‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com (8) Inadequate advice to the user of safety procedures related to the product. For example iron. base metal powder sintered bearings are more suitable for higher loads and slower speeds than copper base bearings. (9) The P/M process allows considerable cost variation if specific part requirements are not clear. Such a situation would consequently bring forth a considerable quality variation too. For widely different costs; there may be various reasons such as (1) revision of tolerance (2) difference in manufacturing practices (3) introduction of supplementary processes such as repressing etc. and (4) lack of any specified minimum density. In brief, gross dienes in quality may lead to a serious misunderstanding of requirements, Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom Defects Analysis of Sintered Components Quality Control of Sintered Products - Some Case Studies Sintered products are often used to replace traditional metals for cost saving or technical improvement or ideally both. In either case itis necessary to quantify the service parameters in terms of physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Moreover, while dealing with sintered prods, one mst emphasize the need for Funetion awareness when specifying any material. ab aw Unfortunately, in powder metallurgy industry there is not much record of past fails which may help in selecting a material that will satisfactorily perform a particularftinction. To simplify the matter, the first thing is to define the function of the com ngAt “and develop fametional exis which will determine whether the part will do the job, THs brings out the importance of differentiating between material tests and product tes coke former provides information about the properties of the material of a test piece in Dees oe ce applications, ‘The product tests, however, specifically check the immediate fitness for service othe product andthe batch from which it has been drawn, SY ‘A detailed analysis of the quality control aspect hag*been reported by Upadhyaya12 elsewhere. Some factors which may handicap the quality egjiioes products may be: > (1) Testing and inspection procedures whigh do not realistically reflect actual use situation, e.g. particle size yield in floor sereening BS vibroscreens vs. the laboratory routine screening. (2) Arbiteary material sebtiutign the purchasing or manufacturing departments, without adequate engineering evaluation Thi is very important in case of tool material selection for complex P/M parts. Ss (3) Crash design revisibns to incorporate new features in existing designs with minimum tooling changes. Héte a prototype development can help considerably in building up confidence. S ~ (4) Failurg4p apply the same evaluation methods to purchased components or powders as are applied {@ internally manufactured ones. Ks (Failure to anticipate misapplication of the product by the user, for example in selecting the proper grade of cemented eurbide for different cutting purposes. (6) Too little consideration given to the wide variations in the physical and intellectual abilities of customers. (7) Interpretation of the statistical quality control function as absolute quality assurance rather than a basis for action, Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom Structure-Property Correlation Stud: Metallographic study of sintered products is essential to study the type and morphology of pores which affect various properties. Metallographic preparation of such material can lead to changes in the specimen surface which can cause erroneous interpretation of the microstructure. Some examples of such changes are:3 ~ Partial closing of pores by plastic deformation during grinding ~ Break out of material around pore ~Closing of pores with grinding debris —Rounding of pore edges, x ‘The preparation sequence of metallographic specimens of porous materials, BY be described as follows: Ss < Sample Preparation: An abrasive cut off wheel with water as ¢Sdlant may be used for sectioning purpose. Thorough rinsing with water must be carried-put in order lo remove any cutting debris, Specimen mounting can be done as usual practicd- Grinding: This can be done using SiC paper of 220 grit@ie using water as a coolant or an automatic grinding wheel. A speed of 300 rpm with@Toad of 90, 60 and 30 N is used for three grinding steps. After the grinding operation, tK® specimens are ultrasonically cleaned in alcohol bath, or Impregnation: The process is necessary:4(/Seal the open porosity of the specimen so that abrasives, water and etchants are not enspipped later on, Ifthe specimen is not moisture free, “bleeding out’ during etching may.ftcur which causes staining of the surface. Vacuum impregnation is casied out with eppXy resin, 3 Regrinding: Afier impregngtion, regrinding is carried out on 500 and 1000 gri carbide paper. Ss silicon Polishing: This opgittion is generally carried out with 6, 3 and 1 jum diamond polishing spray on an angie wheel using a load of 90, 60 and 30 N for one minute each. Polishing on a cloth with suspension of alumina may also be carried out. In unetched condition total porosity, pore size and shape, nonmetallic inclusions, additions like manganese sulphide for improved,hachinability, undissolved alloying elements, etc., may be observed. s Roctog: Etching is generally performed by immersion. This facilitates study of homogeneity oF alloying, grain size and the presence of different phases. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Kxown as KLS Visheanathrao Deshpande Rural laste of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar Udyog Vida Nagar, Haliyal - 881329, Dist: Utar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 i ‘Web: www ution ‘eal: klsvtrit@yahoa.com @ ‘Transverse Rupture Strength (Ben Strength) ‘This test is applicable only to materials of negligible ductility. The width and thickness of the specimens are measured accurately. The specimens are then broken in the testing fixture shown in Fig...In this fixture, the specimen is supported by two hard metal or hardened steel rods at 25.40 mm centres and another rod presses at the centre of the specimen. The test is performed in a universal testing machine and the breaking load recorded. The modulus of rupture is calculated as follows: 3PL S=F arr where 5 is the modulus of rupture, Ninm2: P is the breaking loud, isthe distance between the supporting rods (25 + 0.2 mm); r is the thickness of the setimen, mm; W is the width of the specimen, mm. At least five determinations should 8emade and the resul expressed as the arithmetic mean rounded up to the nearest 10. 9 tigae Properties ‘The influence of porosity is more important in fatigue tests than in other mechanical test. ‘The Kind of test piece used for the tensile test after pressing and sintering, as shown in Fig., may also be used for reverse bend or tension-compression fatigue tests. Fatigue tests are important after surface treatment, hardening and nitriding of sintered steels. All such treatments raise the fatigue limit, as in pore free materials. Above the fatigue limit microcracks are initiated at pores and inclusions and linked together to form the final crack, which generally gives in a mixed trans granular-intergranular manner. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom It forbids direct conversion from one hardness scale to another. Though it is possible to compare one hardness scale with another provided both tests have been done on the products concemed, there are practical shortcomings in the tests currently specified. In Vickers and Brinell tests, surface preparation is critical, the tests are slow and require both visual judgement and use of a conversion table. Further more automation is not pract ‘The Rockwell test, on the other hand, uses heavy loads of 60-150 kg which are less responsive to the metallurgical structure of the material than density variations. In addition the test is insensitive in the most common hardness ranges used in sintered metals. A possible alternative is the superficial Rockwell test using a 15 kg load. Tensile Strength Re ‘The tensile properties of sintered products are directly influenced bySporosity. Due to presence of porosity, the tensile properties are somewhat lower tigin”those of wrought materials of the same composition and structure. For sintered materials’ machined test pieces are almost never used and test pieces are invariably obtained-by pressing and sintering. Figure illustrates a typical MPIF testpiece for tensile properties evaluation. With sintered materials care should be taken with their storage before testing because their interconnected porosity may give rise to internal corrosion. In the casg¥f fully dense materials like P/M. forged, the machined test pieces may be used. Porosity has a more pronounced effect on ductility than on strength. A pore content of a few percent can be rather detrimental to ductility. However, production variables, particearly in sintering, also have a significant effect on ductility, so that the ductility of similar materials of the same porosity but of different origins, may differ widely. a = s+ ann (9509+ Dein} 10.2 MPIF tensile test piece dimensions Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom where A is the mass of the unimpregnated part in air, g; B is the mass of the part after impregnating with the oil, g; C is the mass of the impregnated part in water, g. Either of two procedures may be used for oil impregnation: 1. The specimen is immersed for 4 hours minimum in oil ‘Saybolt Universal’ at 3800C held at a temperature of 82 + 40C and then cooled to room temperature. 2. The pressure over the specimen immersed in oil at room temperature is reduced 1g a ‘maximum of 50 mm Hg pressure for 30 minutes. The specimen then remains inner il at atmospheric pressure for 10 minutes. ‘The amount of interconnected porosity (P in 4%) can be calculated as follows: B-A ——=x100 @-Os where A is the mass of the lubricant-free sample, g; B is themass of the oil impregnated sample, g; Cis the mass of the oil impregnated sample immersed in water, g: $ is the specific gravity’of the impregnant at test temperature. All the spi8ses are determined to the nearest 0.1%. Mechanical Properties ‘The Metal Powder Industries Federatigi’ (MPIF) of USA has adopted the concept of minimum strength values for P/M mattials for use in a structural application.8 It may be noticed that the P/M process offerséquivalent minimum tensile strength values over a wide range of materials. It is seen as ah advantage of the process that equivalent strengths can be developed by varying chemigi? composition, particle character, density and/or processing techniques ‘The material may be gpcified asthe basis of properties obtained in test samples made under similar condition, Gut it is understood that the properties of sintered parts may not be identical to the test piewgs-because of shape effects. The test methods and instrumentation used are similar to tho8é used for wrought products. The various national and international standards have beetMinited to standardizing the types of test pieces. A brief description of various commeitinechanical properties is given as follows Hardness Like density, the hardness value has great importance and provides indications of the mechanical behaviour of sintered products. The indentation hardness of a sintered material is also strongly affected by its density because voids in the structure of a material do not contribute to the support of indenter. ‘The indentation of a porous material should be considered in apparent hardness, The ISO standard on apparent hardness recommends Vickers as the reference method but allows Brinell and Rockwell methods as alternatives. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com Physical & Mechanical Properties Evaluation Density In general, the density achieved in sintered products is between 70 and 95 % of the fully dense wrought products, depending on the production technology in use and the type of application. Pores are of two types: (a) interconnected and (b) closed or isolated. e In the first case the pores are connected with each other along the particle junctigis? The pores are consequently irregular, unless the particles are initially spherical. Suck‘pores can remain as low as 5% of total porosity. The latter types of pores, i.e. closed pores, are Pronounced when total porosity is low (< 5%). They are often, but not necggsAily,spheri «> ‘The sintered density determination is carried out following the progres of ISO standard 2738. This is valid both for dry parts and for parts that have beef impregnated with oil. In case parts have heen impregnated with thermosetting polymers, the true density is obtained graphically (Fig). This allows the calculation of the unkyown density by determining the density of the part examined and assuming a degree ofshpregnation equal 1 0.8. As most impregnating resins have a density of between 1 and, two straight lines have been drawn on the diagram delineating the two limits of the bad: intermediate points may be obtained by interpolation. ee Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 5 (Fomerty Known as KLS Vishianathraa Deshpande Rusa state of Techolegy, Hala (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Webs ww suitor ‘eal: klsvtrit@yahoa.com B= Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) Pressure Pulsed DC power supply Graphite Vacuum chamber Pressure www.substech.com 3. High frequency induction heat sintering is similar to hot pressing, which is carried gut‘ a graphite die, but heating is accomplished by a source of high frequency electricity: drive a large alternating current through a coil. This coil is known as the work coil. Thp"passage of current through this coil generates a very iense and rapidly changing magni fe! in the ypace within the work co & pyrometer Induction coil ‘chamber control computer powder high temperature \\ sation and compact refractory layer \ se er Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's /-{ _ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known as KLS Vishiaathrao Deshpande Rural Istince of Technology, Halival) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival ~$81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Wiebe wun, "cml dct abo.con 1.Microwave sintering Microwave energy is a form of electromagnetic energy with the frequency range of 300MHz. to 300 GHz. Microwave heating is a process in which the materials couple with microwaves, absorb the electromagnetic energy volumetrically, and transform into heat. Advantages a)reduced energy consumption b)very rapid heating rates c)decreased sintering temperatures «)improved physical and mechanical properties, Simple microwave ovens used in microwave sintering S 2.Spark plasma sintering o Instead of usingan extemal heating source, a pulsed direct current is allowed to pass through the electrically conducting pressure die and, in appropriate cases, also through the sample. Die also.g8i8 sa heating source and thatthe sample is heated from both outside and inside. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's pare =, Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known as KLS Visanathrao Deshpande Rural Isine of Techlog, Halla (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar ) Udyog Vidya Nagar Halal ~ $8132, Diss Uttar Kannada Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com ' we fe > Figure represents the surface tensions of ‘a multi-phase junction as vectors drawn, parallel to the respective surfaces. Examples > Powder Metall ns > ler Metallurgy parts s ~- Copper/Tin alloys -- Iron/Copper structural parts =e Carbide/Cobalt cemented carbides > Ceramics Silicon liquid phase vantages of LPS > Compact slumping (shape distort ‘which occurs when too much liquid is formed during sintering > The same parameters which ea the sintered microstructure often control the final properties. > Useful application ten too much low melting’po Ss Modern. Sintering. fechniques 1.Comventional Sintering Process (ure of the material is sometimes limited by the presence of ‘material Dense nanbstructured ceramic materials are usually obtained by pressing and conventional sinteringot nano powders using pressure assisted methods, such as hot pressing, hot isotactic mes en Shavancea sintering process Show great potential in ceramics processing Overcomes the problem of grain growth Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.itute of Technology, Haliyal 5. (Fomerly Known at KES Vislwamathraa Deshpace Rural Instn of Technology, Halla (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VU, Relat Phone: 08284220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: OS244-220813 ‘Web: www ution ‘eal: klsvtrit@yahoa.com Liquid Phase Sinterin; Liquid phase sintering (LPS) is a process for forming high performance, multiple-phase components from powders. It involves sintering under conditions where solid grains coexist with a wetting liquid, Liquid phase sintering method is getting more and more common, in which the presence of Fiquid phase during all or part of the sintering cycle of material is used for enhanced densification, oy There are two variations of the process: (a) normal liquid phase sintering for wh with one or more components containe fh the formation of the liquid pha is associated in the original green compact... < (b) infiltration of the original green compact with a liquid formed outside the compact during the very early period of sintering. Although simultaneous infiltration and sintering appears to bbe dominant, infiltration of a previously sintered part is also pgibtised. > During liquid phase sintering a liquid phase consists with a particulate solid at the sintering temperature oe > The wetting liquid provides a capillary forcesthat pulls the solid particles together and induces particle re-arrangement The second phase chosen has lower m The sintering tem temperature than the main constituent. erature is set jugt above the melting point of the added phase so that during sintering it forms a figvidl phase that wets the solid particles. > The pores in the compact aredrgely surrounded by the liquid phase and the driving force for sintering is liquidlirface energy. With high liquid frgations, full densit rearrangement. > Grain boundary vetting’ breaks the polycrystalline particle into single crystal particles in theyinitial stages of liquid phase sintering. These single then spherpigize and coarse. vy 5 can be achieved almost entirely by Wy ‘Wetting is a very important phenomena which is happening during LPS. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, 20 mm) by means of a hot knife, Laminates of similar geometry were produced by stacking together two green tapes, followed by lamination at a pressure of 10 MPa for 10 min and a temperature of 70°C; this temperature is above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the binder-plasticizer system. The average density of the green tapes was determined by measuring the dimensions (hence the volume) of 15 pieces of tape by means of a micrometer, and weighing each piece of tape. Sintering Theory of Sintering Sintering may be considered the process by which an assembly of particles, cgnipacted under fees osm confined io a sonane,chemealy boa threelves Inst coberen body under the influence of an elevated temperature. The temperature is usually below the melting point of the major constituent. Much of the difficulty in defining aqdetalyzing sintering is based on the many changes within the material that may take place simultaneously or consecutively. Densification or shrinkage of the sintered part ig ¢ery often associated with all types of sintering. However, sintering can take place withoutaily shrinkage; expansion or no net dimensional change is quite possible. From the tooling»point of view it is preferred to avoid very large amount of dimensional changes. The daVing force for solid state sintering is, the excess surface free energy. Sintering is a complexgpfocess and for any given metal and set of sintering conditions there are likely to be diGjftent stages, driving forces and material transport mechanisms associated with the process) > Sintering of Single & Mixed Phase Pos Fs Solid-state sintering Definition: The fusing togeth@ of small particles by heating a powder sample below its ‘melting point until its partigh®S adhere to each other, ss ‘The type of sinteringghiut is the simplest case, but the processes being fairly complex is that of the solid-state giféring. In this type of sintering, the powder does not melt; instead, the joining of the guticles and the reduction in porosity occurs through atomic diffusion in the solid-state, SOlid-state sintering involves material transport by volume diffusion. Diffusion can consis@Of movement of atoms or vacancies along surface or grain boundaries or through the volughe of the material. The driving force for solid-state sintering is the difference in the free ¢iiergy or chemical potential between the free surfaces of the particles and the points of coitact between adjacent particles. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal € = 5 (Fomerty Known as KLS Vishianathraa Deshpande Rusa state of Techolegy, Hala (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Web: ww ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom a b c d 8. Assembled plaster mold c. Absorbing water into plaster 1. Filling the mold by slip d. Slip cast specimen Fig. 1 Principles of slip casting, pe Casting Tape-casting technology is commonly used in theseramics industry for the manufacture of thin, planar ceramic products of large area¢With uniform surface quality and precise dimensions. > re Warm air source Doctor blade Ly Slip source Support structure Reel of carrier film Take-up reel Tape casting was performed 1g the doctor- blade method at room temperature. The slurries were transferred into a double-chamber casting head, equipped with two blades adjusted to gap heights of 1.100 jim and 900 im. A silicon coated polyethylenterephthalate (PET) film was used as a moving carrier. After drying, green tapes were removed from the. carrier film with an average thickness of 350 jum. The tapes were cut into squares (20 mm x Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com c. It is economic only if applied to a relatively large-scale production, on account of the relatively high cost of the hardened steel dies. ‘This well-known ceramic process of slip casting can also be applied to certain metal powders, and parts of large dimensions or complicated shapes can be molded in this way. The process is characterized by the following steps: a, Select the slip mixture. Variables are as follows: (1) powder particle size ranges; (2) Ri and amount of deflocculant; (3) water:metal ratio; (4) vise (5) pH value. ws b. Weigh the specific amount of powder. If more than one powder fraction is used-Ah a slip, ‘weigh the individual fractions and mix them. ¢. Add the specific amount of deflocculant to the dry powder and blend. d. Slowly add the appropriate amount of water, stirring nec the water is being mixed. Y ce. Continue mechanical stirring until a smooth slip is obseryedhand determine the pH value. f. Alter the pH value to the selected one by adding.élther concentrated aci solution to the slip by constant checking by pH-mete® or hydroxide g. Allow the slip to set for a few hours to asgife the removal of any air bubbles which may have been formed during stirring, or denies 5 Vacuum, h. Apply a protective coating to the er of Paris mold. a i. Pour the slip slowly into the plier of Paris mold of the desired shape and size. j. Allow the slip to set, foed0-20 hr in the mold, so that the water can penetrate into the mold ‘material s at K. Carefully regofe the metal powder slip cas ting from the mold and trim away any excess flash material bry poesia nan ove. &. at the desired temperature and time in order to obtain desired properties of the ered material Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Kxown as KLS Visheanathrao Deshpande Rural laste of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VTU, Bela ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Web: ww ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom = ‘The hot extrusion of a "canned" refractory metal powder Manufacture: 1. Powders can be consolidated by cold or hot extrusion. 2. Cold extrusion of powders requires a considgsble amount of binder (up to 50%) such as paraffin waxes, starches, benzol, resis ‘or shellac. This has to be removed during sintering of the cold extruded ‘oaterial, giving a large amount of porosity. The process is used for the ect carbide twist drills and cutters. 3. Hot extrusion of powders is usually carried out by “canning” the powders in a mild steel can, which is evacuated and sealed at its end. This prevents oxidation of the powders at the high tempesstures (which can be as high as 1400°C for some of the refractory metals). addition of alloyinggitments or solid lubricants Compressibility, allGmatively, is defined in terms of the densification parameter, which is equalto: = S° eo Green density — Apparent density Densification parameter = retical density — Apparent density Coipressibility, in general, increases with increasing apparent density. A rather large amount Of densification occurs at relatively low compaction pressure. Powder Structure (particle shape) ‘There are various shape of metal powders such |-spherical Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 5 (Fomerty Known as KLS Vishianathraa Deshpande Rusa state of Techolegy, Hala (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Web: ww ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom sy Weight size a= % Weight size d-> % Weight size > Paria sa Scanning Electron Microscopy 11s also a direct method to measure particle sizesSf the particles. Optical microscopy or electron microscopy can be used to determine panéle size. Diameter d—> —Frietion between particles affects ability of a powder to flow readily and pack tightly — A common test of interparticle friction is the angle of repose, which is the angle formed by pile of powders as they are poured from a narrow funnel Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com Microporosity associated with entrapped gases is also common. A cold worked powder e.g. ball milled, exhibits a high dislocation density which could be lowered by annealing. Partice Size and Shape ‘The shape of the powder is characterised by the dimensionality of the particle and its contour surface. Most powder particles are three-dimensional in nature and they may be considered as being somewhat equiaxed. Spherical pasticles represent the simplest and ideal example, of particle shape. Porous particles differ from irregular ones because of the presence ofthe porosity, which itself may be very irregular in both size and shape, A large gmOunt of porosity makes any shape characterisation very difficult. e Aceh, © Aagomente In real mass of powder, all prepared in theSame manner, all the particles will not have the same exact size, even though the shape 4 afaiy be essentially the same. Consequently, we must deal with size distribution when aceusiitély describing powders. In unimodal distribution, there jsBie high point or maximum amount of a certain ctitical The polymodal AistibutionaSnsists ‘of two or more narrow bands of particle sizes, each with aa maximum, with virtual no particles between such band. ‘The broad band aigbinion simply corresponds to a uniform concentration of particle sizes over a rather broat? size interval with virtually no particles having sizes outside this range. ‘The irregular givtribution represents a continuous and finite variation of particle sizes within arelativelypbroad range. frequency Gaussian (og-normal) log size Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom ‘The process was developed primarily for the atomization by high purity low oxygen content titanium alloys and superalloys. Powder particles are smooth and spherical with an average diameter of ~200 um; the size range is 50-400 jum. Typically, yields run to ~75% for ~35 mesh powder. Particle size distribution + Accurately controlled rotation of the anode is important so as to obtain in a desired range. the surface tension of the liquid metal, centrifugal forces (related to rotation speed) to some extent by the ‘aerodynamics’ of the droplets trajectory through the inert cover gas,9>) + Spherical metal powders made by ither REP (rotating electrode process) or gas atemiiation are not well suited for cold pressing into green compacts to be followed by siniering. They are used in more specialized applications where consolidation is achieved byiiot isostatic pressing (HIP) or some other high temperature method in which imerari Voids are more readily closed. vantages of atomization, 1. Freedom to alloy 2. All particles have the same uniform composition 3. Control of particle shape, size and structure 4, High purity Lower capital cost Characterization Techniques: . ‘Chemical Composition and Structure” The levels of impurity elements $47 metal powders can be very significant to both the processing and properties of theSfinal product. It is necessary to know whether such elements are present in their elementahform or whether they are present in the form of a chemical compound. For example, #@ reduced iron powder silicon is present as impurity in the form of silica, which is insoluble in most acids. The effect of impynity elements on the hardness of the particles and the degree of chemical reuctivity during sintering will differ widely, depending on the actual form they are in, The annealing of the powder in a reducing atmosphere is an effective way of reducing oxygen - SIhicrostructure of the crystalline poweler has a significant influence on the behavior of powder during compaction and sintering and on the properties of the final product. Fine grain size is always desirable, as it improves the mechanical properties apart from the sinterability and the uniformity of dimensional chang ‘The grain size can be dependent on the powder particle size. The particular powder production method, e.g. rapidly cooled powder, would naturally give rise to small particles and also small grain sizes. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com In water atomization, a high pressure water stream is forced through nozzles to form a disperse phase of droplets which then impact the metal stream. In this method, large quantities of energy are required to supply the water at high pressure. ‘This production method is significant for low and high alloy steels, including stainless steel Because of oxide formation, water atomization is not likely to be used in the atomization of highly reactive metals such as titanium and the super alloys. In general, water atomized powders are irregular in shape, with rough oxidized surfaces. In eyrogenic liquid atomisation,. ‘The Krupp Company (Germany) introduced a novel version of atomization in w is atomised with cryogenic liquid gas (argon or nitrogen) at -200'C. During thé process, the pressure of the liquid gas is increased up to 300 bar, while a recoolingsymit prevents the temperature from rising in spite of compression and prevents the gAyogenic liquid from vaporizing instantaneously at the jet opening. o ‘The resulting powder has the following properties: Ss —Itis much purer than the powder atomized with water and Legit compared to the quality of the gas atomized powder. ~The cooling rate is ten times higher than in gas ato sign and almost reaches the quality of water atomization. Particles of 100 jum in diagieter, for example, are quenched for approximately 106 K/s. LS ~The powders are, as in gas atomization, sft and have an average size of 6-125 jun. show satisfactory results in cold formingsshile having a good Nowability. Gas atomized powders have poor green strength >" Centrifugal atomization é ‘The basis of centrifugal atorgjvation is the ejection of molten metal from a rapidly spinning / — rlioy powder + The material in the form of a rod electrode is rotated rapidly while being melted at one end by an electric arc. Molten metal spins off the bar and solidifies before hitting the walls of the inert gas filled outer container. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y= Formerly Known as KLSVisvanathraa Deshpande ral Insite of . P (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VU, Relat Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal ~ 881329, Dist: Utar Kannada x Phone: O8284-270N61, 220334, 221409, ax: O8254.220815 Web: wo wuutibarg mail: klsudeit@vahoo.com Inert gas atomisation is applicable for all metallic alloys which can be melted, The main application is for high alloy products such as stainless steel, tool steels, iron, nickel- or cobalt-base superalloy powders, as well as aluminium alloy powders. Limiting factors are the availability of suitable crucible and auxiliary/helpful melting process materials. Powders from refractory metals with high melting temperature and highly reactive materials, such as titanium alloys, are usually produced by other methods. ~ Liquid atomization * Water atomization Cyrogenics Liquid atomization Water atomization S&S : ‘Water atomisation is mainly used for the production of iron base posits, Figure shows a scheme for a water atomisation unit. AP? The starting material is melted and metallurgically treated inrSeparate furnace and then fed into a tundish. The tundish provides a uniformly flows” vertical melt stream, which is disintegrated into droplets in the focal area of an arrangehnient of several water jets ‘The impact from the high pressure stream of val leads to disintegration of the flowing metal es A high energy input to the water stream is negdled. ‘Scheme for a water atomisation unit. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's —{_Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal € (Formerly Known as KLS Visheanathraa Deshpande Rural tnstnie of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal -§81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com atone =“ 9 rit a eycione spur ‘atom, tower calecting container Vertical atomisation unity,- Atomization can be undertaken either in vertical or horigital units, Production of Fine Particles; we + ahigh velocity of the atomizing fluid wv + small melt stream (droplet) diameters.” + high density, and low viscosity and sugGce tension of the melt The nozzle design is an important key to success or failure of agi atomization system. a ‘The mean particle sizeof gas atgalzed powders is in the range of 20-300 jam. The panticle shape is spherial-or close to spherical, Inegular particle shapes can only be produced in spsiems whee reactions between the gas and the Tigud metal cause the formation of solid sugf8e layers. Tis isthe case, for example, in the air atomization of aluminium, + Melt atomization by air is used in the production of the so-called ‘Roheisen Zunder’ (RZ) iron powder. This process starts from a cast iron melt. The surface oxides formed during atomization are reduced by the inherent carbon of the cast iron particles during a simple subsequent annealing treatment 3Fe3G + FezO, — 12Fe + 200 + CO, Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com Atomization Atomization is the most important production method for metal powders. ‘The process generally consists of three stages: + melting atomization (dispersion of the melt into droplets) + solidification and cooling, additional processing becomes necessary before the powders attain their desired properties, (reduction of surface oxides, degassing, size classi etc.) Melting, + In this stage the most important criterion is whether melting and melt dist crucible system or not. Crucibles are one of the main sources for contamigajion of atomized powders &s + The second criterion is the heating source. Essentially all meltig@ Yechniques known in metallurgy can be used, e-g., induction, arc, plasma, and electrog-peam melting, but some of these may also contribute to contamination, as for example in.gfe melting Solidification During the soldification and cooling stage, the cooling?fate is the controlling parameter. Cooling rate depends on: ee + the dimensions of the liquid droplets or solid Powder particles, + the type of heat transfer from the particles0 the surrounding medium. The undercooling prior to mucleatiogind cooling rate are the controlling factors for determining the microstructure of e"powder particles, as well as for the dimensions of the atomization unit. ss Gas Atomization © Air, nitrogen, argon or felium are used, depending on the requirements determined by the metal to be stone . tial mater collapse with the gas within the chamber. Heat is transfered Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom After these pieces are ground to desired particle size. During grinding the powder particles are considerably work hardened. The powder is annealed at 800 - 8700C in the atmosphere of dissociated ammonia. ‘The powder is loosely sintered, but requires only light grinding and screening to produce a finished product. ‘THE CARBONYL PROC + The only method for the manufacture of metal powder by the pyrolysis of a gastpis compound which has been used industrially on a substantial scale is the carbonyd iron or nickel process, Ro + When iron and nickel ores react under high pressure (70 ~ 300 atm.) with eal monoxide, iron pentacarbonyl [Fe(CO)5] or nickel tetracarbonyl [Ni(CO)4] is Toons gest + Both compounds are liquids at room temperature. + Fe(CO)S evaporates at 108 oC and Ni(CO}4 at 43 o€. Ss Precipitate Formation 7 This step of the process is carried out according to the followig3scheme: ~ The liquid carhonyles are stored under pressure in tanks submerged in water, ~ The distilled and filtered liquids are conveyed to ste heating cylinders, where they are vaporized. ~ The vapors of liquid are sent to decomposessegbie decomposers are jacketed and heated, siving an internal temperature of 200 ~ 250 o¢*’These cylinders ace 9 ~ 10 feet high with an internal dia of 3 feet, with conical bottoms. ~ The incoming stream of vapors meeig?2 tangential stream of ammonia gas. CO is removed here and precipitates of metals are fwitied which are then sieved, dried and may be milled to break up the agglomerates. & ‘The CO gas arising from te ecomposition is recovered and re-used. ~ Carbonyl iron powder isaised for the production of magnetic powder cores fOr radio or television applications. & “In PIM its ugpftor the manufacture of soft magnetic materials and permanent magnets Because offs high price and poor die filling properties, it is not suitable for the manufactog’ of sintered structural components. ~The gabonyl process is also well suited for the extraction of both metals from lean ores Tpabroces ‘can be controlled so as to yield a spherical metal powder. Physical Methods — Atomization + Gas Atomization + Water Atomization + Cyrogenics Liquid Atomization + Centrifugal Atomization Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, The purity of the finished product usually depends entirely upon the purity of the raw ‘material, and economic or technical considerations may set a limitation to that which can be attained. — Alloy powder rs cannot be produced, Production of Iron Powder by Reduction of Iron Oxide: Wirect Reduction Process) Iron powders are commercially used for a large number of applications such as fabricatisfvot structural parts, welding rods, flame cutting, food enrichment and electronic and,saitgnetic applications. Re The classical technique for production of iron powder is the reduction of iron axis. s Theory of the process: é It is the oldest process of production of iron powder by using carbons the reducing agent. In this process pure magnetite (Fe304) is used. Coke breeze isthe carbon source used to reduce iron oxide. Some limestone is also used to react withdh¥ sulphur present in the coke. The mixture of coke and limestone (85% + 15%) is drigd;in a rotary kiln and crushed to uniform size. ** Hoganas Process ‘The ore and coke-limestone mixture is charged int@ceramic tubes (Silicon Carbide) with care that ore and reduction mixture are in contggt'with each other but not intermixed, It can be achieved by using concentric charging tubgSwith in the ceramic tube. Within the hot zone, several chemical |xections occur and metallic iron is formed in the form of sponge cake. o ‘The main reaction is; MO+R - M+ RO If magnetite ore is used,tfien the following reactions will take place: Fe,0,+3COQ ———-~ FeO+3C0, FeO +cCco - Fe + Co. C+wOs co Decompsition of the limestone generates carbon dioxide, which oxidizes the carbon in the cokegi form carbon monoxide, The ferrous iron oxide is further reduced by the carbon radhoxide to metallic iron. Desulphurization occurs in parallel with reduction by reaction between gas and sulphides present in the ore resulting in gaseous sulphide compounds which in tum react with lime to form calcium sulphide ‘The sponge cake is removed from ceramic tubes and dropped into a tooth crusher where this, is broken into pieces. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom —A compressor capable of producing a high velocity stream of air (56 m3/min.) operating at 7 MPa (1.000 psi); ~A target plate, made of cemented tungsten carbide, for producing impact; _A classifying chamber lined with WC while the supersonic nozzle and target generally are made of cemented tungsten carbide, ‘Mechanism of the Proces: ‘The material to be powdered velocity stream of air. , ‘This air causes the impingement of material against target plate, where materfal due to impaction is shattered into powder fom. This powder is sucked and is classified in the classifying chamber. Oversize is recycled and fine powder is removed fromsdicharge area. * Rapidly expanding gases leaving the nozzle create a strong cooling effget through adiabatic expansion. oO This effect is greater than the heat produced by pulverization. fed in the chamber and from there fall in front of igh 2 ‘ JICAL METHODS e Almost all metallic elements can be produced in the {siti of powders by suitable chemical reactions or decomposition. Ze Mostly chemical methods are based on the decomposition of a compound into the elemental form with heating or with the help of some expal i {In most cases such processes involve at legs iwo re: (i) acompound of the metal > (ii) a reducing agent REDUCTION OF MET. Manufacturing of metal paver by reduction of oxides is extensively employed, particularly for Fe, Cu, W and Mos Advantages: o* —A variety of gediicing agents can be used and process can be economical when carbon used e —Close cdatfol over particle size Porat powders can be produced which have good compressive properties. Adoptability either to very small or large manufacturing units and either batch or Oatinuous processes. Limitations: ~ Process may be costly if reducing agents are gases. “Large volumes of reducing gas may be required, and circumstances where this is economically available may be limited; in some recirculation of the gas. however, costs may be reduced by Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se Webs wesudrbong cal: svt vahoo.com, Important Parameters: 1. The most important parameter to consider is the speed of rotation of the drum, An optimun/critical speed is adjusted for maximum impact velocity. * Critical speed is the speed above which the ball will centrifuge. + Very slow speed of rotation will not carry the balls to the top, these will roll back down the drum sides. ‘+ Very fast speed (higher than critical speed) will not let the balls drop down as they will be carried around due to centrifugal forces. ‘Thus, an optimum speed is required. ier ‘This speed of rotation varies with the inverse square root of the drum diameter, aS” 2. The material of grinding media and its size and density P + The size and density of the milling medium is selected according to the deRraton and fracture resistance for metals. < “+ For hard and brittle materials large and dense media is used. Whereas, small balls are used for finer grinding. oO + As a general rule, the balls should be small and their surface should be a little rough. The ‘material of the balls and lining of the drum should be sameSxé that of the material being ground. ss 3. The rate of milling of a powder is a function of quigiity in the total space between the balls. < 4. Lubricants and surface active agents are used tostllify the welding forces which causes agglomeration. w~ Grinding Mechanism: a During milling the following forces cayg@Iracture of material into powder. Impact Forees: These are caused $9 instantaneous striking of one object on the other. (Impact is the instantaneous striking of one object by another. Both objects may be moving or one may be stationary). —_° Shear Forces: These are ged as one material slides/rubs against the othe: Limi + Rubbing actigg guses contamination of powder since balls may also get rubbed. + Working haigicning of metal powder is caused during milling. « There is*# Possibility of excessive oxidation of final powder. + Qualig? bf powder is poor. . Radice welding and agglomeration may take place. © Cold Stream Process ‘This process is based on impact phenomenon caused by impingement of high velocity particles against a cemented carbide plate. ‘The unit consists of: ~A feed container; Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com + The shape of the powder is irregular and coarse. Advantages: For consuming scrap from another process, machining is a useful process. sPresently the machined powder is used with high carbon steel and some dental amalgam powders. ‘These are the methods used for high production rate. Best examples of mechanical production methods are the Milling Process and Cold Stream Process. ae Milling: eae ‘The basic principal of milling process is the application of impact and shear forges between two materials, a hard and a soft, causing soft material to be ground into fine rps, Milling techniques are suitable for brittle materials. ‘Two types of milling are; i) Ball Milling Attrition Ball Milling: o Ball milling is an old and relatively simple method for grinding large lumps of materials into smaller pieces and powder form. or Principle of the process: The principle is simple and is based on the impacfiina shear forces. Hard balls are used for mechanical comminution of brittle materials at producing powders. Milling Unit The basic apparatus consists of the fol +A ball mill or jar mill which nae ‘con: hhard material. + Hard balls, as a grinding ain which continue to impact the material inside the drum as it wtates/rolls. is of a rotating drum lined from inside with a Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, Mechanical methods of powder production: 1. Chopping or Cutting: — In this process, strands of hard steel wire, in diameter as small as 0,0313 inches are cut up into small pieces by means of a milling cutter. ~ This technique is actually employed in the manufacturing of cut wire shots which are used for pening or shot cleaning. Limitations: It would, however, be difficult and costly to make powders by this method and for this son it is not profitable to discuss the technique in detail. 4 2, Rubbing or Abrasion Methods: se? These are all sorts of ways in which a mass of metal might be attacked bysome form of abrasion. a) Rubbing of Two Surfaces: < ‘When we rub two surfaces against each other, hard surface remoy6d) the material from the surface of soft material S * - wy Contamination 2 b) Filing: Filing as a production method has been frequently egpbyea, especially to alloy powders, when supplies from conventional sources have beg unobtainable, Such methods are also used for manufacture of coarse powders of deptgPlloys. Filing can also be used to produce finer powder if its teeth are smaller. = * commercially not feasible. RS ¢) Seratehing Re If a hard pin is rubhed on some saf@metal the powder flakes are produced. Seratching is a technique actually used on a large Scale for the preparation of coarse magnesium powders. * scratching a slab of magnegtvm with hardened steel pins +a revolving metal drum athe surface of which is fixed a soratching belt ‘The drum, which is aboft 8 inches in diameter, rotates at a peripheral speed of approximately 2500 ft/min. Thecsfab of magnesium metal, 14 in. wide by 1.75 in, thick enters through a land in the dr casing an presses against the steel 4) Machining? A machigif process, using for example a lathe or a milling cutter in which something more than jusP Scratching is involved, since the attacking tool actually digs under the surface ofthe meat and tears it off, FF athe machine by applying small force we get fine chips. A large amount of machining scrap is produced in machining operations. This scrap in the form of chips and turnings ean be further reduced in size by grinding. * small scale production. Disadvantages: + Lack of control on powder characteristics, including chemical contamination such as oxidation, oil and other metal impurities. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, present-day automobiles, in which electronic controls are becoming increasingly advanced, and for next-generation hybrid electric vehicles and electric cars. Hitachi Powdered Metals is making advances in the development of technologies including sintered magnetic parts consisting of structural and magnetic materials, and powder cores (or soft magnetic cores [SMC)}) that feature low core loss in high-frequency regions. Next-Generation High-Performance Parts We are focusing on micronization as the next-generation technology for the fields_of information home appliances and the life sciences. We are developing technologigg tor compacting micro parts that are difficult to industrially produce with machining rg and metal injection molding (MIM). Another area is the development of produgi# that ean directly contribute to the field of environmental energy. As a company partigipating in the century of the environment, Hitachi Powdered Metals is advancing thetevelopment of thermoelectric conversion technology that regenerates energy fraiyy waste heat and thermoelectric conversion modules as products utilizing this technolog}) Powder Production Techniques 1) Mechanical methods of powder production: ’) Chopping or Cutting ii) Abrasion methods iii) Machining methods iv) Milling vy) Cold-stream Process. 2. Chemical methods of powder produiétion: ’) Reduction of oxides i Precpitaion from solutions ) Thermal decomposition gfteompouncls iv) Hydride decomposit v) Thermit reaction vi) Blectro- chemiggPthethods 3. Physical methods of powder production: i) Water atomiZation Gas ax ap ss atomization methods ‘re choice of a specific technique for powder production depends on particle size, shape, microstructure and chemistry of powder and also on the cost of the process ion Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Dei. AMfiated to VU, Belags Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, Trends of Powder Metallurgy Technolo; In the overall material process technology industry, there are a variety of products utilizing P/M. Currently, main P/M products of Hitachi Powdered Metals comprise structural parts , tribological parts (oil-impregnated bearings, wear-resistant parts, and high-temperature heat- resistant wear-resistant parts), and magnetic parts (soft magnetic materials). Structural parts Structural parts make up a large portion of P/M products. Their main ingredient is iron alloys. Engineers have sought to improve their properties as they apply them successively to different products: home appliances, OA equipment, motorcycles, agricultural machinery, and automobile pasts. As a result, their performance has grown, as has their deipgtid. In the past ten years, parts for transport machinery have led to the growth in the gghnand of P/M products. Pulleys, sprockets, and parts for variable valve control systems ig\rder to increase fuel efficiency have grown 1.5 times. Although this trend is not expéeted to change for a while even with the transition to hybrid electric vehicles and electri Yehicles, P/M products ae being developed to support greater fuel efficiency and the audeleration in the greening of technology by focusing on the following: making parts itiner and lighter, inhibiting degradation in dimensional precision with sintering. au thermal processing, replacing thermal processing with sinter-hardening, and increasigvost performance by actively using low-cost chromium asan element for stenatheing RAT proves Tribological Parts we These pat are only elated abrasion ga ibicaton. The Fed has grown a vgn PIM alloy compositions and material puicrostructure are being actively utilized; these developments could not have been accapiplished with wrought stel Hitachi Powdered Metals is produgiig oil-impregnated bearings and wear-resistant parts as well as high-temperature heafresistant, wear-resistant parts. The applications of oil- impregnated bearings have giown through their use in home appliances, audio equipment, office equipment, and gagiimobiles. Recently, we have also been developing advanced technologies that suppért high contact pressure and low coefficient of friction for use in environmentall iglly products, such as ICT (Information and Communication Technology) equipment and construction machinery. In the area of wear-resistant materials valve guides Wid valve seats, which conventionally have been cast, are being replaced by low-cost, yet igh-performance sintered parts. The development of materials is helping engines perform better, making cars leaner for greater fuel efficiency and adapting to changes in.gBe fuel environment due to flexible-fuel vehicles. Under the same trend, heat- and wear- resistant materials for turbochargers are also being developed to meet the rise in the temperature of fuel exhaust gases and the downsizing of turbochargers. Magnetic Parts In recent years, to support ICT equipment that rapidly continues to become faster, use higher frequencies, become smaller and denser, and save more energy, achieving high permeability and lower core loss in the high-frequency region is being required for soft magnetic materials. This means that the needs of advanced magnetic materials are growing for both Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's = hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal i ah (Formerly Kowa KLS Vishwamathra Deshpande Raval tute of Techies, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Deli Afiiated to VT, Belagasi) Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal ~ 881329, Dist: Utar Kannada Phone: O8284-270N61, 220334, 221409, ax: O8254.220815 Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, Metal Powder Lubricants. Bionding Additives Loose Cold Compaction Hot Consolidation Die Cold Other || Hot Hot Extru- Power Compac- isostatic Methads| |Pressing isostatic _ sion ‘ion Pressing Pressing Pseudo iso Rollin as extructien Explosive Compace tian Sintering Hat Forging T Secondary Treatments inished PM Parts Basic steps of the Powder Metallurgy Process. History of Powder Metallu M) Powder metallurgy principle of shaping metallic objects without melting from powdered materials can be traced back to the early civilizations. These include the ancient Egyption iron implants which date from at Ieast 3000 n.c. In Greece the manufacture of iron components were widespread in 800-600 B.c. The manufacture of large objects were known to Indians as early as 300 a.p. and the famous Delhi iron pillar weighing more than six tons is a typical master- piece indeed. These are processed by direct reduction of iron oxide without melting, since the technology to obtain temperature high enough to melt pure iron was not available until about 1800. The significant development in the usc of powder metallurgy principle took place during the early part of ninctcenth century for processing platinum and the credit to this work is to be given to Wollaston in England and Sobolevskiy in Russia. These developments ultimately ed to the modern renaissance of powder metallurgy in the beginning of twentieth century with the manufacture of tungsten filaments for the incandescent lamp industry. The invention of electric lamp by Thomas Edison and Swan a century ago has contributed substantially to the rapid progress of this field, Powder metallurgy emerged as a new dimension in materials technology in twentieth century particularly during the world war period and subsequent ycars. Today the technology is used advantageously to process advanced materials for the nuclear, clectronic and aerospace industries. But in modern India the progress made in this field is mainly during the past two decades. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom Powder Metallurgy (PM) Introduction PM is Metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metallic powders = PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or reducing the need for subsequent machining — PM proces wares very lal matesiol~ 979% of searing powers are comveited to prod ~ PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce porous metal pas — Examples: filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears ? Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be shaped6) PM ~ Tungsten filaments for lamp bulbs are made by PM s s + Powder metallurgy is used for manufacturing produets or articlés from powdered metals by placing these powders in molds and are compacting the samedsthg heavy compressive force. + Typical examples of such article or products are grindiggwheels, filament wire, magnets, welding rods, tungsten carbide cutting tools, self-lubrigiting bearings electrical contacts and turbines blades having high temperature strength... + The manufacture of parts by powder met: iggy process involves the manufacture of powders, blending, compacting, sintering adda number of secondary operations such as sizing, coining, machining, plating, and heaFtreatment + The compressed articles are then heated to temperatures much below their melting points to bind the particles together and imptéve their strength and other properties. Few non-metallic ‘materials can also be added to tie inetallic powders to provide adequate bond or impart some the needed properties. + The products made throy@h this process are very costly on account of the high cost of metal powders as well as of the dies used. + The powders of glist all metals and a large quantity of alloys, and nonmetals may be used. ‘The applicatiomof powder metallurgy process is economically feasible only for high mass production, + Parts madlé'by powder metallurgy process exhibit properties, which cannot be produced by convgeional methods. Simple shaped parts can be made to size with high precision without sys, and completely or almost ready for installation, Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.MESIS Manufacturing etnias mold inserts, which also act as vents. A short shor is a molded part that is incomplete because insufficient material was injected into the mold. It can be caused by entrapped air, insufficient machine injection pressure (resulting from high melt resistance and a restricted flow path), pre-mature solidification of the polymer melt, and machine defects. A sink mark is a local surface depression and a void is a vacuum bubble in the core. Sink marks and voids are caused by localized shrinkage of the material at thick sections without sufficient compensation when the part is cooling. A weld line (also called a weld mark or a knit line) is formed when separate melt fronts traveling in opposite directions meet. The formation of weld lines can be caused by holes or inserts in the part, multi-gate cavity systems, or variable wall thickness where hesitation or race tracking occurs. The weld lines are undesirable when the strength and the surface quality are important. REFERENCES [1] Intoduction to Manufacturing Processes, John A. Schey, 2" Ed., McGraw Hill, 1987. [2] Plastics, Materials and Processing, A. Brent Strong, 2°! Ed,, Prentice Hall, 2000.MESIS 200: 100: ‘Temperature CC) o 5 15 33:35 Time (sec) Figure 9. The figure shows a typical temperature history in the cavity during the injection molding cycle. ‘The gate freezes off first because it is thinner than the cavity. Once the part temperature is well below the polymer solidification temperature, the part is ejected PROBLEMS \COUNTERED IN INJECTION MOLDING ‘There are many details to pay attention in injection molding which affects the physical properties, they may even cause to the failure of the molding. Jetting occurs when polymer melt is pushed at a high velocity through restrictive areas, such as the nozzle, runner, or gate, into open, thicker areas, without forming contact with the mold wall. This leads to part weakness, surface blemishes, and a multiplicity of internal defects. An air trap is air that is caught inside the mold cavity. It becomes trapped by converging polymer melt fronts or because it failed to escape from the mold vents, or 10MESIS Matafatring Tectnigs insufficient packing causes poor surface, sink marks, welds and non-uniform shrinkage. All thermoplastics are, in principle, suitable for injection molding, but since fast flow rates are needed, grades with good fluidity are normally preferable. Significant differences in ease of molding, and the resulting structure and properties of products are found between amorphous and crystallizing thermoplastics; they concern problems such as shrinkage, warpage, sink marks, flashing, and short shots. Sprue Pressure Gate Time Figure 8. Pressure history varies with position. ‘The pressure distribution inside the mold cavity changes with distance from the inlet gate, The figure 8 shows a simple part geometry with pressure variations among the points one, two and three respectively. Further away from the gate, pressure rises slowly and it decays quicker than at the points closer to the gate. The pressure in the mold cavity should be more uniform to minimize part warpage. A major disadvantage of injection molded products is the incorporation of fine details such as bosses, locating pins, mounting holes, ribs, flanges, ete., which normally eliminates assembly and finishing operations.MESIS Manufacturing homogenizing the material in the screw/barrel system. The screw however is allowed to retract, (0 make room for the molten material reservoir. AC the injection state, the screw is used as a ram for the rapid transfer of the molten material from the reservoir to the cavity between the two halves of the closed mold. Since the mold is kept at a temperature below the solidification temperature of the material, it is essential to inject the molten material rapidly ensure complete filling of the cavity. A high holding packing pressure is normally exerted, to partially compensate for the thermal contraction of the material upon cooling. After the cooling stage, the mold can be opened and the solid product removed. Mold Closed Time Coolins Cavity Pressure (Mpa) os 15 33 38 Time (sec) Figure 7. Typical cavity pressure variations over the entire injection molding cycle is shown here. ‘The cavity pressure rises rapidly during the filling stage, which is followed by the holding or the packing stage. Once the gate freezes off, the cavity pressure decays with time till the part is ejected. At high pressures, a polymer melt is compressible, allowing additional material to be packed in the mold cavity after mold filling is complete. This is necessary to reduce non-uniform part shrinkage, which leads to part warpage. Excessive packing results in a highly stressed part and may cause ejection problems whereasMESIS Matafacturing ies transferred through a narrow gate into the closed cavity of a heated mold, where it cures to a solid state. ‘Transfer molding is normally used with materials that have fairly high pre-curing fluidity, facilitating the flow from the loading area to cavities. This also permits the molding of complex parts, parts featuring fragile inserts. Injection Molding ‘The injection molding process involves the rapid pressure filling of a specific mold cavity with a fluid material, followed by the solidification of the material into a product. The process is used for thermoplastics, thermosetting resins, and rubbers. WS mE yy) Ut ‘a RTL EEG Yy WN » Figure 6. (a) Reciprocating plunger and (b) reciprocating rotating screw. [1] The injection molding of thermoplastics can be subdivided into a several stages. At the plasticity stage, the feed unit operates pretty much as an extruder, melting andesis Mamfcusing Tegan Compression Molding ‘The compression molding process is used for temperature activated thermosetting polymers, Compression molding basically involves the pressing of a deformable material charge between the two halves of a heated mold, and its transformation into a solid product under the effect of the elevated mold temperature, Compression molding temperatures are often in the range 140-200 °C; mold pressures can vary from 35 atm to 700 atm. Material charges are often pre-heated to speed up the initial softening stage. Compression molding is characterized by the show and moderate flow of the very viscous material charge to fill the cavity, and it is not normally suitable for making complicated parts, or parts featuring fragile inserts. Pe jy ae nn oe wee f. “ Figure 5. (1) Charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4) part is ejected and removed. ‘Transfer Molding ‘Transfer molding is often associated with compression molding, because it is used with the same two classes of materials, temperature-activated thermosets, and vulcanizable rubbers. In wansfer molding a softened temperature-activated material isMESIS Matufatring Tectniges Products made by sheet thermoforming include skin and blisterpacks, individual containers for jelly or cream, vials, cups, tubs, trays and lids. As many as millions of parts per day can be produced with a tool featuring several hundred cavities. Larger products are generally made from cut sheets at much shower rates; the heating stage often is the limiting factor. Transparent products, such as contoured windows, skylights and cockpit canopies, are often made by this method. Blow Molding The basic principle of the blow molding process is to inflate a softened thermoplastic hollow preform against the cooled surface of a closed mold, where the material solidifies into a hollow product. IK — iC Nse7G}| o ® a Figure 4. (1) Injection molding of parison, (2) stretching, and (3) blowing. Packing is the major area of application of small to medium-size disposable blow molded products. Liquid foodstuffs are increasingly packaged in narrow neck plastic PET bottles. Blow molded containers are also used for cosmetics, toiletries, pharmaceutical and medical packaging and a variety of household products.esis Mamfcusing Tegan Sheet Thermoforming Sheet thermoforming, or simply thermoforming, involves the heating of a flat thermoplastic sheet to a softened state (above the glass transition temperature T for non- crystallizing thermoplastics or near the melting temperature T~, for erystallizing ones), followed by the deformation (forming) of the softened sheet into a desired shape by pneumatic or mechanical means, and finally its solidification into this shape by cooling. ' r cit tiftt pee Clamps (open) ‘K | Ss ” Figure 3. (1) A flat plastic sheet is softened by heating; (2) the softened sheet is placed over a concave mold cavity; (3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity; and (4) the plastic hardens on contact with the cold mold surface, and the part is removed and subsequently trimmed from the web.MESIS Manufacturing circular cross-section, profiles of imegular cross section, axisymmetric tubes and pipes, and flat products such as films o sheets. Film Blowing ‘The film blowing process basically consists of a extruding a tube of molten thermoplastic and continuously inflating it to several times initial diameter, to form a thin tubular product that can be used directly, or slit to form a flat film, Figure 2. Film Blowi Films produced by the film blowing process are widely used for agricultural, construction, and industrial applications, including covers for silage, greenhouses, Js, etc., oF for a chemical/solar ponds, flat wiety of packing applications, with include wrap, can lining, fabricated bags such as garbage bags, gusseted (V-tucks, W-folds) fashion bags, and T-shirt bags (sacks) for groceries.esis Mamfcusing Tegan Reducing the viscosity of the polymer will clearly allow higher flow rates at the same applied pressures, or permit the use of substantial machinery and tooling. The polymer chains tangle around each other and form so-called ‘mechanical cross links’, effectively strengthening the material in the solid state but making it more difficult 0 cast in the fluid state. So the grade polymer, which is exsy t0 cast, is going to give inferior performance in the end product and the best performance will be obtained from a material that is more difficult to cast. Extrusion ‘The extrusion process basically is continuously shaping a fluid polymer through the orifice of a suitable tool (die), and subsequently solidifying it into a product (extrudate of constant cross section). In the case of thermoplastics, the feed material, in powder or pellet form, is most commonly heated to a fluid state and pumped into the die, through a screw extruder; it is then solidified by cooling after exiting from the die. Figure I. Extrusion dies can have complex shapes to (a) compensate for die swell, (b) distribute material across the width of a sheet, or (c) coat a wire. [1] Extrusion products are often subdivided into groups that include filaments ofMESIS Manufacturing etnias POLYMER PROCESSING The processing of polymeric materials -plastics, elastomers and composites- is characterized by a wide variety of distinct methods or techniques. Techniques involving the continuous manufacture of a product basically have uniform cross section, which include extrusion, extrusion covering, film blowing and calendering; techniques involving the shaping of a deformable polymer perform against a mold surface, which involve coating and rotational molding; and, finally, techniques which involve the complete filling of a mold cavity, and include casting, compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding and reaction injection molding, Fundamental to the choice of polymer processing technique is the question of whether to use a high molecular mass starting material or a system that polymerizes in the mold, In the liquid state, most monomers and low molecular mass polymers flow in much the same way as molten metals in that the shear stress needed to make them flow is directly proportional to the shear strain rate- they are Newtonian fluids. As their molecular masses increase their viscosities increase but at some point the long thin chains begin to rearrange themselves under the applied shear stressed to line up in the direction of flow, and the proportionality between stress and strain rate starts to change- the polymer has become non-Newtonian. The consequences of the much higher pressures needed to cast high molecular mass polymers are not difficult to appreciate. In addition, the arrangements for keeping the mold closed will need to be more robust since the pressures applied to the mold tend to force the two mold halves open during filling and feeding. And the molds themselves must be made from stronger materials to withstand being repeatedly exposed to these pressures.‘Karnatak Law Society's _ ft vi it " ee (= Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known ax KIS Vishamathraa Deshpande Rural Istnteof Technolog; alia) 2 (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi Afiated to VIU, Belaga Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal -§81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada x Phone: (8284-220861, 203M, 221409, Fax: ON2S4-220813 Webs wesudrbong mail: klsudeit@vahoo.com + Opportunity for surface detailing of both sides of the parts. Disadvantages: + Two mold halves are required + Relatively costly. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's pare (—~ _ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal : (Former Known as KLS Visheanathrao Deshpande Rural laste of Technology, Halal) : (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Web: ww ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom al thermoforming + In mechanical forming, air pressure or vaccum pressure do not use to drag the plastic sheet. + Here, positive(male) and negaive (female) molds are brought against s heated plastic sheet, forcing it to the assumed shape. + Air between the die and sheet is evacuated by using vacuum pump , and sheet conforms to the mold shape. + Formed part is cooled and ejected. Positive mold Ss Air escape Ay ‘a Mechanical thermoforming: (1) heated sheet is placed above a negative mold, and (2) mold is closed to shape the sheet. Mechanical froming Advantages: + Better dimensional control. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's pare (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known ax KIS Vishamathraa Deshpande Rural Istnteof Technolog; alia) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi Afiated to VIU, Belaga avo Vidya Nagar, Halival- 561328, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: (8284-220861, 203M, 221409, Fax: ON2S4-220813 Webs wesudrbong mail: klsudeit@vahoo.com Vaccum forming Advantage: 1. Operated comparatively low vaccum pressure. 2. Relatively cheap. Disadvantage: 1. Uneven wall thickness at the corner of the product. 2. Bad finishing or non uniform plastic concentration. 3. Therefore the thinnest area occur at the comer, near the clamp Pressure forming + Alternative to vacum forming. + Here.the air pressure is forced to the preheated sheet into cold mold. Hage air pressure of pressure is much higher than the vaccum forming. & + The basic difference between vaccum forming is the heated shes pressured from above the mold cavity + Due to high pressure, the heated sheet can be deformein fraction of second(High production rate) Ye : (Lape Figure:Presure forming s Preshure forming: Advantage: + High production rate + Efficient for large parts + Low tooling cost Disadvantage: + Limited shape complexity. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ae {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formerly Kxown as KLS Visheanathrao Deshpande Rural laste of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar Udyog Vida Nagar, Haliyal - 881329, Dist: Utar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 ‘Web: www ution ‘eal: klsvtrit@yahoa.com Thermoformin; ‘Thermoforming is the process where thermoplastic polymer sheet is heated & deformed into desired shape. Process ¢ + Heating plastic sheet to the temperature where in softens + Stretching the softening polymer against a cold mold surface. + Cooling the finished part and trimming excess plastics. Oe ee Steps of thermoforming : o> 1. Heating: Heating is accomplished by radiant electric heater which is located by at the distance of 125mm(5 in.) from the sheet 3 2. Forming: after heating, the polymer sheet is converted or formed intaNtious either air pressure, vacccum or mechanical. é So, according the forming techniques, thermoforming are 3 types _«O 3. Vaccum forming > 4. Pressure forming 5. Mechanical forming ‘Yaceum forming — It is the earliest method of thermoforming. ~ In vaccumforming, vaccum is created belay he preheated plastic sheet to draw sheet into the cold mold cavity ‘The basi steps of vaccum Forming ares 1. Mat plastic sheet is heated by raadiant heater, which is placed on one or either side ofthe plastic of 125mm distance. 2. The softened sheet is placed Sver a concave cavity, 3. Vaccum draws the shegeto the sheet to the cold cavity 4. The product is coologfsind extra plastic parts are trimmed Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ~ {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiated t VU, Belg Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halal - Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com Polymer Casting: + Operations carried out on polymeric materials. to +The conversion of polymeric raw materials into useful Processes of polymer casting: Thermoforming 2. Compression and transfer molding 3. Rotational molding and sintering 4. Extrusion crease their utility. finished products. 5. Extrusion-based processes 6. Injection molding 7. Blow molding 8. Plastic foam molding Selection of a provess depends upon: ~ Quantity and production rate, - Dimensional accuracy and surface finish. - Form and detail of the product - Nature of material. - Size of final product. Phases of polymer processing” 1. Heating - To soften or past the plastic. 2. Shaping / Forming -@hder constraint of some kind like application of specific pressure. 3. Cooling - So thas Fetains its shape. ‘Thermo plgstits start as regular pellets or sheet and can be re-melted. 8 S Theres start as liquids often called "resins, or powders which need heat for the shaping Phase. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, degrade - this will reduce its impact strength. If it spends too little time inside the oven melting of the polymer will be incomplete and it will not fully coalesce on the mould wall, creating large bubbles in the item. Cooling the Mould Alter the melting has been consolidated to the desired level and the timing is right, the mould is removed from the oven and cooled. Cooling of the mould is typically done with air (by fan), water or sometimes a combination of both. Cooling allows the polymer to solidify to the desired shape and shrink slightly so that it can then be handled by the operator and removed from the mould. The cooling time can typically be measured in tens of minutgsIt is important that the cooling rate be carefully measured because rapid cooling. sauses the polymer to shrink too fast and warps the part. ° Unloading / Demoulding When it has cooled sufficiently to be handled and the polymer can retain its shape, the mould is opened and the partis removed. The moulding process can then bgRpeated by adding the polymer powder to the mould, = polymer must be injected into a hollow mould with aarge force. Preparing the Mould ee Feeding the polymer resin (pellets) down tthe auger (screw) is a large open-bottomed container. An electric (or hydraulic) motors Fesponsible for turning the auger inside a heated cylinder which feeds the pellets up thraugh the grooves of the auger. A gate before the mould cavity restricts the flow of the meltiato the mould and limits backflow. The pressure created by pushing the forward through gh grooves up to the gate also produces heat on the inside of the cylinder which helps to mglflhe polymer and prepare it for injection into the mould. Injection of Polymer Me}tInto the Mould As the auger moves for@ard it injects polymer melt into the mould at high pressure (typically 10,000 ~ 30,000 pip Sholds it, and adds more melt o ensure the contraction due to cooling and solidificatign Yoes not leave gaps in the final product. Eventually the gate solidifies and isolates the mould from the injection cylinder. Cooling th® Mould Mouldsite typically air or water cooled. Sometimes small holes are bored into the mould that allaga cooling liquid (such as water) to be circulated. Injection mould cooling consumes about 85% of the cycle time for the entire process. Unloading / Demoulding After solidification, the clamp holding the two halves of the mould together closed is opened allowing the part to be removed. The injection moulding process can then be repeated. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, Moulding and casting of polymers What is Plastic Moulding? Plastic moulding is the process of shaping plastic using a rigid frame or mould. The technique allows for the creation of objects of all shapes and sizes with huge design flexibility for both simple and highly complex designs. A popular manufacturing option, plastic moulding techniques are responsible for many car parts, containers, signs and other high volume items, ‘The History of Plastic Moulding Ra The history of rotational moulding began somewhere between 1940 and 1950 inh? USA when the process was developed for a small number of plastics. By the late 195g; when the rotational moulding process was better understood, applications for other Jalstries were developed including road cones, marine buoys, and car armrests. A process Was developed in Europe in the early 1960s that enabled large hollow containers to be ¢feated in low density polyethylene (LDPE) by rotating (or rocking) a mould on a chass{6) houses open gas jets, through 30 degrees which coated the inside of the mould with the:polymer.. ‘The history of plastic injection moulding has seen steady indugi?Y growth since its beginnings in the late 1800s. The technique has evolved from the production of combs and buttons to ‘major consumer, industrial, medical, and aerospace products. In 1868, John Wesley Hyatt invented a way to make billiard balls by injecting eeiioid into a mouk. Plastic Moulding Techniques we The underiying concept of paste moulding Sting Liquid polymer into a hoLow mould so that the polymer can take its shape, ofien:\vith various ranges of pressure and heat required. ‘There are different plastic mouldings®chniques available to accomplish this including rotational moulding, injection moulding, blow moulding, and compression moulding to name just afew. Each technique has itg\benetits and is best suited for the creation of specific items. $ Rotational Moulding < ‘The rotational mouldingechnique consists of 4 separate operations: Preparing the Mi The process bagin’ with filling a hollow mould with a pre-determined quantity of polymer powder or resi. This powder can be pre-compounded to the desired color. More often than not the pdvtdered resin is polyethylene (PE) although other compounds such as polyvinyl chlorig (PVC) and nylons can also be used. The oven is preheated by convection, iction, (or in some cases radiation) to temperature ranges around $00 °F - 700 °F (260 °C 370 °C), depending on the polymer used. When the powder is loaded into the mould it is, closed, locked, and loaded into the oven. Heating and Fusion Inside the oven the mould is bi-axially rotated (ie., rotated around two axes) as the polymer melts and coats the inside of the mould. The rotation speed is slow, less than 20 rotations/minute; the process is not centrifugal. During this phase of the rotational moulding process timing is critical. If the mould spends too much time inside the oven the polymer will Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom Biopolymers based on Synthetic materials Synthetic compounds that are obtained from petroleum can also be used for making biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic aromatic copolyesters. Though these polymers are manufactured from synthetic components, they are completely compostable and. bio- degradable. Cellulose based Biopolymers ‘These are used for packing cigarettes, CDS and confectionary. This polymer is compost glucose and is the primary constituent of plant cellular walls. It is obtained from natal resources like cotton, wood, wheat and corn, ‘The production of biopolymer may be done either from animal products or gticultral plants of Biopolymer Types ‘There are primarily two types of Biopolymer, one that is obtained fea living organisms and another that is produced from renewable resources but require polymerization. Those created by living beings include proteins and carbohydrates. rn Biopolymer Structure Unlike synthetic polymers, Biopolymers have a well-mited structure, These polymers have a uniformly distributed set of molecular mass and appar as a long chain of worms or a curled up string ball under a microscope. This type gf'polymer is differentiated based on their chemical structure, Biopolymer Uses These polymers play an essential role nature. They are extremely useful in performing Aimetions lke storge of energy. pervation and ianemiitanes of genetic information: end cellular construction. e + Sugar based polymers Sich as Polyactides, naturally degenerate in the human body without producing gy harmful side effects. This is the reason why they are used for medical purpos SPalyactides are commonly used as surgical implants, © Starch basegrBiopolymers can be used for creating conventional plastic by extruding and injegtida molding, . BiopofViners based on synthetic are used to manufacture substrate mats, * GAltiose based Biopolymers, such as cellophane, are used 28 a packaging material ‘¢.$These chemical compounds can be used to make thin wrapping films, food trays and 3S pellets for sending fragile goods by shipping. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, Biopolymers ‘What Is a Biopolymer? Itis a polymer that is developed from living beings. It is a biodegradable chemical compound that is regarded as the most organic compound in the ecosphere. The name “Biopolymer” indicates that itis a biodegradable polymer. Biopolymer History This polymer has been present on earth for billions of years. It is older than synthetic, polymers such as plastics. ard Example of Biopolymer —? Some Biopolymer examples are Proteins Carbohydrates DNA All these biopolymers account for a greater part file human body as well as the ecosphe1 The DNA biopolymer is the most important fuXTiumans. The entire body structure as well as genetic behaviors that pass from parents (gcthildren is based on it. Both DNA and RNA are composed of nucleic acids that alternaje gi definite patterns to encode huge amount of genetic data, so ‘The most common biopolymer Cellulose, Iti also the most abundant organic compound on this planet. It comprises of,39% of all plant component on Earth. s Biopolymer Classification ‘There are four pes of Biopolymers. These are Sugar based Bippolymers Starch or Suprise is used as input for manufacturing Polyhydroxibutyrate, Sugar based polymers at be produced by blowing, injection, vacuum forming and extrusion. Lactic acid polymers \(Polyactides) are created from milk sugar (lactose) that is extracted from potatoes, maige, wheat and sugar beet. Polyactides are resistant to Water and can be manufactured by shethods like vacuum forming, blowing and injection molding. Starch based Biopolymers Starch acts as a natural polymer and can be obtained from wheat, tapioea, maize and potatoes. The material is stored in tissues of plants as one way carbohydrates. It is composed of glucose and can be obtained by melting starch. This polymer is not present in animal tissues. Itcan be found in vegetables like tapioca, com, wheat and potatoes. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) ‘Udyog Vidya Nagar, Halival - $81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada Phone: 08284-220861, 22036, 221409, Fax: 08284-20813 Wiebe wun, "cml dct abo.con Spinning process: @ inary spinning, a volatie solvent is used go tissolve the raw materials and form a salutation. @ Then the solution is purified by fae cs @ The solution is extruded thretigh a spinneret into a warm air chamber where the solvent evaporates, solidifying the fine'filaments. i S @ Finally the filamens§{ken either is immediately wound onto bobbins or is further treated for certain: desired gitacterstes or end use. Example: DrySspinning is used in the production of acetate, triacetate, and some acrylic, modacrligspandes, and vinyon (PVC,PVA) fibers. ‘Advat a > Yaar does not require purification vantages: Bice solvent harands Solvent recovery > Slow (200-400 yds/min) Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's (— Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Foe Kon as KLS Visematr espa Rul te of Technolgy, Hala {Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Helagasi) dsog Vidya Nagar Halal ~ $5132, Dist Uttar Kannada Pome: 05284-20861, 22053, 221409, ax: OS264220813 Wee ‘mal Spinning process: « @ In wet spinning, a non-volatile solvent is used to convert the rauterial into a solution. @ The solvent is extruded through the spinneret either bystinply washing it out or by a chemical reaction between the polymer solution and a reagept in the spinning bath © After extrusion, the solvent is removed in a Tinga medium. @ Finally the filament yarn either is inca ‘wound onto bobbins or is further treated for certain desired characteristics or end used o Example: Wet spinning is used in th ction of aramid, Lyocell, PVC, Vinyon (PVA), viscose rayon, spandex, acrylic andysiddacrylic fibers. Advantages: ? > Large tows can be hands Disadvantages: P Slow (70-150 yalsh & Washing to impurities P Solvent and ghemical recovery Dry is used for polymers that need to be dissolved in a solvent. Solvent spinning ays inning and wet spinning) are used by 30% of the fibers. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's - hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal i Formerly Known as KIS Vishisanathrao Deshpande Rural Issince of Technology; Halival) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal -§81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com Molecular Weight Distribution [MWD] + Molecular Weight Distribution represents the frequency of the polymer lengths + The frequency can be Narrow or Broad + Narrow distribution represents polymers of about the same length, + Broad distribution represents polymers with varying lengths + MW distribution is controlled by the conditions during polymerization + MW distributions can be symmetrical or skewed. ‘Number Average Molecular Weight = M, = a 7 . " yo = Dé Weight Average Molecular Weight = My = SRE Z Average or Size Average Molecular Weight = Mz Viscosity Average Molecular Weight = M, = ss va rum ‘Where the summation is over all the chain lengths fein i= = 1 tol = oo and Niis the number of molecules whose weight is Mi. The viscosity ayatiige molecular weight also makes use of an additional term “a."This parameter is an Qupirical constant that is dependent upon the hydrodynamic volume or “the effective vattine ofthe solvated polymer molecule in solution, and varies with polymer, solvent, and.hhperature.” It should be noted that Mv and Mw are the same when “a” has a value of JS 3 Distribution of Molecular Weights Molecular Weight (M,) Plot of the distribution of molecular weights in a typical polymer sample Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.Karnatak Law Society's - hwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal i Formerly Known as KIS Vishisanathrao Deshpande Rural Issince of Technology; Halival) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated fo VTU, Belagavi) Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal -§81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com Molecular Weight Distribution [MWD] + Molecular Weight Distribution represents the frequency of the polymer lengths + The frequency can be Narrow or Broad + Narrow distribution represents polymers of about the same length, + Broad distribution represents polymers with varying lengths + MW distribution is controlled by the conditions during polymerization + MW distributions can be symmetrical or skewed. ‘Number Average Molecular Weight = M, = a 7 . " yo = Dé Weight Average Molecular Weight = My = SRE Z Average or Size Average Molecular Weight = Mz Viscosity Average Molecular Weight = M, = ss va rum ‘Where the summation is over all the chain lengths fein i= = 1 tol = oo and Niis the number of molecules whose weight is Mi. The viscosity ayatiige molecular weight also makes use of an additional term “a."This parameter is an Qupirical constant that is dependent upon the hydrodynamic volume or “the effective vattine ofthe solvated polymer molecule in solution, and varies with polymer, solvent, and.hhperature.” It should be noted that Mv and Mw are the same when “a” has a value of JS 3 Distribution of Molecular Weights Molecular Weight (M,) Plot of the distribution of molecular weights in a typical polymer sample Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's ae {—-. Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal 4 : (Formerly Known as KLS Visheanathraa Deshpande Rural tnstnie of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com Where A; = Abundance of a specific isotope ‘M, = Mass of a specific isotope a Molecules (including polymers) are formed by bonding multiple atoms together. The lative molecular mass is equivalent to the atomic mass but it applies to molecules. It is.obtained by summing the atomic mass of all of the atoms in the molecule. The molecular sight, molar ‘mass and relative molecular mass are often used as synonymous terms to desBtibe the weight or mass of a particular type of molecule. The molecular mass iscsyhonymous to the onoisotopie mass of & compound and is specific for one isotope. _ 100). These molecules will differ in relative molecular is by several orders of magnitude For this reason, the mnolecular weight of a polymer is reported using averages. These averages are intended tplescribe the distribution of molecular ‘weight values for the polymer chains. Three diffrent molecular weight averages are commonly used to provide information about polymers) These are the number average molecular weight (Ma), weight average molecular weight (Mw)and viscosity average molecular weight. In addition, several other averages are rhe to lesser extents including the Z average molecular weight (Mz) and the Z+1 average molecular weight (Mz+1). Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, ~ The head to tail configuration in which the functional groups are all deposited on the same side of the chain, is called isotactic polymers. If the deposition of side groups is in altemating fashion, it is called synditactic polymers. — If the deposition of side groups are at random around the main, it is called atactic polymers. Concept of functionality ‘what functionality means. > The ability to perform a task or function; that set of functions that something is abfé’or equipped to perfor a Functionality in polymer chemistry *. According o IUPAC, the functionality of a monomer is defined as the number gP bonds that ‘a monomer’s repeating unit forms in a polymer with other monomers. Definition of functionality “a + the quality or state of being functional a design that is admired posts ts beauty and for its functionality especially : the set of functions or capabilities-associated with computer software or hardware or an electronic device data managemeht junctionalities such as data integrity, security, recoverability and manageability (Still more should be added) Polydispersity < what polydispersity means. The state of bejng polydisperse. A measure of the degree to which a colloid is polydisperse. o xe PDI or Poly dispersity index is gérV important index in Polymer chemistry. for wide molecular weight distribution ie," the polymer chain lengths are not uniform in size then PDI will not be close to unity ant PDI will be close to unity of the chain lengths are uniform, PDI close to I,does have a feWadvantage as well as a few disadvantages as well: S&S Advantages are: Goog ate anical properties, good crystalline nature, high impact strength ete. Disadvantag Sor process, High viscosity etc. Reverse is trupYor polymers having PDI not close to unity. Mole weight [MW| The set molecular weight is commonly used to describe the mass of a polymer molecule. Wiih the advent of advanced detection methods, the meaning of the term has become more obscure as the properties of individual molecules can now be observed. All elements have a defined mass dependent upon their isotopic composition. The atomic mass or less precisely the atomic weight of an clement can be defined as the weighted average of all the naturally occurring isotopes using the carbon 12 seale and is given by the formula Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's _ call i ‘ ; ee + Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi Afiated to VIU, Belaga Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: (8284-220861, 203M, 221409, Fax: ON2S4-220813 SS ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom —Condensation Polymers ~They are formed by the combination of two monomers by removal of small molecules like 20, Alcohol or NH3. Their molecular mass is not the integral multiple of monomer units ~They have ester and amide linkage in their molecules. E.g, Polyamides(Nylons), Polyesters(PET) By Structure Linear Polymers —In these polymers monomers are linked with each other and form a long straight enaing? “These chains has no any side chains. r Their molecules are closely packed and have high density, tensile strength, et Selting point. Eg. HDPE, Nylons ~ Branched Polymers ‘They have a straight long chain with different side chains. < “Their molecules are imegularly packed hence they have low ded? ‘Tensile strength and melting point. E.g. LDPE, LLDPE —Cross-linked Polymer —In these monomeric units are linked together to contig 3D network. ~The links involved are called cross links. ‘They are hard, rigid .and brittle due to their netwagk® Structure. E.g. Bakelite, Melamine, Formaldehyde resins, VallGanized rubber By Applications & Physical Properties. > Fibers s _If polymer is drawn into long (laa like materiel whose length is at least 100 times it's diameter, are said to be convertediN fiber. “They have high tensile stredgth because of high intermolecular attractive force like Hydrogen bonding. & —Highly crystalline. E.g Non, Terylene. ~ Plastics oe Polymer is shaptd into hard and tough utility articles by application of heat and pressure, is known as plastids! “Here the intermolecular force between polymeric chains are intermediate between clastomeg ind fibers. “they partially crystalline. E.g. Polystyrene, PVC, PMMA. _ Resins Low molecular weight, —Polymers which are used as adhesives, sealants et., in a liquid form are described as liquid resins. E.g. Epoxy adhesives and polysulphides sealants. By Tacticity Tacticity simply means deposition of side groups in s Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's —{_Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal € (Formerly Known as KLS Visheanathraa Deshpande Rural tnstnie of Technology, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to VU, Belagar Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal -§81329, Dist: Uttar Kannada x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Webs wwseiuons ‘malt jdt vahon com & po ‘Semisynthetic Polymers aN? Y ~The polymers obtained by simple chemical treatment of natural polymers to improve their physical properties like lustrous nature, tensile strength are called semisynthg polymers Exg, Cellulose acetate, Cellulose nitrate = Synthetic Polymers “Polymers synthesized in laboratory from low molecular weight hounds, are called as, synthetic polymers. Eg. Nylon, Terylene, Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Synthetic sh Nylon, PVC, Bakelite, Tellon ete. By Monomer —Homo Polymers ~A polymer consist of identical monomers is cal homo polymer. E.g. Polyethylene, PVC, Polypropylene, Nylon 6 —Co Polymers pel cecal scanoniet of agg onceiea Stetine eee expen. I. Nylon 66 By Thermal Response é =Thermoplastic Polymers They are easily moulde@’in desired shapes by heating and subsequent cooling at room temperature. SJ ~ They are soft in hocfnd hard on coding. = They my be ling or branched chain polymers. E.g. PE, PVC, PS, PP gr ‘Thermosetting Polymers ~This polVier is hard and infusible on heating. ~Thege®ate not soft on heating under pressure and they are not remolded. ~TH@Se are cross linked polymers and are not reused Bg. Bakelite By Mode Of Formation ~ Addition Polymers The polymers formed by the addition of monomers repeatedly without removal of by products are called addition polymers. “These polymers contains all the atoms of monomers hence their molecular weight are integral multiple of monomer unit. E.g. Teflon, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, PVC. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Web: wo wuutibarg smal: oeriteahoo.com, 7. Effects of sunlight: Have good resistance to sunlight but becomes weak when expose in sunlight for long time. ‘Thermal properties of Polyester Polyester fibre is the most thermally stable synthetic fibre. If heat setting is not done properly then shrinkage occurs. At high temperature polyester melts and burns. Softening temperature: 690 C Melting temperature: 250-2650 C Sticking temperature: 230-2400 C Ironing temperature: 1350 C Thermo plasticity “Themmo plasticity” means capable of being shaped or moulded when heated. Thermoplastic fibres heated under strictly controlled tempei soften and can then be made to conform to a flat, creased or pleated configuration’ cooled, thermoplastic fibres will retain the desired configuration that is remain flat, pleated or creased. Polyester textile materials can be permanently heated. Textile fibres classed as thermoplastic are acetate, triacetate, acrylic, nylon and polyester. Polyesters Fétain a heat set permanently where as acetate fibres do not hold a set as satisfactory. Biological properties of Polyester Polyesters have good resistance against cro organisms ary; fungl, mildew and moulds oO End uses of Polyester Yo OL. As apparel: Men's wear, women’s wear, children’s wealy trousers, skirts, suits, jackets, blouses and every form of clothing are made by polyesteffibres. Besides ties, lingeries etc can also be made by polyester fibres. 02. As blended fabrics: Polyesters are widely used igeblends with cotton, wool, acrylic, nylon etc fibres for making quality fabrics. Blends wigfcotton and virgin wool are very popular. ‘They are often referred to as the "classical yen This is normally a combination of 55% polyester and 45% wool. 03. As home furnishings: Carpets, curtais®, draperies, sheets, pillow covers, wall coverings, upholstery etc are made of polyester fibres 04. As industrial use: Polyester fibres are used in manufacturing of tire cord, power belt, ropes, tarpaulin, nets, hoses, cgdveyor belt etc. It is also used in making floppy disk, liners, ete. Use of polyester higher ian any other synthetic fibre The use of polyester is higher than any other synthetic fibre dato low cost, more durable, no fading, easy ear, no ironing. Clas: By Origi 2. By Monomigr 3. By Therghal Response 4. By Mile Of Formation 5. BP Structure SBy Application & Physical Properties 7. By Tacticity ication, Of Polymers By Origin ~Natural Polymers ~Polymers which are isolated from natural materials are called as natural polymers. Eg. Silk, Wool, Natural rubber, Cellulose, Starch, Proteins ete. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom coverings etc. They are used for making electrical goods such as switches, plugs ete. They are used for impregnating fabrics wood and paper. They are used as bonding glue for for Jaminated wooden planks and in varnishes and lackuers.Sulphonated phenol-formaldehyde resins are use as ion-exchange resins. Polyesters Polyester (aka Terylene) is a category of polymers which contains the ester functional group in their main chain: 2 Polyester is currently defined as: ao “Long chain polymers chemically composed of at least 85% by weight of an estei ind a diy drie alcohol and terephthalic acid! ? ‘The name “polyester” refers to the linkage of several monomers (esters) win the fiber. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specigg aerial most commonly refers the Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET) 1 i HO—C—{_}—C-—OH + HO—{_}—OH a dicarboxylic acid a dialcohol fio tooo} a polyester Polyester can also be classified into yw iypes 1 Saturated polyesters. 2.Unsaturated polyesters. Saturated polyesters refer to,Qhat family of polyesters in which the polyester backbones are saturated. They are thus.ai6t as reactive as unsaturated polyesters. They consist of low molecular weight liquiggtised as plasticizers. Unsaturated polyeste® refer to that family of polyesters in which the backbone consists of alkyl thermosettifg resins characterized by vinyl unsaturation, They are mostly used in reinforced plastic Chemical Properties polyester. EffectgOf moisture:N Polyester absorbs only a very small amount of moisture and the tengéity and elongation are unaffected by moisture. Affects of bleaches :Not affected by oxidizing and reducing bleaches. 3. Effects of acids: Polyester fibres are highly resistant to mineral and organic acids. Weak acid can not effect on them even on boiling. Strong mineral acid such as H2SO4 can only hydrolyze them on boiling for hours together. 4. Effects of alkali: Polyester is very much resistant to alkalis, Only strong hot alkalis results, in a slow thinning of the diameter by saponification. 5. Effects of organic solvents: Resistant to all dry cleaning solvents. 6. Dye ability: Disperse dye and some pigments can be used for coloration. Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's [—{ _Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal ys (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Debi Affiliated to VTU, Bela Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: O8284-220861, 220334, 221409, ax: O8284-220813 Se ‘Web: www ution eal: ls dt@yaluoacom Advantages Disadvantages of Polyamide + Advantages = Tough sng, pac restant = Low concn of ftom ~ Hightamparanre stance ~ Procssabh by dumopabié mathoss = Resmantta bese + Disadvantages High moisture absorption with dimensional instability + bee ofp 1 30% ef uae seemed 59% of ave eda = Sibecto amc by arong sci nd ong vente = Requrte UV aubogion High debege mamolid secs = Becenea uni dueical popes nfomced by motte conta = Deemed ty shack si Phenol formaldehyde resins © substituted phenol with formaldehyde. Used z used for the production of moulded product ‘and as coatings and adhesives. Phenol formaldehyde resins (PFs on polymers and are obtained by condensing phenol with formaldehyde in the presenge‘t an acidic or alkaline catalyst. They were first prepared by Backeland , an America-Chemist who gave them the name as Bakelite. ‘These are thermosetting polymers. 42> ‘Thermosets:The polymers which On heating change irreversibly into hard rigid and infusible materials are called thermosewin: polymers. These polymers are usually prepared by heating relatively low molecular mS, semi fluid polymers, which becomes infusible and form an insoluble hard mass on hestting. The hardening on heating is due to the formation of extensive cross-linking betwees?different polymeric chains. This lead to the formation of a 3- Dimnesional netwafX of bonds connecting the polymer chains. Since the 3D network structure is rigid.Zind does not soften on heating, the thermosetting polymers can not be reprocessed. Seine important examples of thermosetting polymers are Urea-Formaldehyde resin and Nelamine-Formaldehyde resins. o> Propeiti Phetiol- formaldehyde resins having low degree of polymerization are soft. They possess excellent adhesive properties and are usually used as bonding glue for laminated wooden planks and in varnishes and lackuers. Phenol- formaldehyde resins having high degree of polymerization are hard, rigid, scratch-resistant and infusible. They are resistant to non ts and many organic solvents. They can withstand very high temperatures. ent electrical insulators also, ‘They are used for making moulded articles such as radio and TV parts, combs, fountain pen barrels, phonograph records etc. They are used for making decorative laminates, wall Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's _ i i " sx (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal (Formerly Known as KS Visheamathra Deshpande Rural Instn of Techlogy, Hala) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi Afiated to VIU, Belaga Udyog Vidya Nagar, Haliyal — x Phone: (8284-220861, 203M, 221409, Fax: ON2S4-220813 SS Webs wesudrbong mail: klsudeit@vahoo.com Introduction to Polymers used for additive manufacturing Polyamide (Nylon 6) Being a solid material, polyamice powder has the attractive feature of being self-supporting, for the generated product sections. This makes support structure redundant, Polyamide allows the production of fully functional prototypes or end-use parts with high mechanical and thermal resistance. Polyamide parts have excellent long-term stability and are resistant against most chemicals. They can be made watertight by impregnation. The PA material used bby Materialise is certified as biocompatible and food-safe under certain conditions. a ay Polyamides account for the vast majority of 3D prints made on SLS systems. Relafely new to desktop material extrusion polyamide is a tough, durable material that can, qbizin medical certifications. In desktop 3D printing moisture makes a material that is diffiGNIC to print and also to keep. In closed SLS systems, this is not a problem but incorrect stbrage will degrade powder, “" 3S Polyamide makes a wide range of products and is familiar to mauj manufacturers, Polyamide is flexible and this enables many more parts to be made withSt. Hinges, snap fit parts and housings are a good fit for this material. Glass filled, _asimin filled and carbon filled grades extend the scope of the material iat Polyamide structure Polyamides are macromolecules Tee, polymers) that contain recurring amide groups (CO NHL) as integral parts ofthe palmer backbone as shown » Applications for Polyamides Fiber applications = 50% int tim corde (nylon 6 and nylon 6,6) ~ vope, thieed,contbelts, and flr cloths ~ Monofilament. brashes, spore equipment, and bristle (nylon 6,10) Plastics applications ~ bearing, gens, cams ~ rolls, slides, doorlatebes, thaeed guides ~ clothing, igh tens, shower curtains, umbrellas ~ electocel wie jackets (nylon 11) + Adhesive applications ~ hotmelt o solution type ~ thermoset acting wth epoxy or phenolic mains ~ flexible adhesives for bread wrapyess, dried soup packets, boohinding Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.‘Karnatak Law Society's (—{ Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal y 23s. (Formers Known as KLS Visvanathrao Desde Rural Isine of Technolng, Halal) (Approved by AICTE, New Delis AMfiatd t VTC, Belg Uo Vidya Nagar Halal ~ x Phone: (324-220861, 220834, 22140), Vax: ON284-220813 SS Were meacitare ‘malt jdt vahon com ‘Module 3 POLYMERS & POWDER METALLURGY Basic Concepts: Introduction to Polymers used for additive manufacturing: polyamide, PF resin, polyesters etc. Classification of polymers, Concept of functionality, Polydispersity and Molecular weight [MW], Molecular Weight Distribution [MWD] Polymer Processing: Methods of spinning for additive manufacturing: Wet spinning, Dry spinning, Biopolymers. ‘Compatibility issues with polymers. Moulding and casting of polymers, Polymer progsting techniques General Concepts: ? Inwroduction and History of Powder Metallurgy (PM), Present and Future Trends of PAE” Powder Production Techniques: Different Mechanical and Chemical methods, Atomization of Powder, other eme Characterization Techniques: < Pantcle Size & Shape Disiibution, Electron Microscopy of Powg@)” inepartile Friction, ‘Compression ability, Powder Structure, Chemical Characterization = ¢ Microstructure Control in Powder: Importance of Microstructure Spay, Microstructures of Powder by Different techniques Powder Shaping: Particle Packing Modifications, Lubricants & Binders, Poxgder Compaction & Process Variables, Pressure & Density Distribution during Compaction, tte Pressing, Injection Moulding, Powder Extnusion, Slip Casting, Tape Casting SS Sintering: Theory of Sintering, Sintering of Single:& Mixed Phase Powder, Liquid Phase Sintering Modem Sintering Techniques. Physical & Mephinical Properties Evaluation, Structure-Property Corelation Study, Mose Sintering techniqueg: Defects Analysis of Sintered Components Application of Powder Metallurgy: > Fillers, Tungsten Filaments, Self-Lubricatii Bearings, Porous Materials, Biomaterials etc Gururaj H, AP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLS VDIT, Haliyal-581329.