. Heavy expenditure on advertisements is t__..- of competitive trade in capitalist economies. A highly organized system of inrigation i ( of Chinese agriculture, The establishment of farge towns and cities is a (.....-1 feature of cbvilization; another is the ability to make and keep written records, A {1 feature of the nations in this part of the world is the instab_._ty of their governments, (an) intention When I intend to do something, J have it in mind as a purpose or asa plant; my mind is directed (ito, or + of + ing) toward a cortain notion oF course of actions and a goal. A person who fas an intention (or has the intention) of doing something isa person who intends to do something, i.e. whose ‘mind is ditected toward a certain action or course of action. Notice that insending or having an intention is like having an idea, ie. i i a state of condition of the mind, not an act ‘or occurrence like deciding, When I say “T intend to buy a new hat” Lam not making decision; | am describing a purpose which I already have in mind, Notice the sentence patterns. 1 intend to spend my holidays in Australia. He intended to spend his holidays in Australia, but mine. circumstances forced him to change h9.2 WORD sTuDy He does not intend to many yet. He has no intention of marrying yet. "if not know about your intention to go abroad. Her intention fo ive abroad surprising, 0 New York with the intent 1EThurt your feelings, i was without intention (., without wishing to do so), I wei 0 of seeing ny brother Me went into the shop without intending to buy anything. ‘Gramples: 1 do not in. to become a save to housework, She says she in. to eameel the arrangements for the school tennis game i the weather is unsuitable. Hei deta ine fo cOuntty with a ellmate which suits his health. He sad he i...._ds to ask the management for a raise in wages. She {ds to do esearch into the structures typical of nineteenty Suit novels. have no in____jon of interfering in his management of the business. Lam delighted to hear about your in 8 of taking past in the Work of the Animal Protection Society. Is it her in, —n fo stay here permanently? He came here with the i» of Roriowing money. Hf my association with her influenced her in the choice of a career, wax without my i n. He answered the advertisement without ining to take the jab immediately, iit was offered to him. She stys she i___nds to insure the house Vi. g fe P—ve that this woman could not have been gu._lty of this ex me Nereis on INTEND TO, INTENDS TO, INTENDED TO, INTENDING TO, INTENTION, INTENTIONS, Put one of the above words or phrases into cach of the following sent. 1eeS to make it meaningful 1. Theae they appoint a woman in this post, 3. He award prizes for devices and technig 8 which help to lower costs and raise production, 5 Mis series of lectures i intsoduce some of te bai iene of modeen physic to intelligent but uninformed people 6 ‘They invaded the country without occupy it permanently, Their are probably excellent bat they have neither the intlige them out. 268uNiT 2 92 WORD STUDY 9. Teplace the lens in my telescope with a much more powerful lens 10. She said the government establish itself on a more stable basis by iicudling representatives ‘ofall the major trade unions. 11. He said his was only to act as a guide, and he refused to accept any responsibility success of the expedition,* an opportunity (to do something or for doing something) ‘An opportunity to do something or for doing something, ete. isa favorable time or chance to doit Examples: At the last commitice meeting 1 intended to propose an investigation into the committee finances, but I did not find a suitable opp. ity to make this proposal. In our university the students are satisfied with the administration, because they are given frequent o— ities to discuss policies and influence decisions. We intend to improve our facilities gradually, as funds become available and as 0.. tiesarise, These machines must be replaced af the eailiest 0 ~y. Her 0 ties in life Ge, her chances in life) have been very limited; her education was neglected end she was not allowed to choose her own career. He said he would welcome the opp—. tobe the first man on the moon. Don’t ask her about it just now; it will be wiser to wait for a more suit_—_e op. -y. relatively ‘These two adverbs (formed from relate and compare) have almost the same meaning. A place is relatively to relatively ot comparatively quiet, accessible, distant, etc., when it is quiet, accessible, distant, comparatively etc. as compared with ather places. A factory is relatively or comparatively efficient, productive, well equipped, ete. when it is efficient, productive, well equipped, etc. in comparison with otlies factories producing the same kind of goods, A surface is relatively or comparatively smooth, firm, flat, etc. when itis smooth, firm, flat, et. tn comparison with other surfaces that aro being considered for a particular puspose. Relative to = in comparison with. The expression relative to refers to a standad, The density of the earth's substance is §.52 relative to water means, The density of the earth's substance is 5.52 ‘when the density of water is taken as the standard unit, Temperatures in Karori are low relative to average temperatures in Wellington means Temperatures in Karori ate low when compared with average temperatures in Wellington. Examples: The risk involved in this voyage will be ly slight (ie. it will be slight in comparison with the risks of previous voyages). Because of the special method of its constriction, this microscope can give an image which is com__atively clear and distinct (ie, clear and distinct as compared with images visible through other microscopes with the same magnifying power, etc,). When! a ship Is fitted with this stablizing device, its motion in rough seas is ly steady. OF these two miaterials the first is to be preferred, because itis © an expedition = a journey or a voyage (usually ene involving difficulties) made for a definite purpose 2699.2 WORD STUDY © Ly flexible and resistant to changes in temperature. Near the eoust the soll ig ly fertile, Communications with the interior of the island are ¢ ly undeveloped and unsatisfactory (i.e. when compared with communications with coastal areas). Daring the fast ten years the number of female workers employed has increased relative to tte general increase in the female population. The standard of living of the middle classes has improved r__..._....... the standard of living of the population as a whole. These birds have Tong tals +. to other birds of the same species, In his country, he said, there were ively few occu....tions which could provice real sec_ity prev coming cali (or before the present one) in time or order. a previously = eatlies, before the time o the events now spoken of, 4 #xamples: You can't do this job without pr....0vs experience. His p.._sjob was relatively badly paid. The p_...._s owner* of this house neglected it completely. I made the same suggestion on a p. s occasion (ie, ata previous time). I definitely preferred the pr___s arrangement. Ho said that during the p_ year" the company had suffered heavy losses, q recognized her as a lecturer I had pr. Jy met once or twice, The job was advertised : po ly, but no one applied f sly the menagor’s signature was required a (on ail letters sent from the office, but now the secretary’s signature is sufficient, He drew a check for the entire amount that he had p___..._y deposited. In most countries a man cannot be punished unless his guilt has p______sly been established by a court of law. Cakes can only be Sup. ied to cust....ers who have or ered them pr ly. consist of = be made of (certain subst 8, oF @ certain substance) = have as ils members or parts (certain things or people, or a certain set or combinetion of ings or people), Examples: A plain cake consists of flour, eggs, butter and sugat, All material substances ot molecules, This committee ¢_—_..._ts twelve members, New Zeatand cts —. two large islands and some smaller ones. Most lenses nt —— lass, An index of a book c__.._ts —. words in alphabetical order, with references to page | ‘numbers or section numbers in the book, A code c ts —_ a set of symbols together Z with rules or conventions for interp...._ing the sym__Is, ‘This water-heating app_..tus ¢__._sfs of a series of coils, A sponge c__—._ts of a mass of loosely interconnected cells which can abs. liquid. The retina of the human eye cs of supporting a and protective stru_ures, nerves, and sensory* organs called rods ancl cones because of their shape, Society e 8 of people, ] major The terms major, minor, are nearly always associated with the idea of importance, and are minor therefore usec about things, events, people, etc. when these are thought of in terms of their influence, power, or effect. Major has four main uses () with the article the or with @ possessive pronoun or noun = the most important (e.g, ‘the country’s major industry, the major advantage of the scheme, the major cause of Note that the previous owner, the previous arrangement, the previous year means the ore just before the present fone, A previous owner, previous owners, ele. refer (o an ownex, owners, efe. at any time before the present ane, sensory For related to the senses (in this ease 10 the sense of sight),9.2 WORD STUDY dissatisfaction, the major discovery of the century; h achievement, their major complaint, etc.) major interests, her major (©) with the article “a” = one of the most important in & particular context (e.g. a major cause of dissatisfaction, a major complaint, a major factor in this situation, a major advantage, @ major source of confusion, a major contribution to science) (6) with the article “a” = one of a small group of persons, events, countries, ete. which are considered to be specially important, excellent, influential or powerful, not in particular context but according to certain accepted standards (e.g, a major earthquake, ‘a major power, 2 major poet, a major war,a major operation), (@) in phrases beginning with “of” and followed by certain uncountable nouns = very great (4g, of major importance, of major significance, of major interest, of major benefit), Minor = “less important;" this word is contrasted with major ia the uses listed under (b), (c) and (d), In singular countable uses itis always preceded by “3.” (®) with the article “a” = one of the fess important considerations in a particular context « Jor cause of dissatisfaction, a minor complaint, a minor factor, a minor advantage). (©) _with the article “a” = one of the persons, events, countries, ete, considered to be less important by an accepted standard, as compared with those which are considered to be “najor” (e.g. minor earthquake, a minor poet, a minor war, a minor operation). (@) in phases beginning with “of” (e.g. of minor importance, of minor significance, of ‘minor interest, et.) The plural uses af nouns after major, minor, follow the usual grammaticel rules (e.g. The major advantages of the scheme, major earthquakes, minor earthquakes, his major achievements, minor factors, minor complaints, etc). ‘The grammar of major and minor (especially major) is iregular and confusing and students are advised to avoid the use of these words, It Is sufficient if students understand that major means “important” or “the most important” or “one of the most important” according to its context, and minor means “ess important” or “one of the less important.” concern Concern = have 2 connection with; be of importance to; involves refer to, concerned To be concernedt with = to have reference 10, to refer to, to deal with; to be interested in. be concemed with Examples: Don’t interfere in quacrels which don't cm you (i.e. don’t interfere in quarrels which have no connection with you}. This matter ¢_— ms everyone who is present (4. this ‘matter is important to everyone who Is present). They said he was ¢ ned in the crime (ce. they said that he was involved in the erime). I have given the message to nearly all those c_—-ned (ie, have given the message to nearly all those who are involved), These proposals do not ¢.......1n British interests (= these proposals do not involve or refer to British interests). The letier J have just received c ns the French oxder for helicopters (« tie letter [lave just received refers to the French order for helicopters). She has written an aticle* c {ng prob....ms of fri_.ion in tractors and other vel_cles int__ded for agri ral use, © an article (the meaning hete) is @ piece of writing in a newspaper or periodical, 279.2 WORD STUDY an aspect *in the late sixties and early “*moral ‘The letter I have just received is concerned with the French order for alreraft (i. the letter 1 hrave just received cefers to the French order for airrait). The first two chapters are ‘ ned w_—.. problems of management, (.e, the first two chapters deal with probiems ‘of management), Government institutes of statistics are usually c ned w—... the birth rate and the death sate, and with the collection and interpretation of other official statistics. A histor _ned with motives and pumposts as well as with Facts (i. ‘historian is interested in motives and purposes as well as In facts). A man who owns a bbusi..-s should be con_—_ed w___. the benefit (or otherwise) to the public of the comm. ities he sells or proces, not only with their com..rcial aspects ‘An aspect ofa subject, of a situation, etc. isa point of view fiom which it ean be looked al, studied, thought about, investigated, ete. All human situations have various a_.._.t85 this, ‘means thal (hey can be looked at and thought about in various ways, according to the interests or purposes of the people who think about them. Take for example the recent conilicts between students and university authorities* in France, America, England, Germany and Mexico, Some people are interested in the psychological a____t of these conflicts; others are interested in thelr economic a_..t; others are interested in thelr political a__.._t5 others again may be concemed with their general social and anthropological ts. When psychologists study a human situation they study the feelings, purposes and behavior of the individuals concerned in it; they study its psychological ats. When economists study a human situation they study the economic motives, relations and forces that are involved in it; they study its ee -s, When politicians or political scientists study a situation they study it in terms of political relations and its effect on political groupings or the balance of power between different groups; they study its politcal causes and effects; they study its p_ -al a____ts, When historians study a situation they attempt to see it as part of a story or part of a sequence of events following each other in a connected way; they ate concerned with its historical a... One aspect of a situation, an event, etc. may mean a particular factor in the situation, a particular factor helping to produce the event, a particular offect or possible effect that it may have, or a particular feature or set of features (of the situation, event, etc.) to which attention isdrawn. For example, we might say “One a (of modern civilization isa tendency to rely more and more on machines to provide decisions and less and less on haan judgment.” (This aspect isa feature of modern civilization.) Or we might say “An important a. of this discovery is that iC will make possible a still greater invasion of our privacy.” (This as. ia possible effect), “When we study patterns of spending, an at which needs attention Js the effect of habit.” (Here the aspect isa factor in typical patterns of spending, e.g, for a certain social cass,) Bxamples: It is often difficult to dist. guish between the psycho. al, legal and moral** as...ets of ctime. ‘The scientific tend __cy to sepa__te and isol__e the various as___ts of situation may be res_____ble for errs of judgment in part__...ar ¢-ses. Reality has more a...fs than can be exha__ted by specialists, For most ord___ry people it Is not ‘he pic or historical a___t of war which matters but the pri...te or human 1 suppose we ought to concen____e on the finan_la__—t of this pro._sal. One of the scheme which should be taken into consid......_ton is that it is unlikely to bene.-t lower income groups, Certain a_....._.18 of the learning process have been neg_._._ed in the past, but their importance is now being gra_—_lly ree....nized, Religious sym_Is repr. nt ties, cconcesned with tight and wrongunit 9 9.2 WORD STUDY treat (a petson oF a thing) treat (2s) teat (a substance, ete.) (with) (a) treatment (countable or tmeountable) ‘courage ‘encourage encourage (to) encouragement (uncountable) ‘encouraging © a document — see the 4___tsof human expetience and must be interpr_-d in terms of the sys__m of beliefs ‘of which they form a part; they cannot be understood apart from the sy..-m they belong, to. We treat a man wel, badly, kindly, with respect, ete. when we behave toward im well, kindly, with respect, etc We treat someone as child, an equal, 2 friend, etc. when we behave toward him (or her) a5 wo would behave toward a child, an equal, 2 friend, ete, We treat a house as ur home hen we use it as we would use our home, We treat a thing as a toy, etc, when we use it as we would use « Loy, ete We treat a substance or a thing with acid, bicarbonate of soda, ete, when we put it through process involving the application of acid, bicarbonate of soda, ete Our treatment of person is the way we deal with him or behave toward him. The treatment ff a disease is the method used for dealing with tox for curing it (in this connection we ean {iso speak of anew treatment, a special treatment, etc.). The treatment of a thing or of fubstance i either the way it is used (@g. rough treatment} or the process applied to It (e-. tucatment with acid), Examples: Children’s boh_.ior at homme and at school is always parlly a reac———n to the ‘way in which shey axe tr-—-ed, Children whose parents play with them: and talk them, pnd tr_t them kindly and &_mly, are likely to enjoy a strong sense (= feeling) of security. Mr. Green's employees enjoy working for him because he txts them with respect. Questions weve asked about the tr_.-ment of political prisoners. If you t_..t a man as an enemy he may res..nd in the way you expect him to ve.....nd, You eanat se—tle a disp——e by {__-ting some of the people concerned as crim_.als. Its not sensible to —t people vet ___ nals for comm__ing minor mistakes. This farniture will not stand very rough tL nment, How long one’s clothes last depends on how one ts them. Its better to t.___t animals as people than to t_—... people as animals. She said that her t_—-ment of pupils who disobeyed her orers depended on the elre___tanees. ‘Miss Hammond has discovered a new t_—_-ment for this disease. With careful (——.-ment ‘your father’s condition should imp_ve. The t_——-ment of mental diseases has made great adv. ‘Fo give them a smooth surface the vessels are tr__..ed with special chemicals. Ancient documents* are t___...-0d with certain substances to prevent them from falling to pieces "These marks can be rem...ved by tment with cleaning fluid, T. —at by this| pro___ss gives the metal a high polish which L_sts almost indef———.y. ‘ment ves, In some countries everyone has the r__gt to free medical t. Courage isthe burnan quality of being brave; of resisting one’s fers or trying Lo overcome or control them. We encourage a man when we give or try £0 give him hope or courage, when we use pra hopeful words to do this, when we express our belief in him or in his powers or abilities in what he is doing or intends to do, We encourage a man to do something (or to do something more energetically, ete.) when by praise, expressions of belief in him, oF by our attitude toward hire we help (or try (0 del tion Jater in this Unit 239.2 WORD STUDY ‘an occasion * confidence = belief in oneself, in one’s awn powers, ee. (the word also has other senses) help) him feet that he can or should do this thing; when by praise, expressions of belief in his powers, etc. or by our general attitude toward him, we strengthen or try to strongthen his motives for doing this thing, or for doing it more energetically, et. Encouragement (an uncountable nous) is the action of encouraging someone, or the help siven by encouraging somenne, Words, actions, people, ete. are encouraging when they encourage someone, or encourage someone to do something (usually in a particular situation) Examples: He has the c and received an aw...-d for her ¢ and strangers. rage to fight for his prin__ples. She saved a child from drowning age. It sometimes takes ¢__..ge to face new situations He did not scold his students batt en___.aged them, Her suecess in her career was due to your en ment. Many people cannot show their abilities unless someone en__._ages them. In times of sickness, loss and disappointment people need en. nent. Instead of trying fo make your students af___d of you, you should en. e them and tay to give them confidence. Our teacher en____ages us to learn from our mistakes instead of being afraid of them. My father en_._—__ ged me to continue my mathematics tudes when I was thinking of dropping them. His friend told him that his ideas were original and en_—____ed hira to develop ther With atte on ent she will probably overcome these difficulties. He nceded no 1 to take advantage ofthe situation. 1 asked them if they would be prepared ging. The response to our appeal has {0 finanee the project, but their reply was not en. been most en_—....ping. If his attitude was en._____ging, we would make more progress. Inher efforts to establish a basis for settling the dispute she was not en___.__ged by the chairman of the committee or by snybody else, The government should be en ed in their attempt to end unemployment and provide security for working people, There are 4s... of our civiization which en_____ge vio—ne, and unless we recog——ze this (Guth we cannot deal with the problem An occasion is the time at which a particular event takes place, often with some reference to the circumstances of the event, The occasion of an event (a second meaning of occasion) can mean its immediate cause, the cizcumstances in which it arose, the situation which provides the opportunity for it “ FBeamples: Ican remember very wel the speech she made on that o—————it (at that time a and in those elzeumstances), On this oon | wil take the opportunity to thank the : chairman and all the members ofthe committee for their encouragement and belp, Oa several 4 ns he has treated me very rudely. On one 0. ihe injured a muscle by taying to lift some heavy cylinders. 1 do not know the real motives behind the quarrel but the o was Mr. Smith's, suggestion that Mrs. Brown should be asked to look after the language laboratory. ‘The of this attack on the manager was report by some interfering person that he hhad deposited a check for twenty thousand dollars in his personal account. The 0 of the frst wosld war was apparently an isolated incident, the murder of an individual; the reek causes of the war lay much deeper. The oc. ofthe disp was ther sefusal to take of —1s from a man whose auth....ty they did not recog. 24UNIT 9 9.2 WORD STUDY intelligent intelligence Intelligence is mental ability, especially the powers of leaming and understanding, An intelligent person is someone who has this kind of ability; intelligent actions, answers, books, (uncountable) etc, are those which show this kind of ability. realize (someth realize (that Examples: She is very ints nisher understanding of what people say always goes beyond the surface meaning, His in ce is not apparent from his school reports, but lie shews, it in activities which interest him such as the construction of radios and mechanieal apparatus. Last week the children weve given an in. ce test, She takes an int___.nt interest in literature, but mathematics is her chief concer. People are in nt in their attitude to a new experience when they welcome it as an occasion to learn more and ‘enlarge their horizons, One sign of int_gonce in a baby is its ability to recognize the ‘objects in its surroundings, Efforts to prove that females are less in. at than males have so far been unsuccessful, hing) We realize something when we are fully aware of it, its meaning, its truth and importance. We }) realize that something is true or that something has occurred when we are fully aware that it realize (what, how, is true or that it has occurted, ete...) ‘a succession succession a cause ‘a consequence temporal * document Examples: Vas he 1...7e1 his extor yet You do not r....-2e your tesponsibility to your family. Don’t you r___ve the advantages this post has to offer you? It has taken them a long time to r____ze the natuze of the problem, They do not r___22 the necessity of inereasing exports, H1..nize the import yet r___ize the risk you are t ie of consulting a reliable authority. App......—tly you do not ing. Do you r.....-ize what you heve done? (Note: There are only a few nouns which can be used after “realize,” as objects of this verb; for example (her, his, etc.) responsibility, the truth (of), the importance (of), the necessity (of), the nature (of), the meaning (of), the significance (of), the extent (of, to which), the need (for), the seriousness (of), and a few morte.) Her led that the prisoners had escaped, Do you r_..7e thal unemployment figures have risen by two million? 1 did not «_——_ze that the place was so inaccessible. You must 1___te that Tam using my entire capital 0 finance this project. 1 would not have signed this document* if [had +__...zed that it would involve me in a dispute, 1Lis difficult to 1____20 what the effects of these weapons will be. I did not r__—ze how ser___sly he was hurt, Didn't you t....~20 that the letter would require your employer's signa.re as well as yours? We should r___-ze that only a smal fraction of this money will actually reach the people for whom we collected it ents are successive when they come one after the other, When we say The school team won four successive games we mean that the team won four games, one after the other. A. suecession of events, periods, ete, is a number of events, periods, etc. coming one after the “other in time and order (eg. a succession of wet days, a succession of inefficient Vice Presidents). Events follow in succession when they follow one after the other (e.g. They won four games in suecession). A Succession of Events A person is born and divs, Between the time of his birth and the time of his death many things happen; thege ate the events (the things which happen) in his lifetime, Some peasons say that a person’s life is lke a book: we have a frst page, then more pages, then the last page, see definition later in this Unit,9.2 WORD STUDY This is a good description in some ways, but in one way it is at good, You see, a book can coaly tell you one ting ata time, but in life several things ean happen at one time. For instance, {can stroke my dog and listen to a song at the same time; but I have to write one after the other these things which can happen at the saine time, 1 cannot write these two things at the same time. Spatial Succession Printed words exist on paper, m space, When | make a group of marks on paper, lke this: 1 ( ) 7 these marks exist in space. You can deseribe the position of each mark: ‘Cis to the right of / ~ is {0 the sight of ( isto the right of "isto the right of ) | described the positions from left to right. In my descriptions, (comes after | = comes after ¢ )eomes after ~ * comes after ) You can also describe the positions from right to le Put in the missing symbols, ) Isto the let of ~ isto the left of C isto the left of / isto the left of In your description, Each of the five marks occupies a position in space, No mark occupies more than one Position in space, No mark occupies the same position in space as another mark. Two things ‘cannot oceupy the same position in space at the same time, = ——— These two persons are trying tothe same — in space at the same time, ‘Several persons aro trying to... the same — in space at the same time. Several things cannot ~ a es Temporal Suceessions Hore are the five marks again: f ( — ) * ‘You can describe this suecession of marks in space. However, if I do not tell you, you cannot tell which mark I made first. Did I make ( first? Did I make ~ first? Did T make * frst? You cannot know. You can describe the spatial succession of the marks, but you cannot describe the succession in time, because you do not know which mask | made first which mark [ made second and so on. You cannot describe the temporal succession, because you do not know the order of events which produced the marks. 2769.2 WORD STUDY ‘Simultaneous Events and Events in Succession Here are some of the keys of a piano (or harmonium). Each key has, a name, The names of the white keys are the letters of the alphabet from AtoG. If [hit C first, then E, then G, I produce a suc of sounds, (eaeeiae But I can also hit these keys at the same time. AFT hit the three keys simultaneously, the three sounds are heard simultaneously ‘These two people ave trying to occupy the same aa ly. Two things cannot — the Hore is a switeh: ‘The switeh has two positions: on and off, The switeh cannot be on and off simultaneously. The switch isin a circu switch b ——_-" Poco When the switch isin the off position, the circuit is not complete and the bulb does not give light, When the switch is in the on position, the circuit is complete and the bulb gives light. [A small child sees his mother put the switch in the on position, then sees the bulb give light For a small child, pressing the switch and the appearance of the light are just two events In succession, We know that these eventsin succession are related: a small child does not know this, power Similarly, 2 small child sees his mother turn a Faucet handle, sees water come from the pipe into ‘a kettle, sees his mother put the kettle onto a stove, sees steam come from the kettle, sees his mother pour the water from the kettle into a teapot, etc, For a small child, these are just several ef ——§. n. We know that these ¢ $e ait a small child does not know this, ‘An okdor child knows that you put the switch in the on position when you want light; you turn a faucet handle when you want water, An older child knows that light appears as a consequence of putting the switch in the on position. Water comes as a consequence of turning the faucet handle, When we do things, these things usuelly have consequences, Some of the consequences are wanted; we say they ate intentional. As we all know, sometimes the consequences of what wwe do are not intentional 217ie 9.2 WORD sTUDY Learning about Consequences How does a child learn that one event is x ce of another event? When two events occur simultaneously, one of these events cannot be a ¢.. ——c8 of the other event. When events occur in succession, one event may be the o. —ce ofa previous event, So the fist step toward the idea of consequence is taken when the child is Conscious of successions of events, For a child to form the idea of » succession, the events must occur in te same order and must be repeaied. He becomes conscious of successions of events through repeated observation, After a number of repetitions, a child learns the ccesion oF events s0 that after event e he expects even d after event f he expocts event g Leami cession of events is aot the same thing as understanding that one event is the Maar uence oft previous event: i i ony the first step toward the idea of eansequence, Most animals can become aware of temporal successions and len to expect that coont i Wil follow event i, For instance, when my dog sees me put on brow shoes she expects nat 4 shall go for walk with lez, She is aware of the t_ -! of events, ‘She has sepeatedly 0... that these events ov What is the next step in learning, that one even is the consequence of another? 1 think a Ghul ext gets an idea of purpose: observing tht one event is repeatedly followed by another cvent, he learns to do one thing in order that another event will follow. He mney also lems tot to do something in order that another event may not follow In this way, the idea of purpose is added to the idea of temporal suecession. ‘This step may 2 teken by animals too, An animals Knowledge ofa temporl succession of events nay bad it fo do one thing in order that another (wanted) event will follow. My dog leads me to the kitchen in | will give her @ biscuit. She buings me a piece of wood —_ ~~~ Twill play with her, She has learned to add the idea of p_.._. to the ites of Having asocited purpose with consequence child thinks that events generally happen as @ consequence of someone's purpose, The idea of purpose isa step toward the idea of consequence, and many events are the cones gues of someone's purpose. ‘Nevertheless, this dea, whichis helpfal at fist, may come in the way of a clear understanding of the idea of consequence Ihe event canbe the consequence of another event without anyone having x purpose. A {sh of lightning occurs wien a difference in electrical potential grows between ene coed and Grothe (or between one cloud and the ground), and when the distance between the two elses (Cr Petween one cloud and the ground) becomes short enough forthe flash to go acroce, The Fash occurs as a consequence ofthe inerease in potential difference andor the ches ening Of the distance. ‘The sun changes its position in the sky as ac quence of the earth's turning, Day follows night ——___ A hid only leerns the most important part ofthe idea of consequence when he realizes that jcarisin event does not occur except aftr a certain previous event, or unless certain conditions Pecome present, Purpose has nothing to do with this; purpose comes in only when a porn brings about one event or one set of conditions which wil have the wanted consequenen Levent z does not occur except aftr event y, iis possible thet event zis wholly o partly a consequence of event y. 2789.2 WORDS TUDY We have to say “it is possible that” because itis xlso possible that both event z and event yyare consequences of event x, and that these two consequences occur in suecession, Here is fan example: ‘A certain Mr, Hill drani half a liter of whisky (event x). He became very merry (event y), anid then became bad tempered (event 2). yx form a succession of events, y isa consequence of x, but is za of y? No: 2isa——— ‘Mr. Hill did not become bad tempe —avn——~ of becoming merry. He became bad tempered —. ————-—. ‘lrinking whisky. Both event z and ywer __s of ..-—— xy and the two consequences occurred Ifevent 2 does not occur except after event y, iis posible that event zis wholly or partly ‘consequence of eveat y. We have to say “ wholly or partly” because sometimes event 2 is a consequence of event y and event x Cand perhaps of events vand w also), and does not aecur except after events (vw) and When you add sulphuric acid to water (event y), # chemical reaction takes place immediately event 2). When you add sugar to potassium nitrate (event x), nothing happens. Then, when ‘you heat the mixture (event y), a chemical reaction takes place (event 2). Event zis 8 ofboth —.. xand event y: itis p. event y and I is interesting Lo siudy the development of the idea of consequence, Some human cconiunitis ave still at the first stage of the development of the idea, I have reat! of tribes ‘who do not know that babies are born as a consequence of sexual relations between men and women, They see most events as temporal successions. In our own societies, very many people learn a number of temporal successions of events (we call them habits), and fee! Contented within these temporal successions of events; and spend their lives without worrying about the consequences of the things they do. For long time han scitis associated consequence with puspese,secing al signiicant vents a the coneequence of somebody's purpose. For Uhem, aightning flash was the ccmmequenee of sorisbody’s will and a frge numberof gods were thought to make events fappen on earth, Inaur own time too, many people Delive that ll happenings ae the Consequence of purpose eter of anotier person, ce 3 god ora power af some kind. tn seine parts of the wosld,iTa person get il people think this vent i consequence ofa hostile intention, Obviously, the welationship y operates one way: ifz occurs as a consequence of ys then Y tannat occur asa consequence of 2, Bat we can look a this lationship in two ways: we Xan Wook from event y to event z.(9_ 2), and we can look from event zto event y: (y 2) TTevent zis the consequence of event y, then event yi the cause of event 2, What caused event 2? Event y caustd event 2 We sce that when we are interested in a eause, we look backward in time from one event to ‘a previous event, Very often an unfortunate or unwanted event makes us joterested in the temporal = of time, in time 2799.2 WORD STUDY cause of that event: if we can find the cause of that event, we may be able to avoid @ repetition of the unwanted event in the future. By finding what causes an illness, a doctor can give advice which can help people to avoid that illness, By finding what a certain type of accident in a factory, the workers can learn how to a... that type of accident. By finding what certain type of mistake.in a student's work, a teacher can help his students to team —. to... that of mistake. We speak of the cause of “malaria,” and mean “what has the consequence of producing ‘maltria.” Malaria* is not wanted and is not the consequence of a person's action; but it hhas a cause, This is the common way of using the words “the ease of.” Sometimes when we look back from one event to a previous event, we ate looking for an explanation of what Happened. The words “the cause of” cen still be used: they then have a meaning like “the reason for” or “the explanation of;” but “the cause of” cannot be used when the event we wish to explain is the result ofa person’s intention: when the event we wish to explain is the result of a person’s intention, we have to say “tho reason for,” or “the explanation of" Ane, of course, when we are not looking for (he explanation of an event, but for the intention of the person who made the event take place, we ean use the words "the purpose of." The word “purpose” is used commonly about living creatures, persons and animals; but we can also spoak of “the purpose of” an abject which can be used to make or to change things: then “the purpose of” means “the function of” or “the proper use of.” (By the way, the word “function” fs sometimes used to mean a properly arranged ceremony or meeting.) Here i table which will help you to understand how these words are used. ' 2 3 4 thie outbreak of cholera his death the fire the flood her failuze the breakdown the cause of | What was the delay Did she know the quarrel When did she the party lean the reason for the soldier at the gate the roundabout route they took ? Tis smile your journey the visit, the trick they played This machine the switeh this ever that knob this exercise the purpose of the function of Please make ten sentences from this table, using “the cause of.” At least two of th should be chosen so that “the cause of” cannot be replaced by any other item in Col e sentences Malaria is a disease (carried by insects) eanmon in the East. 280uNiT 8 9.2 WORD STUDY a detail detail (collective) detailed in detail essential (to, for) essential {the) essentials Now please make ten sentences using “the reason for.” In at least two of these sentences it should not be possible to replace “the reason for" by any other item in Column 2. [Now please make ten seniences using “the purpose of." In at least three of these sentences it shoul be possible to replace “te purpose of” by “the reason for," and in another three it should be possible to replage “the purpose of” by “the funetion of.” Now please write five sentences using “the funetion of.” ‘A detai is « small separate thing or item which enters into the building or construction of something, such a5 8 house, a painting, a novel, or which enters into the performance of a task or a job, a career, the living of a life, etc, Often, in this sense, a detail is contrasted with the structure, outline or design of a thing. Iu this sense the singular form of the nous is sometimes used as an uncountable collective noun (e.g. “The poer’s chief aim is to communicate ‘not the exact detail of an experience but its feeling and rhythm”) We describe something, explain something, ete, du detail when we describe, explain, etc. its details, not oaly the general design, plan or essential features of the thing ‘A detailed description, explanation, account, list, report, etc., is one which gives or supplies not only essential facts or the main points, but which gives detailed information, Le. {information about the details, the smaller or minor features and items, Examples: Ue has invented a pump which works on a new prin_ple, but I do not yet know the d....—Is. The d_—.Is of a domestic life are not always interesting but its major problems are often interesting because they involve human beings. At every stage in building « house attention to dis important, I read about your balloon flight in the newspaper, but I want you to deseribe the d____Is, Here is a d__..ed list of the experiments Which will be carried out during the next three months. When you study anatomy you have to study the structure of the human body — d_——.1, not only every organ, every muscle, every bone and their functions, but every part of every organ, every muscle and every bone, ‘This diagram of a steam engine does not show its construction —— d__1, but only essential Features such as the piston, the piston rod and the cylinder enctosing them. The reflector gives a d..led tmage of the scene which is viewed by the lens of your camera ‘A ingle laser beam can transmit twelve television programs at once with all their dt. The scheme must be alt_red in certain d_——_Is, or we shall not be able to op_ate it eff. iently. Some items in the index refer (o d.......-1s which have no importance Essential = necessary or basic. Essential and necessary can usually be used in the same contexts, but essential has greater Force. An essential (often in the plural) © a necessary or requited feature or quality in terms of some Standard (¢.. the essentials of a good pronunciation); or the basic point in a spezch, ete. Please tell me the essentials; I don’t want to hear the details). Essentially = basically, in the most important ways. A man is essentially honest, or ambitious, or kind when he is basically (or in the most important ways) honest, ambitious or kind, though tne may not always be so (or appear to be so) in unimportant matters. A book is essentially difficult when in the most important ways (e.g in its ideas, etc) i is difficult, though it may appear to be easy in some ways. We say that a family is essentially united when there is basic Unity on important questions between its members, hough there may be quarrels or surface conflicts. 2819. WORD STUDY subject to a model Note: The adverb essentially does not incan “necessarily” or “of necessity.” It means “basically,” “in all important ways,” or “in the most important ways.” al for health, It is not ess. des oxygen app___tusis ess Jal when dling with mentally dis bed ehitdren. You can apply Examples: Exercise, fresh air and sleep are ess_. Temember every detail. For climbing at great ati Kindness is e_ lo for the job, because the adv..__-_sement does not state that prac...lexp____nve is e The President said it was e_ 1 to find some means of pro.__ting the pub .— ftom further outbreaks of vio.._ce. The app__...ment of a rel__bie person fo manage your prop—...y ise. Ane____..__. t__k to be under__ken by the new government is the rebuilding of cities dest_._yed in the war. On this soil the use of fert___zers ive. if you want your crops to fla_rish. To comp. successfully in fo_—_gn markets it will be eto int. more ef, and up-to-date methods of prod tion. at ‘What are the ess_____Is of good technical writing? When we listen to a lecture, we do not {ry to ree__d everything; we only make notes of the ess_____s. The e.._-__Is of dom. fort are warmth, cleanliness, absence of unwanted noise, suf nt space, ae.._ate furn_...re, fresh air and privacy. It does not matter about the de ils; Just want to know the e als. ‘These goods wre ¢__...______lly for export, though a few of them may be sold on the home ‘market. In spite of what he says in public, his attitude ise lly hostile. He taiks. lot, but he ise. lly a practical man, Religion is lly a private matter and should never become a battle field for polities. My country may not be as wealthy as yours, but it ise ly more clvilized. In spite ofits age, this is e__.____lly a comfortable house. E_...___Ily she has achieved everything she set out to do; only a few details ‘We say that a region is subject to earthquakes when earthquakes occut and are likely to occur there with some frequency (because of the geographical situation of the region, the nature of the land, etc.). A city is s_.__t to outbreaks of violence when outbreaks of violence ‘oceur and are Likely to occur there (because of the social or economic conditions in the city, ete), Every language is s_—____t __. change; this means that changes occur from time to time (and will continue to occur) in every language ‘A thing is s____._1 to an action (upon it or in it), to a process, a change, ot @ condition, when that action, process, change, ete. occurs init (or produces an effect on it) and is likely to do 50 again; usually because of the nature or natural tendencies of the thing ar because of its situation, position, ete, Zxamples: Every human environment is set —_ change, This district is s. considerable variations in temperature. Most human societies are sot conflict, These tsibes are s { _~ interference by their more powerful neighbors. ‘The villages in this region are s____ct to frequent flooding. Even when moving over a smooth surfice the wheels of a vel.—le are s_____t to friction, but on a rough or uneven sa... ace they are s_—___t to greater fr. 1; in both cases good rubber tites help to red_ce f_—ion. A model is something which represents and usualy also exemplifies a structure, a set of features, character, ete, and which i therefore used by people who wish to copy, imitate, draw ot study. 282units 9.2 WORD STUDY an exception (to) without exception with the exception, of illustrate an illustration that structure (or set of features, or character, etc.) or (0 produce more things of the same kind, Here ate some of the chief senses of the word, fa) Amodel of a ship, or a model ship (or a model airplane, a model engine, etc.) is & ‘svall-scale copy of a ship, airplane, etc, which represents its essential features. (b) _Anartis’s model is a person whose body or face is drawn or painted by artists or ‘students of art, Artists also use figures made of stone, wood, etc, as models jentists use models, e.g. a model of a molecule, a mode! of the flea’s jumping :mechanism, a model of the earth (showing its layers), to represent basic structures and mech ‘Those are used for the purposes of study and experience: (0) When scientists deserbe what they consider to be the basic features ofa structure or @ snechanism, or when sociologists deseribe the basic structural relations in a sockety (or group of societies) they sometimes eal this a model. In this sense a model isa pattern for describing things of the same general kind (©) Model sentences are written on the blackboard to exemplify important stauetures for students to study ot imitate, Spoken models of pronunciation can be produced for the same purposes. (D_ We sometimes deseribe a new type of car (now being manufactured in large numbers) as new model, “The lates! Ford model” isthe latest Ford ext design, or any eat having this design (a) “AParis mode!" usually signifies dress or something for women to wear which was ‘designed in Patis (either the original dress or any copy of it) (h) A person may be described as a model of patience, of honesty, ets. when he or she very clearly exemplifies « good quality, When we ask someone to take another person as his model we mean that he should try to imitate that person's behavior. ‘An exception is something which has essential features of a certain class of things but whieh does not follow a rule, description, etc, which applies to the rest of the class. A statement, description, «rule, a scientific law, ete. applies to a number of things or people without exception when it applies to every one of them. With the exception of = except 510 almost every rule. Statis....al information helps ng, Examples: There are ex. ‘us to distinguish the rules from the exe....tions. Most children prefer playing to worl but Jim is an ex. nn, The law of gravity applies to every material body w. 1 ex nn. You cannot say that the desire for material advantages is the basie motive in suman behavior; there are many ex.s to this. When the village was destroyed by floods everyone escaped w_—— the ex. __ of an old couple living in an isolated farm “There ate ex.—_..--.ne to te rule that all materials expand when they are heated. 1 was fortunate in obt_—ning all the furni__re I adver_ed for, with the exe. nofa writing table, Al fresh vegetables without ox. ni contain some vitamin C, When a writer or speaker illustrates a point, an idea, a definition, ete, he uses special examples or cases, or he may use pictures or diagrams, etc. to make something clear which is difficutt, abstract, general, oF far removed from our experience. In the workbook which you are now ‘studying many definitions and ideas are illushrated by examples or by diagrams or drawings. clear ‘An illustration, in this sense, is an example, a diagram, ete. used to make some 283,* -merey is the power not to punish someone (who one has te s 2 WORD STUDY omit omit (to) appeal (to, for) an appeal (to, for, against) of someone. ‘When an artist illustrates @ book he draws or paints pictures which are included in the book nd which help to make it more interesting or attractive of which help to make its subject ‘matter clear, An illustrated magazine is a magazine with a lot of pictures in it. In this sense ‘an illustration is one of the pictures, drawings, etc. which are included in a book or a magazine, Examples: 1 don’t undersiand this point; please ll____ate it by giving one or two examples, ‘Shé has il___._ted her classification by giving typical case histories. The Smith family provides an excellent f______tion of this type of family group. The mechanism of a blood cll is i_______ted by several diagrams, ‘The book is beautifully 4 ed with photographs of airplanes in flight, “Popular Agriculture” isan i ted magazine which will pzobably become a great favorite with young farmers, A useful feature of this textbook is the large number of it contains, as well as tables and factual summaries. tions ‘To omit something isto fail to include it, to leave it out To omit to do something is to fail to do it, not to do it (through forgetfulness oF intention). Examples: Several items have been 0... tte from the list, He 0_tted to sign his name on the check, When you rewrite the essay I advise you to o__t the last paragraph. Some of the details can be o_._..ed, Why did she oto investigate the matter? Tappeat to someone (or to his feelings, his sense of justice, etc.) or to an authority when 1 make a very serious request to him, to the authority, ete. (often when my previous requests have not received a favorable answer). Am appeal is a very serious request (to someone for something). We appeal against a decision, a judgment, ete. when we make an official request to have it changed, Examples: They spp...ed to the public for help. They made an app_—I for help. He ed to the judge for merey.* Tiiey app.._led to both countries to end the war immediately, No one listened to her a1. If yexs want children to work hard there is "Rot much point in a._.____ling to their sense of duty; you must a... to their interests and to their intelligence, The prisoners a..ed to the authorities for better treatment She app——.._d against the judge's decision A stage in development or in a process isa period, step or point in development or in the process Examples: The first s..ge of agriculture began when people discovered that seeds, when sown, would produce grain-bearing plants. ‘This st_ge of agriculture is marked by the cult..__tion of the soil (by hand) with rough impl_..ents, and the sowing of seeds. The first s..ge in the cotton manufacturing process isthe separation of the raw cotton from the cotton plant. My baby has reached the talking s__ge. ‘The intelligence of a human being develops in s—.ges. ‘There are several s__..._s in the development of money. The first st is the exchange of the surplus someone has produced (e.g. a surplus of grain) for the surplus produced by someone else (e.g. surplus of milk). The second 5. (©8.,a cow) as the measure of other commodities in exchange transactions. The third st. is the use of special objects (e.g. shelis, stones) as currency, 12. objects which are not used for othe: ht to punish); or a decision to use this power in favor 284 i the use of a particular commodityED, uNiT 9 9.2, WORD STUDY purposes. The fourth s_.. is the manufacture of special objects (eg. gold coins) as currency. The fifths is the s__.- of banks, checks, accounting, and currency conttol, The strike hhas now reached its {_-1$__g2, and the men axe anxious to return to work, If you leave at ~ of the disease {his st of the term, it will be very difficult to replace you. At this ro tt. ment will help her. We are now ready to und__take the second s_..__ ofthe proj jology (Note the pronunciation of these words.) (uncountable) ——_giotogy is the science of life and of living things (or organisms). The word is derived from biologi the Greek bios life, A biologist is a student of biology ot someone who has a knowledge of biology. abiologist Biological = of life or concerned with life (in a scientific sense); or of or for or in biology, (c4. biological mechanisms, the biological aspect of . .., biological theories, a biological laboratory, biological studies, ete) {An} ambition isa strong desire to be or to do something, or for something; @ person who has an fan) ambition ambition usually has a goal at some distance in the future toward which he works. An (countable or ambitious man is « man whose life is guided by ambition, espectally ambition for his own ‘ncountable) advancement. A project, a plan, etc is ambitious if it requires ambition to carry it our and if itis difficult, xequites a great deal of work, etc., and is more than we might expect of the person of group which undestakes it ‘Examples: He will never be a very successful man because he does not have much ambition It is her am___.-n to become a biologist. His great am. nist find a theory which vwill enable us to predict the occurrence of earthquakes and control their consequences. She is very a__..ious, but she is essentially honest and will not use unfair means ¢o gain her ends. History books are full of the stories of am.. ‘men, British atomic power stations already produce twice as much atomic power as American stations and they male ana » sclaim for the future; they calm that by 1985 the electrical power they supply will be greater in quantity than the power of the fel used to drive the stations, In this case atomic power will be used not only to convert the power of coal, gas, oi, et. into electricity but to multiply that power. Am ‘ people are sometimes able to ov—come the unfay ble circum .—c2s in which they were born or brought up. anopinion (of, ‘This article is about opinions and wiews, and vocabulary used in the eontext of these words. on, about) People have ideas. Some ideas are ideas zbout what people want to do or in——nd to do. view (bout,08) Tye eseae al prac ov int fos. Sore essa. People bet in my view, in MY hat something is right or wrong or that something is good or bad. These ideas are not purposes, opinion, ele. {hough they aay gu.-de pur.-_es. Ifyou b_..-ve that something is wong your be a matter aay have an effect on what you plan to do a reason (for) d Pa justify ‘A matter (the countable noun) is something 0 which atention may be given, or about which i ation EODIE MY tikor ask Gestins. apni sa paste persons ele! about etain eae ft cto his at_-de toward it, Consider the following sentences Gn) argument 1, What is your opinion ofthe new school buildings? argue 2. What is your on of the new teacher? argue (with or against someone) 3, What is your 0-.n of the university’s decision to close the Philosophy Department? 2859.2 WORD STUDY argue (about or against something) a argue (that ‘conclude a conclusion summarize asummary © je, the proposal or id 4. Idon’t have any 0..___ns on the m._ter She has strong o. about “equal pay for women."* 6. She has strong views on the m1 7, Inher o. 1, women should always be paid at the same tale as men, and a certain proportion of higher-paid posts should always be filled by women, 8, She is not likely to change her 0. 9. My v.w is that women can be subs___ted for men in most kinds of oceution. 10. Told the v_ In sentences 3, 4,5, 7,8, 9 and 10 view can be subs for opinion and views can be subs. ed for opinions without changing the meaning, A view (in this sense of the word) is firmly held opinion about « general or public matter, or an op—__.n based on general beliefs or principles. The m_—er about which one holds. an opinion may be either general or particular. Notice the verbs and constructions used with these words, We have ‘or hold views or opinions, We have an op_——..n of someone os something (ie. we have that men are more suitable than w—_..n for certain kinds of work. certain ideas or beliefs about him, her or it). We ean have a good o. nor abad 6m of a person or a thing. A view, in the present sense of the word, is not followed by of but by on, We can have opinions or views on or about a genera! mr. O. ns ‘and vs ean be described as strong, though the opposite word (weak) is not used about them. We can begin a sentence with: my my your your his his “In hier view.” or “Inher opinion,” or their their Dy” ete. We can ask questions about someone's v.._s or 0__..___s. We can discuss v_ws and op_—.ns, argue about them, agree with them or disa__ee with them. O- sand. v_.$ can change or be changed, They may be based on something or there may be very little basis for them, “In Mr. Smith's... (or 0. Opinions and views are personal and people are not always prepazed to give reasons for them. Sometimes a man, after expressing his 0. says “It is only my op——.-..m.” He may mean that he cannot give adequate sons for it, or that he ean give rs but that they wall not sst_fy everybody, or that other people's op. + (which differ fiom his) may have equal value or importance, But we may be prepared tog. r_._sons for our 0. about reasons, {have a rn for doing something when I can tell someone (or tell myself) why Tin.._d to doit, [hc ar._-n for believing something when I can tell someone (or tell myself) why Tbelieve it. When we ask someone “Why did you do it?” we ate asking for the for his action, When we ask someone “Why do you believe this?" we are a—_ing 1 for his be___f. A reason is something which (if itis ¢ good rn) justifies ‘that women should be paid at the same rate as men for the same type of work. 286an setion, a belief, decision, a claim, a request, ete, We justify an action when we show or prove that itis sight in terms of principles or standardsof right or wrong; or that iti uso Py ndvantageous in teem of x purpose; or that i is necessary oF unavoidable in ters of a basic human need, motive, or “drive.” When people give r—$ for their cn, they try to}. fy their actions, They do not always succeed in j..—.-fying themselves (oF their actions) because they may not be able to show or prove what they want to prove; oF people may say "This reascn is not sufficient jusifieaeion.” When we give rns fo" & ellefor ano. nora Vw we try 10 fy it, We ty to show tht itis based ‘on standards or principles, or on facts oF oa seliable prediction of on the truth, good reason isa. on for believing something, When I say “His views on the govern ‘ments foreign policy are not j ied (or ate unjustified)” mean that he does not have fe 1s for holding these v.-ws. A reason (For an op..—-n a Y= statement, tte) which ie given by a speaker or a waiter is sometimes called an argument, An argument {in this ense) isa. -son which i communicated to someone. A good ar..—-nt isa good 1 ___n,comm..-ated in speech or Writing. ICs one which j-——..—tes oF helps (0 ij 'y what is suid or written, When a man puts forward arguments in support of his v_.ws oF 0... he may appeal to (a) standards, principles or authority or (b) facts or evidence ox (c) both We do not accept a statement when there is no ev.....-.ce for it. We do not ac__pt = th ry when there iso e..-nce fort. An 0_._...-n whielt is sup———-ed by en _ not carries more weight than one for whieh there is no ene, Pacts and obser___tions which support a siavemnent, a theory, « belief, ete, are called evidence (for the statement, the theory, ete). Before a judge in law coust makes a decision he tistens (0 the ence. He bases his dec.__.-non the e...-ne, In a law court the e—.....nee includes what people say, capecially statements about what they aetually saw or heard, and it may include certain objects or records (such as fingerprints) which are shown to the judge swore based only on facts and ev—_nce probably no one would even disagree in the law court is not based only on the Trop ‘with anyone else, But the judge's 0 e fe, Itis algo based on the laws and on his interpre——tion of the laws. Similarly, our o— about people, things and general m___ers are not b..ed only on the e___onee but on our stands, prine_.les and general ideas and at_.——des. Let us consides an example. Mr. X isa teacher. In Mr. A’s 01, Mr. X is a good ‘teacher, In Mis. B's ¥_.-w, Mr. X is not a good teacher; he is even a poor one. Mi. A thinks fhe has good 1__--ns for his o-———n. Mrs. B thinks that her owt 0_.-——— is j-——-——ed. Both Mr. A and Mis, B appeal to stands and pr. Jes and both ap_..—I to facts or ev.——nee, But their arguments are quite different, [According to Mr. A’s st_.-rds, a good teacher is one who controls his classes well and succeeds in getting his students trough external examinations. Mr. A thesefore argues tliat Mr. X is @ good teacher, because all the ev indicates that he has complete ‘control of his classes: the results of the examinations alsa provide ev———..—¢ of Mr. X’s Success as a teacher and pr.—-de Me. A with a further arg.._nt, (All the pupils pass.) Mrs. B, on the other hand, has @ different scale for measuring “a good (eacher.” She judges a teacher by the all-sound psychological and mental development of the pupils, including the development of each individual's gifts and of his ability to eooperate with other pupils. 2879.2 WORD STUDY Mrs. Bis not cone...__ed with examination results or with the polite behavior ofthe pupils She looks for ev——co of a different kind; independence of thought and aetion, and fivondliness between the pupils. She does not find ev.—_.nce of this kind in Mr. X's classes; she finds, n fact, that the pupils are dependent on the teacher and competitive rather than friendly, So she concludes (i.e. finally decides) that Mr. X is a poor teacher 114s obvious that Mr, A will not ac__pt Mrs. B's argu.___ts and Mrs. B will not ac._t Mr. A's ar nts, People have sand hol! v__.ws. They do not always have the same o...._-s or hold the same v_...s, People have altitudes. They do not always have the same a. des, Your v-.-s about the qua....ties of a good teacher may differ from mine. Your 0. about equal pay for women may differ from mine, When people's v_ws or 0....._mson the same m_ter are opposed, we say that the people disagree. ‘They dis___ee about their plans and purposes, They may even dis_._.ee about facts, People who hold —nsand y__..5 do not always express their 0. People who dis_.ree with each other do not always ex ss their dis__—_eem sometimes they do. They may want to communicate thei di ment. When people have a discussion in order to ex.._.ss theit opposition to each other's op_.._-s we eall this an argument, (Notice that this is the second sense of an argument.) At——iments, ie. discussions of this kind, have various purposes. Sometimes people argue with cach other (.e. express their dis....__.__ment to each other) in order to reach agreement ox find out the (ruth, In this ease they want to settle the ar__-ment; they want to finish or conclude it. They want to reach a conclusion, The cone—ion of an arg.-ment is something that is agreed to (by both sides) atthe end of it. An arg_ment between two people can end in four ways; by one side winning or by the other side winning or by both sides cooperating {0 teach a conel.._ion (whicl nobody thought of atthe beginning), or by both sides ‘maintaining (.e. Keeping) thelr original opis. Not every arg_--—nt as a cone. sion, because not every arg-_nt ends in agr——.ment Sometimes a man argues to win, ic. to convince the people he is arguing with, When he con ces thei, he gets them to ac_—_t his own b_iefs,v..--s, 09-8, ate te. Ia man is conv ed of the truth or rightness of his own vs (ie. ihe believes thet or se..t8 their truth) he may feel a need of a duty to ¢_nee ather people of their truth or rightness, Not everyone who hokls ab—_f,av__wot 0 wants {o cn othes that it s true or right. But some people do. When a person's arguments {te conv.___.ing this means that he gives reasons which cone people. (Notiee that ‘nguments i used herein the frst sense of the countable noun.) Argument (the uncountable noun = the action of arguing) does not always change people's ¥—s, even if thelr v___._s are unjustified, i. if they have no good reasons for holding them. Sometimes people do not want to change their ideas; they may have strong mo..yes for believing in them:; they may not change them even when the ev_—.nee is against these Y= —ws. A mother whio has to go out to work and sup_._..t four children is likely to believe inv equal pay for women whatever ev._._noe is produced against her vw. Sometimes People continue to hold o____ns from force of habit. At..__.-nt does not usuislly change h, which are f__mily est__shed, We have now seen that an argument {the countable nous) as two senses: (a) a teason pul forward Co support a view, a statement, “le. and (b) a discussion in which people express their disagreement, We have also soen that tere isan uncountable noun argument which means the action of arguing 288usiT 9 9.2 WORD STUDY We summarize a passa ‘main ideas or points ina shorts} a discussion, an argument, a chapter in a book, ete. when we give its ce. starmary isthe result of summarizing something. We can give a_——ary in speech or writing. When someone reports 2 debate (ie. an arg...ment held in public or according (ovules) he does not usvaly r—rt everything that said; he su1_—-tizes the dete, The writer ofa scientific paper usually ends his paper with his conel__ions followed by 4 s———-ry. The con_.sion$ reached by a scientist as a result of he research or investigation are the facts or ideas (sometimes now ones) which her investigation shows to be tue, the facts or ideas which arise from her iny——...ation Exercise: Make sensible sentences from the following table 1 n m wv violence ) Ave you sre that equal poy forwomen —)——isjustfed Do you consider that War JA can bo justified Does he belive that king animals (a) wasjustified total disarmament ) shetr boli ) Isshe convinced that this view }A_— isreasonsble Can you be certain that her opinion )0) {doubt whether his interpretation } was reasonable the writer's conclusion) your request ) I onder whether ber claim ) Ido not know whether the proposal dB Ieisdoubtfiul whether his statement ) their enticism ) the students complaint) Peshaps her anger ) their teaction ye Probably my attitude ) iy decision ) Ie seems that your choice ) ‘Apparently the actangement jp surely the plan ) Under the cicumstanees the changein the plan) this policy j your action ) think their behavior > the undertaking ) We belive that the operation ) his interference } You know that our journey } the strike j In any ease this investi 5 the experiment ) Itis clear hat the venture ) our use of these methods) tis obylous thas the attempt ) 289 |9.2 WORD STUDY primitive civilized stage an institution tradition (ance traditional culture (uncountable) acalture cultural subject to Of course the risk ) the effort dF Obviously the time you ) ‘making this ) Clearly the delay ) Certainly the expense } Undoubtedly the cost of the joumey Note that questions about justification can apply tothe following: A(a) and A(b), general ‘eas (or general actions), ot views or opinions; B, communications requiring a yesponse; reactions and attitudes; , decisions, plans, policies; E, ations; F, time, expense, effort, anger involved in actfons. For A(a) and A(b) ifthe reference is toa general idea the present tense only should be used. For E and F (action or something involved in action), the use ofthe past tense often follows the idea that an action i justified by its results or its sucoess rather than by general principles or standards, For example, if we say “Clearly ‘your action was justified,” we often mean that it was proved right by the results, Ina previous section of this workbook we 1ead about primitive agyiculture, Primitive agriculture isan early Foren of agriculture. Iisa fox of agriculture which is found at an cauly stage in the developineat of apticultare, Pte musi is musi which represents ancarly st. in the history or development of music, P_....ve laws ae those which ae ‘ade by p_..____ve societies; they are not fully developed laws, not laws which belong toa highly developed legal system they represent early attempts at law-making, A p_.tive form of tife i an early, simple form of life, such es an oxganism consisting of only one cell or only a few eas; itis not a highly organized, highly developed form of life. Ap ve form of chiization isa very early st___ of ¢__._ vation; it represents vhe carly attempt of a community to civilize tiself, 10 besome civilized. But cvil_tion itself is not an early st. of human development; civil n itself sa late stage in the development of hhuman societies, So when we speak about primitive men, we usually mean nen who are not ¢_—_ized, who have not yet reached the ste of civ. n Civ. men make records of events and of knowledge which hes proved useful to them, and leave these records forthe benefit oftheir children, Civ zed men educate their children, They build towns and cites, They have relatwely highly developed systems of government and systems of law. Written records, towns and cities, schools, systems of law and of government, all these things are signs ofc tion and the expression of c_-..nation, C___.ation isthe stage in the history of mankind when men possess these things, or the process through which they acquire these things and become civ _.._ed. P, -—ve men do not possess written records; they do not have highly developed systems of government, P. ve men do not educate their children, except in practical activities such as hunting and fishing, P_.._._ve men and p__.._____ve tribes live in small com. ‘munities; they get their food by hunting or by practicing a p_ form of agriculture P__.___ve men are not men ata p. —ve t___ of ¢ tion, They are not ¢.—.ized at alll ‘They are men who ate at a p_—..__.ve stage of human history ot hhuman development. Human history has various stages, and zation is only one of these st..s. The most p_...tive st__— of human development is sometimes called “savagery.” At this st_—— peopie did not practice agriculture, not even the mast p__. form of agriculture, They lived by hunting and wandered from place to place. tive 2909.2 WORD STUDY A society which reaches the stage of civilization is ealled a civilization. One of the easliest conn n#ations of which we have records is the c_. ation of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, which a1ose between 3500 anc 3000 B.C. on the banks of the Tigris and the Euphrates, ‘The basis of all e———ization is social differentiation. ‘This differentia fon is not natural. It ean only arise when it becomes nosmal for cultivators to produce a food surplus sufficient to feed the specialists (people with special skills and functions) who organize and control a ¢_—..-zed society. In pr-—tive societies, peopie do not produce more tha they require immediately. They do not save or store grain. In ancient Mesopotamia a group of priests organized many thousands of farmers to work for therm, ‘The priests made these farmers exert themselves to produce more food than they actually required themselves. ‘They did this by telling the Farmers that men were slaves of the gods, and had been created to fice the gods from the necessity of working for a living, ‘They mranaged to convinee the mets that every Sumerian temple was the house of a particular god, and that the priests and other specialists were members of the god’s household. The farmers believed that if they did not work for their god night and day they would be punished by Nloods or amines (ie. periods when there is no rain and peaple die from lack of food). the priests used the insecurity and poverty of the people to est_..sh their own influence and power. Eventually the adequate service of the god became a major economic and political undertaking, involving not only the attention of the priests but the skills of many other specialists and craftsmen. These specialists (including teachers, clerks, legal experts, artists, ec.) helped (o create ¢_....-zed life. The priests remained the polit leaders and organizers. They alone cale... ated the seasons and mace calendars. They also designed the irr.tion systems and kept accounts, thus providing a structure within which com..__ity effort could funetion efficiently. Sumerian ¢_.___zation was genuine (= real) ation in alt ts aspects. It built cies, kept records and had a system of government, law and education. It had intelligent politcal leaders able to concentrate on non-agricultural tasks, It was, however, a primitive form of civilization in compatison with later stages of... One pr.-———¥e feature, for example, was the absence of any efficient central government. The priests from the independent temple communities met sometimes, but there were frequent conflicts because no eentral authority had been established with powers to determine the boundaries between cites, or distribute water between different areas in times of shortage (* scarcity) Another pve feature of this ation was the fact that its benefits were only enjoyed by a few people, not by a large percentage of the population—although it s perhaps only in the ast two centuries that people have claimed that itis the duty of 9 Givlized country to give equal righ(s and opportunities to everyone. Another pr-..._.ve feutuce of Sumerian civilization was its completely religious character ‘The adjective civilized! may also be used with a slightly different meaning. In modern English we often use the expressions a civilized man, a civilized life, civilized existence, a civilized neighborhood, etc., etc. to describe certain qualities of people, their life and their surroundings which are considered good and desirable, In this sense people are cited whten they behave well and politely, when their behavior is not wilt or violent bout Jawful and self-controlied; when they show respect for other people and do not give them trouble, Ac zed life is a life without violent conflicts and quarrels, a Life ia which the benefits of civilization are peacefully enjoyed, A ¢_—..ized neighborhood is, one in which people obey the laws and treat each other with respect; itis an orderly neighborhood free from violent incidents and disorderly behavior9.2 WORD STUDY The institutions of a community, a society or a civilization are its social forms, laws, customs, sociai functions, and practices, In this sense we can also speak of in, ns ‘na family, a university, ete, One of the major in. 1s in Sumerian society was the sevies of great annual festivals (= special days for roligious or other public activity and enjoyment), which corresponded to the turning points of the agricultusal year, The following are typical institutions of British society: the practice of shaking hands; the British pub and its informs family atmosphere; the committee as an instrument of ompanization; Ue National Health Insurance Scheme; roast beef, Yorkshize pudding, peas, apple pie and custard as @ Sunday lunch; tipping (i. giving extra money to servants) in hotels and restaurants; the festivals of Christmas, Easter and August Bank Holiday; the use of one’s Buests (0 do the washing-up; the British policeman, Another meaning of an institution is an organization such as «school or an old people's home whose purpose is related to some aspect of social welfare. In this sense hospitals, schools, training colleges, societies for blind people, ete. are inns. When we speak of an institution (in the first sense of the word), we refer to the stability or established character of « custom, practice, social form, social function, etc, We sometimes ‘mean, in addition, that itis typical of the society ox community in which itis found (e.g, when we say “The policeman in his blue uniform with his helpful attitude toward foceigners and children isa British instivution’ When an institution has been in existence since eaulier times, 0 that it was aso familiar to ur granclfathers and great-grandfathers, we can say that it isa traditional institution. Not all British inst. are trad__...__al; he National Health Service, for example, is a British inst. tion which has been in existence only since 1946, A tradition is a custom, Practice, ides or belief which is inberited from an earlier society by a later one, or from parents by their children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren and so on. Traditions give us a sense of continuity with the pasts tradition (an uncountable noun) is the transmission of custon beliefs, ete, from earlier times, especially the transmission of customs, ete, by word of mouth, by imitating or following the practices of one’s parents, ete, People who belong to 8 united family with a strong sense of continuity take pleasuse in Fas sand trad_..____al practices. Some poople are fond of national tt sand try to keep them alive. The binding force of tr 1s nol always a good thing; sometimes it makes People continue to do things in the same old way, instead of trying to solve their problems by doing things in a new way. Some tr. ‘ns are good and should be kept alive; others are bad or stupid and should be forgotten. A tr______n is something which is repeated, like a habit. An individual sometimes does things by force of habit, uc. just because he has done them in that way fora long time. Similarly a social group sometimes follows tr. nal Patterns of behavior just because it has inherited them from the past. But this is not always the case. People sometimes keop 10 a habit becauise it is good and helps them to lead the kind of life they want (o lead. Simitarty people in a society sometimes stick t0 their traditions because they like their society as itis and do not intend to change it. Some tr ns are stil useful guides to behavior; others are useless or may prevent us from responding in a new way to a changed environment; they may prevent us from trying to fit in with people who are not guided by the same tx ns, ‘Though tr_._.__—s have relatively long lives, no tr

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