2020

Suspension

MOHAMED ATEF DEWAR 354

MOHAMED ABD ELMAGED 358
 Suspension
INTRODUCTION
Suspension systems have evolved significantly since the earliest adaptations from horse-drawn buggies to
self-powered automobiles, but the basic requirements remain the same. Just as in the horse and buggy days,
today’s suspension systems must provide for safe
handling and maximum traction while being able to
sustain passenger comfort. To accomplish these goals,
modern suspension systems rely on various types of
springs, shock absorbers, control arms, and other
components. As a comparison, the front suspension from
a Ford Model T and from a modern vehicle are shown in
Figure. All the components of the suspension system
must work together to provide the proper ride quality and
handling characteristics expected by the driver and
passengers. Each component is engineered to work as a
part of the overall system. If one part of the system fails, it
can lead to faster wear or damage to other components.
Therefore, a complete understanding of each component
and how it functions as part of the whole suspension
system is critical.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUSPENSION

SYSTEM
All suspension systems have the same basic functions to
perform, regardless of the type of suspension system
used on the vehicle.

• The tires must be able to rise and fall, relative to

the body, to allow the spring and shocks to reduce
bump and road shock.
• The suspension allows the spring and shocks to
absorb the energy of a bump for smooth ride while
not allowing uncontrolled movement of the tires.
• The suspension must handle movements caused
by vehicle acceleration, breaking, and corning.
• The spring must be able to safely carry the weight
of the vehicle. Figure shows an example of failed
spring. this results in a very rough ride and
increases the load and stresses placed on other
components.
• It is important for the suspension to keep the
alignment of the tire as correct as possible so that the maximum contact is maintained between the tire
and the road.
 • The rear suspension must carry the wight of the rear of the vehicle and any addition loads in the trunk
cargo area, or bad.
Regardless of type, the suspension carries the weight of the vehicle. Through the springs and other
suspension components, the weight of the vehicle and its occupants is transferred to the wheels and tires.
While this may sound simple, carrying around a two- or four-ton vehicle is not an easy task. Not only is the
vehicle weight a load, but the additional forces of cornering, braking, accelerating, and negotiating every bump
and dip in the road are applied to the suspension and tires. Engineers must balance weight carrying, ride
control, comfort and handling when they are designing a vehicle.

Vehicle Frames
In use for decades, the body-over-frame design has the vehicle body as a separate component that, when
assembled, is bolted to the frame. The frame, shown in Figure 6-4, is often ladder shaped, with two long frame
rails that run the length of the vehicle and several crossmembers attached to the frame rails. The
crossmembers carry the engine, transmission, and
front suspension and tie the frame rails together. The
front suspension is bolted to the frame and front
crossmember. The rear suspension bolts to the rear of
the frame and rear axle. The combined weight of the
body, frame, passengers, and any other loads push
down on the springs, which in turn pass the weight
through parts of the suspension and finally to the tires.
Rubber bushings are placed between the frame and
the body to help isolate noise, vibration, and harshness
(NVH) from the suspension system. This body-over-
frame design was used on the Ford Model T and
continues to be used today on trucks and SUVs. Body-
over-frame construction is strong but is also heavy and
can allow unwanted flexing or twisting of the frame.
Most modern cars and small SUVs use a space frame
or unitized body. This design does not have a separate frame. The body is constructed of many parts that are
then assembled into a single unit, which is also the frame. This is called unibody construction and is shown in
Figure 6-5. Once assembled, the outer body panels are attached to the unibody. The front and rear suspension
systems are attached to the space frame with insulating rubber bushings, as in body-over-frame vehicles. This
reduces the transmission of noise and vibration. The
unibody frame reduces vehicle weight, increases
strength and rigidity, and allows a wider variety of
body designs. With both types of vehicle
construction, the majority of the weight of the vehicle
is carried by the springs. The springs provide the
support to hold the frame up and absorb the road
shocks and movement of the vehicle while it is in
motion. Different types of springs and suspension
systems are used depending on the type of vehicle.

• Independent Suspensions
To provide the best possible ride quality, many
vehicles use fully independent front and rear
suspension systems. This allows the vehicle to
respond to varying road conditions much more
effectively. Nearly all front suspensions found on
modern cars and light trucks are independent. Even four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles often have independent
front suspensions to improve their ride and handling qualities. The lower image in Figure 6-6 shows how each
wheel is able to move in an independent suspension while the upper image illustrates the movements of a
dependent or rigid axle. In an independent suspension, each wheel can move independently, so a bump on
one side of the vehicle does not affect the tires on the other side. This improves ride quality and maintains tire
contact with the road for the remaining tires. Many rear suspensions on rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicles are
independent systems. The differential is mounted solidly to the body or rear frame and short axles, similar to
those found on the front of front wheel drive (FWD) vehicles, are used to drive the rear wheels. This provides
improved ride quality and handling. These suspension types are discussed later in this chapter. Many FWD
cars have independent rear suspension systems as well. This improves ride quality and handling

• Dependent Suspensions
Still found on the rear of many vehicles and on the
front of most heavy-duty vehicles, dependent
suspensions sacrifice ride quality for strength. Since
the movement of one wheel affects the opposite
wheel, ride quality and handling suffer on these
systems. A large, straight I-beam is often used on
the front of heavy-duty vehicles, such as buses and
semi-trucks. An example of this is shown in Figure
6-7. This design is used for its strength and
durability but does not provide the best ride quality.
The rear axle on many RWD cars, light trucks, and
SUVs is a dependent live axle; an example is
shown in Figure 6-8. Live axle means the rear axle
is driving the rear wheels. Since a live rear axle is
one large assembly housing the differential gears
and axles, it is a dependent system. Live rear axles are mounted on leaf springs, coil springs, or air springs.
A vehicle with a solid rear axle that does not drive the rear wheels has what is called a dead axle or a rigid or
straight axle. An example of this type of rear suspension is shown in Figure 6-9. A dead axle supports the
weight of the rear of the vehicle and can be fitted with coil, leaf, or air springs. A dead axle is a dependent form
of suspension.

• Semi-Independent
Suspensions
Found on the rear of many FWD vehicles, this type of
system uses a fixed rear axle that twists slightly under
loads. This allows for semi-independent movement of
the rear wheels. This system typically uses coil
springs or struts. The semi-independent system
provides better ride and handling than a straight axle
while not being as costly as a fully independent
system.

• Front Suspensions
The main purpose of the front suspension is to
provide safe, comfortable handling while allowing
wheel movement for the steering and enabling the
driver to react to various road conditions. To
accomplish this, several different front suspension styles are used in modern vehicles. The front suspensions
on FWD vehicles also must be able to handle the additional torque of driving the front wheels. Additionally,
during braking, as much as 70 percent of the vehicle weight is transferred to the front, adding additional loads
to the front suspension. Vehicle type and intended use of the vehicle are the main considerations when
engineers begin to design the suspension systems. Many cars have suspensions that look very similar, but
actually have many differences. The exact size and placement of components have a large effect on individual
vehicle driving characteristics.

• Rear Suspensions
The rear suspension must be able to carry any
additional loads placed in the rear of the
vehicle while still maintaining the correct ride
height. The rear suspensions on many FWD
and RWD vehicles are similar in that a solid
type of axle is used. Though strong, a solid
axle does not provide the level of hand- ling
and ride quality that an independent rear
suspension does. The rear suspension on
RWD vehicles must be able to handle the
torque of the driveline. This can be difficult
since torque tries to twist the vehicle and rear
suspension.

Suspension main component

Springs
The springs in the suspension have two important functions. Springs support the vehicle weight and absorb
the bumps and movements that occur when driving. There are four types of springs used in suspension
systems.
Coil springs
are a length of steel wound into a coil shape.
Used on most front and many rear
suspensions, coil springs, such as those
shown in Figure are large pieces of round
steel formed into a coil. The spring absorbs
energy as the coils are forced closer together.
This is called compression. The stored energy
is released when the coil extends back out.
The energy continues to dissipate as the
spring bounces. Eventually, the energy is
exhausted and the spring stops bouncing.
Coil springs are found in front and rear
suspension systems, have a compact design,
and do not need maintenance. When the Figure A selection of different coil springs. The first on the left is a front
spring becomes fatigued or weak, ride height coil spring from a RWD truck with an SLA front suspension. The middle
will drop, and the spring will need to be spring is a variable-rate rear coil spring and the right spring is a
standard-rate rear spring.
replaced. Coil springs are often sandwiched
between the lower control arm and the vehicle
frame. In this position, the weight of the vehicle is pushing down against the spring, which is supported by
the lower control arm. This configuration allows movement of the suspension while the spring carries the
weight and dampens out road shock. Coil springs often use rubber insulators between the spring and the
frame to reduce noise. The coil springs used in strut suspensions appear similar to those used in other
applications but are not interchangeable. Most strut coil springs are made of smaller diameter steel but are
larger in total outside diameter than those in other applications. Strut coil springs are usually painted or
coated with rust- resistant coverings. Coil springs are categorized as either standard or variable-rate
springs. A standard-rate spring has evenly spaced coils and requires a specific amount of force to
compress the spring a given amount. Further compression requires an additional force, equal to the
original force. A variable-rate spring has unequally spaced coils and requires an increasing amount of force
to achieve further compression. For example, a standard-rate spring may require 300 lbs. of force to
compress one inch and an additional 300 lbs. to compress the second inch (600 lbs. equals two inches). A
variable-rate spring requires the same 300 lbs. of force to compress one inch but requires 500 lbs. to
compress the next inch (800 lbs. equals two inches). Coil springs used in passenger car rear suspensions
are usually lighter duty than those found at the front. This is because the majority of the vehicle’s weight is
often toward the front. Coil springs on the rear of larger passenger cars, trucks, and SUVs are often
variable-rate springs.
Leaf springs
are long semi-elliptical pieces of flattened steel
and are used on the rear of many vehicles.
Leaf springs are typically mounted as shown in
Figure. Leaf springs have been in use since
the horse-and-buggy days. A leaf spring is a
long, flat piece of spring steel, shaped into a
semicircle. The spring is attached to the frame
through a shackle or bracket assembly that
permits changes in the effective length of the
spring as it is compressed. To carry heavier
loads, additional leaves can be stacked below
the master leaf. Increasing the number of
leaves increases load carrying capacity but
makes the ride stiffer. Some suspensions use
transverse leaf springs that are mounted
perpendicular to the frame. In a transverse arrangement, one leaf spring supports both sides of the
suspension. This style was used for many years on the Corvette and on some FWD vehicles with
independent rear suspensions.
Air springs
are thick, tough bags filled with air that act as
springs. Air springs are used on some larger
sedans and most large commercial semi-
trucks and trailers. Air springs are typically
located in the rear, though some
manufacturers use air springs at both the
front and the rear, as shown in Figure. Air
springs, like torsion bars, are adjustable. On
many vehicles, the on-board computer
system uses a ride height sensor to
determine suspension load. As additional
weight is added to the trunk, the suspension
will drop. When the computer senses this
drop, it can turn on an on-board air
compressor to supply more air to the air
 springs. The increased pressure in the springs will restore the ride height to the desired position. Some
systems may use the adjustment of air pressure to the air springs to control ride height based on the
vehicle’s speed or driver input.
Torsion bars
are coil springs that are not coiled. Torsion bars are lengths of round steel bar fastened to a control arm on
one end and the frame on the other end. Movement of the control arm causes the torsion bar to twist. The
absorption of the twist is similar to compression of a coil spring. As the torsion bar untwists, the control arm
returns to its normal position. Torsion bars are used in many 4WD vehicles where a front drive axle
occupies the space where the coil spring
normally sits. The torsion bar shown in Figure
6-16 is mounted to the lower control arm and
the transmission crossmember. Torsion bars
can be mounted in either the upper or lower
control arms. The control arm acts as a lever
against the torsion bar, twisting the bar. The
bar twists since it is rigidly mounted in a
crossmember. As it releases energy and
untwists, the torsion bar returns to its original
shape, forcing the control arm back into
position. An advantage of torsion bars is that
they are adjustable. At the rear torsion bar
mount is an adjustment mechanism. If a
torsion bar-equipped vehicle is sagging, the
torsion bar may be able to be adjusted to
bring the vehicle back into specification.
When a torsion bar is replaced, it must be
tightened to provide the necessary lift to
support the vehicle.

shock Absorbers

Shock absorbers are actually dampers, meaning that they

reduce or make something less intense. The springs do the
shock absorbing while the shocks dampen the spring
oscillations. Without the shocks, our vehicles would
continue to bounce for a long time after every bump, dip,
and change in body movement. The most common type of
shock is the direct double acting hydraulic shock absorber.
This means that the shocks are used to directly act on
motion; double acting means that they work in both
compression and extension modes, and hydraulic means
that a fluid is used to perform work. Compression is upward
wheel travel, also called jounce. Extension is downward
wheel motion and is also called rebound. Shocks are
typically mounted near the springs, with the lower end of
the shock mounted on a lower control arm or axle, as
shown in Figure 6-21. The top of the shock, which is
connected to the shock piston, is mounted to the vehicle
body. Inside the shock are two chambers, each partially
FIGURE 6-22
filled with oil, as shown in Figure 6-22. The shock piston
moves up and down in the main chamber. This
movement displaces the oil into a second chamber. A
set of one-way valves control the flow of oil from the
chambers. Moving the oil is difficult. This is where the
shock’s resistance to movement comes from. Figure 6-
23 shows the movement of oil through the valves and
chambers. By allowing more oil to flow, a shock will
dampen less and provide a smoother ride. By restricting
oil flow, the shock will be more resistant to movement
and provide a stiffer ride. A shock may have an equal
amount of resistance during both compression and
extension, or it may have more resistance during
extension. This is because the spring naturally resists
compression, and the shock does not need to add much FIGURE 6-22
resistance to that of the spring. But since the spring will
easily extend out, the shock’s greater resistance on
extension can help better control spring action.

CONTROL ARMS
Control arms are used to control wheel movement. Used
on both front and rear suspensions, they are commonly
referred to by their position, such as the upper and lower
control arms. Common control arm configurations are
shown in Figure 6-24. Control arms are also called A-
arms or wishbones due to their similarity to being A- or Figure 6-23
wishbone shaped. A-arms typically have two connections to
the frame and a ball joint for connecting to the steering
knuckle. The control arm mounts to the frame with
bushings. These bushings allow for up and down
movement of the arm while controlling back and forth
motion. The bushings are generally rubber and steel and
are pressed into the control arms. In addition to acting as
pivots for the control arms, the bushings act as dampers,
twisting and untwisting to return the control arm to its
original position. Also connected to lower control arms are
the stabilizer bar links. The stabilizer bar links join the lower
control arms to the stabilizer bar. These links can be a set
of bushings and washers or a solid link with ball-and-socket
joints.
Ball Joints
Ball joints allow the steering knuckle to pivot for steering
while providing a tight connection to the control arms and
Figure 6-24
preventing any unwanted up and down or sideways
movement. Ball joints use a ball-and socket joint to allow a
wide range of motion, similar to a shoulder or hip joint. An illustration of a ball joint is shown in Figure 6-27. Ball
joints can be one of two types, load carrying or nonlead carrying. Load-carrying ball joints support the weight
carried by the springs. Because of this, these joints tend to wear faster and need replacement more often than
nonload-carrying joints. Nonlead-carrying joints provide a
steering pivot and component connection with a wide range
of movement just like load carrying joints, but without the
sprung weight applied to them. Figure 6-28 illustrates how
weight is carried by a ball joint. Ball joints are mounted to
the control arms in a variety of ways. The most common
ways are a press fit, bolt in, and rivets. Some older vehicles
had threads on the ball joint itself, which was then threaded
into the control arm. Joints that are riveted at the factory
are replaced with joints that bolt into the control arm. Some
heavy-duty and older vehicles use kingpins instead of ball
joints. A king pin connects the steering knuckle to the front Figure 6-27
axle. King pins and king pin bushings do not use a ball-
and-socket joint; instead, the king pin is pressed into the
bushings. The king pin rotates in the bushing to allow for
steering movement.
Steering Knuckles
Steering knuckles support the wheel and tire, brakes, and
sprung weight of the vehicle. A steering knuckle can be
mounted in a variety of ways for both front and rear
suspensions. Figure 6-29 shows an example of a common
steering knuckle configuration. The steering knuckle also
has an attachment point for the outer tie rod end. A wheel
bearing or set of bearings mount to the steering knuckle to
provide the mounting of the wheel hub. Steering knuckles
are also sometimes called spindles. The spindle portion of
the steering knuckle is where the wheel bearings and Figure 6-29
brake components are mounted. The spindle supports
those components and allows the wheel to rotate on the
wheel bearings.
Stabilizer Bars. Stabilizer bars
also called sway bars or anti-roll bars, reduce body roll.
These steel bars attach to the lower control arms or axle
assembly and the body or frame. When the vehicle body
starts to lift while cornering, the bar tries to move with the
body. Since the outer ends of the stabilizer bar are
connected to the control arms or axle, and the control
arms cannot move upward, it forces the stabilizer bar to Figure 6-30
pull the body back down, limiting body roll. An illustration
of a stabilizer bar is shown in Figure 6-30. Figure 6-31
shows how the stabilizer bar is connected to the control
arm. Some vehicles have adjustable stabilizer bar links,
while some modern sports cars use electronic anti-roll
systems to reduce body movement. Regardless of the
type, broken stabilizer bar links will cause excessive body
roll while cornering.
tires, Wheels, and Bearings as Part of the suspension
Figure 6-31
 • Types of suspension system and common use

Double wishbones
are used mostly at the front. There are two wishbones, one above the other, to keep the wheel upright as it rises
and falls.

A double-wishbone suspension. Wishbones are fitted at their outer ends to the top and bottom of the steering
swivel member. The two forks of each wishbone extend
inward to pivot on the frame. A tie rod - a steadying bar -
is connected between the frame and the lower wishbone

MacPherson-strut suspension

can be used at both front and rear. The wheel hub is

fixed rigidly to an upright, telescopic, tubular strut which
has its top end anchored to the frame or to a reinforced
wing.

On front wheels, the whole strut swivels to allow

steering. Pivoted arms extend inward and forward to the
frame in order to keep the wheel upright and resist
accelerating and braking forces.

A trailing arm is attached to the wheel hub at

one end and extends forward to a pivot on the frame.

The arm may be broadened into a V shape with two pivots, either Figure 1 Wishbone suspension
side by side or with the inner pivot slightly behind the front one - a
semi-trailing arm. Trailing arms are usually found at the rear only.

A trailing-arm suspension on a rear-wheel-drive car. The

arm is attached to the rear wheel hub and broadens into a V
whose two arms extend forward to pivot on the frame. The
differential is fixed to the frame and the drive shafts have
universal joints

A leading arm, used only at the front, is the opposite

of a trailing arm, with the wheel in front of the pivot.

Swing axles may be at the front or rear. The system is

like a beam axle cut in half and attached to pivots on the
frame.

Usually the half-axle is broadened into a V with front and rear Figure 2 Trailing-arm suspension
pivots to keep it from twisting.
Anti-roll bars
Pivots allow the bar to twist, but to a limited degree so
that rolling is controlled.

To restrain cars from rolling - leaning over on corners - an

anti-roll bar is used, often at the front, sometimes at the
back and sometimes at both front and back.

It is a torsion bar crossing the car through two pivots on

opposite sides of the frame.

Outside the pivots the bar bends back and one end is
attached to each wheel, usually through one or two flexible rubber bushes.

When one wheel moves up it pulls up one end of the bar and the other end pulls up the other wheel, keeping the
car level.

New technology
electronic suspension systems
Electronic suspension systems have been in use for many years. Basic systems use a ride height sensor and air
adjustable shocks or air springs to increase ride height as vehicle load increases. Newer vehicles go beyond this,
using magnetorheological fluid in the shocks and active roll stabilization to greatly enhance ride quality and
handling.

• PARTICAL PART

Checking suspension joints and pivots

Almost all joints and pivots in a modern suspension system have rubber or plastic bushes, with the possible
exception of steering swivel joints .

Because of the constant movement of the suspension parts, the bushes gradually wear out, soften and perish.

Oil contamination also causes them to deteriorate, and if they are allowed to deteriorate too much, they become
loose and the steering and road holding suffers.

It is essential to make a regular check on the condition of all joints in the suspension system

If you find any joints or pivots to be worn or damaged, replace them (See How to replace anti-roll-bar bushes ) or
have them replaced at a garage as soon as possible.

If any are found to be contaminated with oil, find the source of the leak and repair it, otherwise any new bushes
fitted will be affected.

Examination of suspension parts can often be carried out with the wheels still on, but on some cars, you may
have to remove them. Wheels must be on for some checks.
Support the car securely on axel stands under chassis members. The force used to lever various suspension
parts can easily topple a car that is not securely supported.

If you have only two axle stands, raise one end of the car at a time.

Check the wishbone joints where they pivot at the inner ends, and also the moving joints and pivots at the outer
ends of the wishbone and track-control arms where they are fixed to the steering swivel members, or suspension
legs in the case of MacPherson struts (See How car suspension works ).

Wipe road dirt and grease from all the joints and pivots, and clean around the mounting brackets. Check for
corrosion at each point (See Cleaning the outside and checking for rust ).

If the rubber bushes are distorted, perished, cracked or contaminated by oil, they must be replaced. Some you
can replace yourself; others should be replaced at a garage.

Check around the mountings for signs of rust or damage, probe load-bearing areas with a screwdriver and tap
them with a small hammer to make sure they are sound.

Any rusted metal should be treated with a proprietary anti-rust fluid and repainted (See Eliminating rust before
painting ). If it is badly corroded, it must be replaced at a garage, which may be able to weld in reinforcing plates.
Otherwise, the suspension mounting may break loose.

Ask a helper to put a stout lever under each front wheel in turn and lever upwards, while you watch both the inner
and outer joints of the wishbone or track-control arms.

Look for any movement other than the normal pivoting motion.

If you see any movement inwards and outwards, examine the joints and bushes closely — they should not move.
Use a lamp in dark, underwing areas.

With MacPherson struts, look at the mounting at the top of the inner wing panel. Check for corrosion, which is a
common problem with older cars.

Open the bonnet and bounce the front of the car up and down while watching the rubber bush at the centre of the
strut mounting. The bush should barely move.

If any flexing is seen, the bush should be replaced. Even if there is no flexing, check also the condition of the
bush itself. Look for perishing and cracking and replace the bush if it is not perfect.

On front-wheel-drive cars, check the condition of the constant-velocity joints on each drive shaft (See How to
check U-Joints ).

The joints are usually protected by rubber gaiters. Wipe each gaiter clean and inspect it. If you find splits, have
the gaiter replaced at a garage.

A damaged gaiter allows the oil or grease to escape and dirt to enter the joint; this causes excessive wear, and
replacing the joints is expensive.
Checking the front suspension

A MacPherson-strut-type front suspension. The strut incorporates a damper and coil spring.

Examine all the swivels on the suspension and

steering links.

Jack the front of the car up, allowing the

suspension to hang, and support it on axle stands.
With weight off the suspension, inspect the rubber
bushes for cracks, softness or distortion.

Check all the mountings and rubber bushes at the

ends of the dampers and the anti-roll and stabilizer
bars. Check all ball joints by levering with a bar.

Then check the suspension in its normal loaded

position by jacking up each suspension arm in
turn. Use a strong lever to try to move jointed
components apart - any movement means that the
joint must be replaced at a garage.

Figure 3 Lever the wheel upwards to find play in joints.

Then check the suspension in its normal loaded position by
jacking up each suspension arm in turn. Use a strong lever to try to move jointed components apart - any
movement means that the joint must be replaced at a garage.

Get a helper to force the suspension upwards, using a long lever placed under the wheel, and look for play or
distortion in all the joints and bushes.
Open the bonnet and check the top mountings on
MacPherson-strut assemblies. Check the top pin bolts
and rubber bushes: also, the whole mounting plate and
surrounding area for rust. On some cars a reinforcing
plate can be welded to the upper mount of the
MacPherson strut, if rust has not weakened the rest of
the structure. This work must be done by a garage.

Check the swivel pins on the steering swivel members

with care: they take a lot of road shocks and are exposed
to water and dirt. Pull against the top and bottom pins
with a stout lever wedged against a solid chassis
member.

Figure 4 Check a MacPherson-strut top mounting plate

Figure 5 Check stabiliser arm joints for movement. Figure 6 Use a steel bar to check swivel pins.

Grip and twist the track control and stabilizer arms, to see if
there is movement in the ball joints. Examine the rubber-
bushed ends and joint dust covers. If there is loose
movement, or if covers are split, renew the joints
(See Replacing track-rod-end ball joints ).

In joints that are held by large pins or bolts, lever sideways

while checking for movement. Check the condition of the
rubber bush and the state of the bolt. If they are worn, have
them replaced.

Figure 7 Lever joints sideways and look for movement.

Checking double wishbones
The wishbones are mounted on the chassis at their inner
ends. A coil spring and telescopic damper are mounted
between the upper and lower arms.

The wishbones support the steering swivel member at

their outer ends, and the lower wishbone provides a
mounting point for the coil spring and damper.

Examine the steering swivel pins for wear

(See Checking steering swivel pins ). Check the
condition of the bolts and bushes that hold the inner
ends of the wishbones to the car chassis. Renew any
worn parts.

Figure 8 Test the anti-roll bar mountings.

Checking the rear

suspension
Rear suspension

The rear suspension is simpler than the front, and

most of the bushed joints are easy to inspect.

Jack up the rear of the car and support it on stands

with the front wheels chocked.

Lever against the various components while looking

carefully' to see if there is any movement in the joint
or bush.
This type of rear suspension employs trailing arms and coil springs with included telescopic dampers.

Check the joints at the end of the radius arm, or any other rod which locates the axle.

Wipe each joint clean, and check if it is perished, cracked or contaminated by oil.

If you suspect that a bush is damaged, check further by levering hard against it - make sure the other end of the
lever is resting against a strong part of the suspension or floor pan.

Take care not to crush brake pipes or cables.

It helps to have an assistant lever against the joint while you watch it for movement.

Make sure, too, the pivot bolts are tight, and that the mounting brackets and the areas around the brackets are
not corroded. Probe them with a screwdriver and tap them lightly with a hammer to see if they are sound.

If any weak metal is found, take the car to a garage and have the rusty areas repaired - assuming the value of
the car makes that worth the cost.

Usually, removing the rear suspension locating arms is straight-forward - unscrew the pivot bolts and lift out the
arm.

Take it to a garage to have the old bushes removed and new ones fitted, if they are available. If they are not, the
complete arm assembly must be replaced.

Checking torsion bars

Many cars have torsion bars in the suspension instead of coil
or leave spring at the front, the rear or at both ends.

The inner mounting is on the floor pan and is usually well

covered against deterioration but can fail because of
corrosion fatigue in due course. Check the soundness of the
metal at the anchorage point.

The outer end, where it is fixed to the suspension member,

can be attacked by mud, stones and road debris. Check its A front suspension with torsion bar and
Figure 9
bushes along with all the others. piston damper.
Checking rear trailing arms
Rear trailing arms

Check the bushes at both ends of the trailing arm, the damper mounts and the axle locating-arm bushes.

Examine every link and joint, including the damper mountings, for worn, distorted and oil-contaminated bushes.

Check the axle locating arm by trying to twist it in its bushes. There should be little or no movement.

Do not be afraid to lever hard against the mountings - road shocks can be severe, and the bushes need to be
perfect.

If there are any worn or damaged components, have them replaced by a garage.

Checking an independent rear suspension

Independent rear suspension

Inspect the suspension pivot bolts and bushes for excessive distortion with the wheel off the ground.
Jack the wheel off the ground and support that corner of the car with an axle stand placed under a chassis
member. Remove the wheel if necessary and examine all the rubber bushes as they are distorted by the weight
of the suspension.

Replace any that are cracked or are badly distorted.

Renewing MacPherson-strut inserts

When the damper inside a MacPherson strut wears out, you
can buy a replacement cartridge which — depending on type
— may or may not include new parts for the strut itself.

You will need a pair of coil-spring compressors. Hire them if

necessary, do not use makeshift arrangements of clamps,
wire or cord. They are unsafe.

Loosen the wheel nuts and raise the car on axel stands
under chassis or frame members.

Remove the wheels, and open the bonnet or boot lid to gain
access to the suspension from above and below.

Removing a standard strut

The standard MacPherson strut, which does not unbolt in
the middle. It is attached by three bolts at the top and two at the bottom.Unscrew the three nuts above the
mounting to release the top of the strut. Do not loosen
the central nut between them, which would release the
coil spring from the strut.

Remove the two bolts underneath the track control arm

which fix the strut to the arm.

At this stage, examine the suspension before

proceeding further: on several cars there is no need to
disconnect any of the steering ball joints or the anti-roll
bar (if fitted).

On others the track-rod end, and sometimes the track

control arm or anti-roll bar or both, must be detached.

Clamp the flexible brake hose to close it. Use a brake-

hose clamp.

Disconnect the hose from the rigid brake pipe on the

strut by unfastening the union nut.

Lift the strut and the brake assembly from the track
control arm. Be careful - they are heavy. You may need
a helper.

When reassembling, bleed the brakes and top up the

master cylinder if necessary.
 .

Figure 11 Unscrew the three strut mounting Figure 12 Clamp the brake hose with a
nuts, but not the central nut brake-hose clamp before disconnecting
the hose.

Figure 10 Disconnect the brake hose from

Figure 13 Separate
the strut from the track control the union on the strut. Plug the end of the
arm by unscrewing two bolts under the arm rigid pipe.
Removing a unit-replacement strut
The unit-replacement strut can be split in two by removing
two or three bolts.

Unscrew the two nuts (on some cars three) above the top
mounting turret to release the top of the strut.

Do not unscrew the central nut between them, which would

release the coil spring.

The top part of the strut is fixed to the bottom part by bolts -
there may be one, two or sometimes three.

The lowest of the bolts separating the strut sections may

be eccentric - refit in exactly the same position.
With the bolts removed, free the top section of the strut.

The lower, or lowest bolt may be eccentric, as a means of

adjusting the camber. Mark its head so that you can refit it
in the same position.

Remove the nuts and pull out the bolts to free the top half of the
strut.

Removing and refitting a damper

Clamp the strut in a vice with the upper end highest. Compress
the spring before removing the central nut.

Clamp the strut in a vice with the upper end higher than the
lower end to prevent the oil running out.

Fit a pair of spring compressors round at least four coils of the

spring, and tighten evenly until the spring is well compressed
and tension on the upper spring mount is released.

On a unit-replacement strut, use an Allen key to release the top

while holding the outer hexagon with a spanner.

Then unscrew the central nut at the top of the damper; on a

unit-replacement strut it must be unscrewed with an Allen key.

Lift off the spring pan and its cap.

Lift off the top spring pan and any spacers, and the upper bearing if
applicable. Then lift off the compressed spring.

Remove the spring complete with spring compressors. Keep the

spring compressed ready for replacement.

If there is a rubber gaiter round the damper, remove this too.

Free the damper from the strut by unfastening the large

gland nut between its two telescopic sections.

If you do not have a spanner that fits the nut, put it in the
vice and turn the strut. If the nut is rusty, penetrating arm
will help to free it.

Check the threads on the strut tube for damage and clean
them.

You may now be able to remove the damper as a single, sealed

unit. If so, clean the inside of the strut with petrol, let it dry and put
in the new damper cartridge.
Alternatively, you may have to dismantle the old damper to remove it, but it is not difficult to fit the replacement
cartridge, because it is in one piece and includes a replacement piston arm.

Remove the gland nut with a spanner or clamp it in a vice and turn the strut. You may be able to pull the damper
cartridge straight out of the strut - or it may need further dismantling.

Read the instructions on the cartridge box. They may tell you to pour oil into the strut casing - usually 2fl. oz
(50ml) of light engine oil or special damper oil - to cool the cartridge and prevent corrosion.

Refit the gland nut. Fix it firmly by denting the outside of the casing in one spot with a hammer and punch.

Refit the spring. Make sure it is set straight, then decompress it evenly. Fit the top spring platform, nut and
packing pieces. Then tighten the Centre nut fully.

Replacing lever-arm dampers

Front lever-arm damper
Front damper fittings
The damper may sit upright and be bolted to the inner wing or to the front bulkhead. The arm operates through a
slot in the inner wing. The damper may also be fixed under the wing, to a chassis member or subframe, and
operate through a series of links.

A lever-arm damper on the front often acts as part of the suspension unit.

Loosen the front wheel nuts, jack up the front of the car, place axle stands under the chassis members and chock
the rear wheels. Remove the front wheels.

Put the jack under the bottom suspension arm on one side. Raise the jack to push the arm up and to take the
weight off the damper arm.

The steering arm may be in the way. If so, free it is using a ball-joint separator; you may be able to hire a scissor
type.

Alternatively, it may be possible to separate the joint by a sharp hammer blow. Unscrew the nut until it just covers
about three or four threads at the end of the ball-joint pin. Hit it with a soft-faced hammer in order to break the
seat. When the joint is free, separate the two parts and move the steering arm out of the way.

Undo and remove the bolt that fixes the lever-arm damper to the steering swivel (or stub axle). The damper body
may be bolted to a chassis member, subframe or the inner wing. Undo the fixing bolts and lift it away.

Rear damper
Rear location

The damper is usually bolted to a reinforced part of the inner wing and may operate via a link rod.

The rear lever-arm damper is a separate part of the suspension. There is generally no need to disturb the rest of
the rear suspension.

Loosen the rear wheel nuts, jack up the back of the car and place axle stands under the chassis members.
Chock the front wheels. Remove the rear wheels.
Undo and remove the nut and bolt which holds the damper arm to the connecting link. Undo the damper fixing
bolts and lift away.

How to top up a damper

The filler plug is on the top. Wipe around the area to clean off road grime. Remove the filler plug with a spanner
or large-bladed screwdriver. Top up with damper fluid specified by the manufacturer.

A lot of topping up means a leak; repl

Remove the filler cap when the

Brush off grime.
area is free

Top up with the specified damper fluid

Renewing a front lever-arm damper
The lever arm may be secured to the top swivel by a castellated nut and split pin. Remove the pin with pliers and
undo the nut. Use a ball-joint separator to free the arm from the tapered mounting pin and pull the whole
assembly clear.

Undo the bolts holding the damper to the chassis. Fit the new damper in reverse order of removal.

Straighten the split-pin legs and Use a socket or ring spanner to remove
remove with pliers. Fit a new split the castellated nut
pin when reassembling the joint.

Separate the arm from the mounting pin. When the joint is free, pull the swivel
Here a fork-type separator and soft-faced
assembly clear of the lever arm.
hammer are being used.
Damper fixed to chassis member

Undoing a damper fixing bolt. Some have nuts as well and need two spanners. The damper fixing bolts may
screw into captive nuts on the chassis or wing, or there may be bolts with nuts on the other side, in which case
two spanners are needed.
SUMMARY
The suspension system carries vehicle weight, reduces road shocks, and provides safe handling and
a comfortable ride. Independent suspensions allow each wheel to move without affecting the other
wheels. When one wheel on a dependent suspension axle moves over a bump, the tire on the
opposite side also moves. Oversteer is when the rear of the vehicle loses traction and causes the
rear of the vehicle to slide during a corner. Understeer is when the front tires lose traction and the
vehicle continues to travel in a line that does not follow the path of a turn. Sprung weight is the weight
carried by the springs. Unsprung weight is weight that is not carried by the springs. Shock absorbers
are used to dampen spring bounce or oscillations. Ball joints located on the same control arm as a
spring are load-carrying ball joints. Stabilizer bars are used to reduce body roll and lean when
cornering. MacPherson struts combine a coil spring, shock, and upper pivot into one unit. Modified
strut suspensions relocate the spring away from the strut. Short/long arm suspension, while once the
most common, are now used mostly on large RWD vehicles. Changing wheel and tire size on a
vehicle can cause unwanted handling and steering consequences. Modern luxury and high-
performance sports cars often have electronic suspension systems that can adapt to road conditions.

REFFRANCES
• Cengage Learning 2014 CHAPTER 6
• https://www.howacarworks.com/suspension (suspension section)