\

\\\\\w
\\
'\ \ \
\\\\\\\\
v \\\ \ \
1
\
\W N\ 1

\\\\v
\\ \ \\ \
N\
\\ \ \\ \ 1
\
\ \v \\ \ \ \
\ \\ \ '
L

x V\V
IV
% \ \\\ \
L\ \\ v\
\
\\\
v '

v:

lllfll
-

I
Bjjjy
L w «r| I
mi
% i
_ÿPI I
hrfBmHHHi

m
in
wmm
w mmi
5
,

H II .

-ÿÿ :ÿ :-'r *- h
* m
*- * •* * •*
> * ** * »•
* %

%•*
4 % fe
* * l|

. ,
afl '

t.%, Pÿ-. II .ml »

E
Sk,.* T

4§
V *ÿ

jfc f -* •• Vi
>*•*
r '-i J v,
•* < ¥
r
. a,

vvV;.vfj,?* »** ft
i..
w
I!#.»»>!
4 *
' SlJf *"
»ÿ

> rifll . Jf • r BJ!

.1

Stonecutters which includes the,second-longest cable-stayedmain span in

Bridge
the world
took\ 10 years, countless calculations, andmyriaddedicatedprofessionals
to design andbuild. Capable of withstanding high winds, large earthquakes,
andformidable ship impacts, it willalso be a Hong Kong iconfor decades to come.

BY Steve Kite, CENG, and Naeem Hussain, CENG h

V,f

r
 BB| ONG KONG'S Stonecutters
Bridge, which features the
second- 1 oiliest cable-stayed
span in the world, stands as a
testament to patience. Part of
a new east-west expressway
WM that provides a badly needed
link between the island of Tsing Yi,
located northwest of Hong Kong
Island, and Sha Tin, north of Kow¬
loon, the sleek, elegant structure
opened to traffic in December 2009
following 10 years of design and
construction efforts that can only be
i
described as extraordinary. At night
the tops of its towers and the beams
:ÿ
v that connect its twin box girder
decks glow from internal illumina¬
'L
tion, creating a ribbon of light that
heralds the accomplishment.
m The bridge forms the center-
'ÿv
piece of Hong Kong's Route 8, a
m six-lane roadway that provides resi¬
Mffl
.1 ii
dents with an alternative in travel¬
m
d l| ing between the Kowloon and Sha
i.i

/ /
r
'Tin regions in the east and the is¬
i t
lands leading to Hong Kong Inter¬
national Airport in the west. The

1 (ft
v
i

B
airport is located on reclaimed land
north of Lantau Island (see "Hong
*
1 -1
»
wu
lit.
Kong Flies into the Future,” Civ¬
W
il Engineering. January 1 995, pages
l >i'

54—58). hx:ally the bridge serves as

an improved connection to the con¬
tainer terminals at Kwai Chung,
immediately north of the bridge on
its east side, including the contain¬
er terminal on Stonecutters Island
to the southeast, and a new contain¬
er terminal on the island of Tsing
Yi. (See the map on page 64.) Span¬
ning Rambler Channel, the bridge
offers high-level clearance for ships
using these terminals.
The Highways Department of
the Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region

Its towering twin pylons and steel

deck girders alight, Stonecutters
Bridge can be seen from myriad loca¬
tions throughout Hong Kong. At a total
length of 1,569 m and boasting a ca¬
ble-stayed span of 1,018 m, the bridge
CL
=5
C£ stands as a testament to both engi¬
© neering and construction ingenuity.

R 2010 Civil Engineering [61]

%

>
ESi *r*

S-c
*1

kj> J

XT*
*

fhV
,ji '
“r 4i

'r UMJ
ft

&
a#
hfTirt*-
(ÿ i

:'
I

r* ,,'
TAM
r

"M £
.
$>“ k

Jl
£“l
V

-<

/
‘'
J
,/
Hi

WAA
p&xr
*

J*
,t

E
r

*
.

.A:
1

/if
',* "
>w.-

A
r
A;

A«.;t rrAt
pbS r

f
;

iA
EtUf4
•ÿ

:,pn|t 7
...
*"V
V
.ÿ
w'“ÿ

w£ lGw TAJ
i
gfl&£

%4

,-'i w
>
rr
NEW TERRITORIES
.i4 •
rw fr./

S«g
—
du
v- r.
*s N
4l

'r.
A'

•>ÿ
«...

••
_

M<#t*
.*ÿ

-
.
*
»
W'i

'
'ÿ«

*'Vri
"ÿ

T”
Vi
’'
•i
*
1
\f

-Vl"v
r- ‘'ÿ i* w
N<? yÿJG
>,1 /

a<./. a*;
ih

1 t -7%
M

I4

•,
Jtdÿ'

,
J

4BP
/
*

f-
V1'-
Jj
PPN*"’ yf” *i3MfVs
*

JA/&>J4 -**
.

T
&
-
-ÿTÿFSSSlÿf
V 'p
*!

'It
ri. ,

RO.K - |4

mm
c_
-.%ÿ

r'"Ifcafl
-j

V•

f'
r/
V*

- *ÿ
x

Kt.r.'. i
-MAON
-t

SHAM

m
rtlj

Jt

iiJfe ; wl
osK
J

ui\-;:«
MJ.
v-

ff #

1
*'4g£t f

k-a
-
J
V>

-yvÿsw
%

If-

' iif1*
#*> fs*
.J
/
w

pfjrt?'
<ÿ

-ÿ•'

SWELlffrt
.

'l
f

U»
JKW

T-ifÿ

*
n

X/
l

'

I1
TVthPllKn
>+
*1 % '
\ j
MM jm
\gr** * f I VKkfl
V-

%
'v;v
Vl
v +JHm .« ,'“<
4
\T&UN&

ft
w i
‘MVi
;3- KVVAN 01?ÿ' y.ÿ;ÿ

fr lHA/ÿ

Hp%
2

_
iH'
f 1 i
Oclt U»p kok 4 >

f* Mrtwu Ar?rt .
T
io nj #*-./ 1ÿ4. »
Bridge Location /
/
/ v ." .
P(JT>(1CJSK
*,- 1

.
fTA
?>fSP
, „_ÿ* t 1 ' /

Aw -* * r_
Ofl/ , i t-J h / ->XW'
- •• * *

ssgN
r-»X <•-®
$ . ,S.« k A F
r
»a*'
V, ->
A*-
/
%'
r«rV" -
'«:ÿr
U:
-1ÿ
as V Ofcw
-* Ou*
k -. VP V>
ik >*
4H
-ÿ

1
PSXV
JONQ
i >/ CfiM/
Tÿjfey. »vV' 1*
j

OT
*-*
\r
s or
il-ANTAUISI.Ap>ÿ
'i|
p
S#r.J“jK SVS+f M
HONG KONG ISLAND SM
T

yx 1 A
{*' * 4
d

#WH
- % J
4»

.
k
h, V
w
*£{&:** v: .J V . 1. T-*U
40* iMi-h-Hi s
'rtsa. * yut "'J

)
elicited the bridge concept through international design Bridge Is Named 2010 OCEA Winner,” ASCE News, Ajÿril an
competition in 2000, which was won by a team of engineers 20 1 0, page I .) There are four prestressed-concrete back spans
and an architect (see the project credits). In March 200 1 the on each side; tlieir lengths are, in moving away from the main
engineering of the detailed design was awarded to the global span, 79.75, 70, 70, and 69.25 m. (See the elevation below.)
engineering consulting firm Amp, with COWI, of Copenha¬ The bridge's monopole towers stand on the centerline of the
gen, Denmark, serving as a subconsulrant. The detailed de¬ bridge between the three eastbound and three westbound
sign process began with a thorough technical review of the lanes. The lower section of each tower, up to 175 m, is of con¬
competition-winning concept, followed by studies that be¬ crete; the upper section, to 293 m, is a composite of steel and
gan in March 2002 to determine the effects of wind, seismic¬ concrete. Illuminated glazed structures 5 m tall top the tow¬
ity, and ship impacts on the design. The design proceeded ers, bringing their total height to 298 m and making them
from there, and in 2004 the construction contract was award¬ among the tallest in the world. I wo planes of stay cables ar¬
ed to MHYHJV—a joint venture of the Japanese construc¬ ranged in a modified fan configuration are anchored at the
tion firms Maeda Road Construction Company Ltd., Hitachi outer edges of the deck every 1 8 m along the main span and
Zosen Corporation, and Yokogawa Bridge Holdings Corpo¬ every 1 0 m along the back spans.
ration and the Hong Kong company Hsin Chong Construc¬ The bridge deck is a twin box girder, one box for each road¬
tion Group Ltd. way, and these two longitudinal girders are connected by
Stonecutters Bridge boasts a total WEST ono cross-girders. In the concrete back spans the piers are
+298 m monolirhically connected to the deck. The three inter¬
length of 1,596 m and a steel main span of TOWER v7
1 ,018 m, the latter second only to Chinas mediate piers are single columns, while the end piers at
Sutong Bridge. ( The Sutong Bridge the adjoining viaducts are twin-column structures
was ASCEs 2010 Outstanding Civ¬ with connecting crossbeams. Laterally, the
t

il Engineering Achievement Pfi bridge deck is restrained by vertical I

<? ajaso, bearings on the sidts of the

[OCEA] Award winner. & I

See “Chinas Sutong A El

y\
towers and by the

0
oC 5
/
i
¥I

I1
I

It

/ ( IT
zx
I I I *
V
I NAVIGATION CHANNEL GAUGE +73.5 mm
Pier Pier Pier Pier
4W I 3W 2W i 1W I NAVIGATION
i i * * I

l
I I 1 TUT
69.25 m 70 m 70 m 79.75 m 1,018 m
----M C

[62] Civil Engineering OCTOBER 2010 0085 AHi iCLt

 l fi it i r iflM mwffwiiPi
T7
'
MUM BT1
au1 T

\V

?S m
- •

.
1
I i
5 j

t&r - 'T -
ill* «:
T
1
'
t T ; r .
1 •
Plli’-' Lr

*m
I:
u ;ÿ
* TL
*V! VJ£*U**VJTJU iJt'*
!
17 . .- >ÿ"
UT'
*
* -
- sr V-, H i
r- m4

m
rr' I I k
ff a
M
**P **
-
L
b*'—

*
f- I

1
* I A.

kliid- - - n -T * : «r
II ft-

•’ f.
-a

__ a -
v
,
. :ÿ 'frg&M >ÿ l
T- ry
•

•'- .: l
t

In M rJi
-2 ,.f " ''VJ * •-.*?: *1
i
D<r- fi1?? Wh
HQe vz- -1 1

tf
t I
- ‘-
4|

&
4m. _j

51s t
. *
..
vr «r
ipMfcÿ.i - r

5WSS _
V%
• •
a r& _ÿ ‘j

\
*•* - JhdnSHp :
F-:te
H
«_i
••••• ‘•r,> < .:. •. *
*

111
tflUy

ftp
m - ii. v

Sfl -r.* ; '

'
.if

’H .
BE y :
.
JiiiM
-i | I -
'
‘
r
- »*m
11
i

mm
Wmm i 1 .’ :

-:< f

m
r
--r ,
Ml
r.- m i 1 1
.i 1
j
JI i ”
41
J
a/ ar.l
-
if i \
. !:-ÿ
y

S1
f
H l l-* k |' |

mtf tii
i
L V*
AS.
fe* MSH- _ÿ-•
' t

*./
1

/
if
* m r.! f**. A J 3 ’
I»I' V /
It
/ÿ
» 'i i

-T-. VI/
.
Ac
1 nk ajr
1

1 |K 35*
A *
- 'ft 9 -1
»
"
•. Mh

V;
J
i
t* ;
(

7* ' *
- > j

•Lu

. '* -k
K /

back-span piers. In the longitudinal direction, Constructed before the canti¬ were carried out establish design loads at to

dynamic movements are restrained by hydrau¬ levered main-span segments, the site in question imposed by wind, seismic
lic buffers at the towers, but slow-acting tem¬ the concrete back spans were activity, and ship impacts.
perature movements are not restrained. completely supported on false¬ Of these three, wind dominated the de¬
The banks on each side of the channel were work prior to the installation of sign. The bridge is a highly flexible structure
created from reclaimed ground and comprise the stay cables. The back spans occupying a large footprint; thus a complete
superficial deposits of various thicknesses served to stabilize the main wind model was required to calculate the dy¬
overlying bedrock encountered at depths be¬ spans’ cantilevers and protect namic wind loads. Measurements of the par¬
lowground of 50 to 90 m. them from strong winds. ticular wind conditions, including the wind
To the best of our knowledge, the bridge turbulence intensity, were taken adjacent to
is the first cable-stayed bridge to be designed with a span of the bridge site. This helped to calibrate and supplement the
more than 1 km. The particular challenges of the design arose results from a 1:1,500 wind tunnel model of the surround¬
from the site's exjxisure to typhoon winds and its busy harbor, ing terrain. Together, these studies provided an understand¬
which imposed severe restrictions on the construction opera¬ ing of the turbulent wind climate resulting from the topogra¬
tions. The bridge also had to be designed to carry traffic chat phy of the nearby hills. The measured wind parameters were
would include a large number of vehicles (42 percent of the used to modify the design wind cli¬
total) transporting heavy gcxxls to and from the nearby ports. EAST mate as presented in the design
TOWER m memorandum.
Summarized in a design memorandum, the criteria were
based on the Structures Design Manualfor Highways and Rail- Additional wind tunnel stud¬
ies employed a 1:80 deck sec¬
1

ways (Highways Department, Government of the Hong

j

* Kong Special Administration Region, 2006), as tion model and a larger (1:20)
r;
deck section model to check
i

? well as on the British standard BS5400 and

other relevant codes. However, a for aerodynamic instabil¬
number of investigations ity under wind speeds
l It

T, i

1
\\\
/ V V

I
!
1
i I 1

n
V

i
4 i
I I I
i

Pier Pier Pier Pier

I ! 1E 2E 3E 4E
CHANNEL: 900 m i
i i

!
m
79.75 m 70 m 70 m 69.25 m
M — J

OCTOBER zoio Civil Engineering [63

 LEVEL, m. relative to principal data EAST SIDE FOUNDATIONS
470
460 —I
OBSTRUCTION FROM
SEABED ROCKflLL
EAST TOWER
+50 *ÿ! -FP r a

PIER PIER *hp is a m LB.

PJ!EC«T
PIER PIER
+40 “ lrrÿtpaos ...
1E 2E 3E 4E
EXISTING
+30 I

+20 _
” SEAWALL
TS : PIER SHAFT PIER SHAFT \ PfER SHAFT
A
PII RSHAF1
POTEN1WL
INCUOW v\'.WAVE i B

+ 10 Of WATER
-A V

r
“ FROM B

-10 - CH4NNGI
aay«i f ft Al
jar
1
pjts,

PILE- CAP t yirÿfli.E CAP r "WE CAP piTi CAE; r I _ "ÿLECA* EtS-aiLtCAP J B4

• c Tl a 1 r

0 iÿjJSfA T.l i
1

j
p

B,I
i

'ÿ
K
>fc

m
:lE
K

w MAP i wr OFPW
3 * fiOCKPRi:
L- A
S' in IARINE DEPOSIT N 3
-20 ;
9
; 1
n b-

A
*
RtitffcFiU i
i*“
8-<f
:ÿ* i.

M r I
;
ria

_ I
-30 HOCKFILL
m

1
i 4 :

m
"i
EH n
ALLUVIUM
P
*
I
r"-
T -—.
H Hr-
'
3TVE- v r- 4 '
-H

-40 _
ffl :H

GSfll JN0 WAT! R CUT Tl fit iftr fa

i —- - '"-ara , L
V 1 '
S
u- ;\ u\ -

I
u A,-
CUMPLEIFU _ *1rciv V ’T
fill r
” 'U st'yih i
•

'
—
-50 COv- L-
: L-V ..-krv L :«f; VnttÿivV
.ÿ T»»|
LT \ RPP > **ÿ
r

'V.
i-CS/ \TICpfM-;i E.) fcl *ÿ

\
V
* 4 J.

H
i
-60 "
1 L J

U fj
1

VW:.ÿ\ * r- i*
PdTfPHYftlTlC ORANTEF BLOCKS
+ a' i
'ST 'I ly-: .+ \ !L
JX
. -
/ 9
+
JM HL
+ i
\
B »ÿ

r 7
suGfjTLy/woDrrÿTfi.y \ \
* ,
1-

-70 . "L

v
I

v
*. 1 I "ÿ
-L
a b B I' +
'
. -r/f pCCOMFOSEDTdFFÿ \ r
SliUHTLtyMODtElAlÿlY j

ALTFPEÿ
-80 'T
+ + 4

-SLHGHT1Y/MODERA1ELY
F B P

- K
I1 *
p
jj
J.
v j
f

+ h
\ v w
t:
;ÿ

\ SHEARED
\
\
vr\ v 4 GRANITE +
v-
4
B -I + + b 4 i 1m j \ SLIGHT LY/HODFRAlEa\
tWrl ¥
HOCK
" f
p B

DECOMPOSE DCftANfTt \ \ OefcoMPqseO GRAFTS \

I

-90 .1*
* % „ B t H

I
B

+
i
T

b
b
.+ t 4 ? :\ 4 -B
A V\ 4 \ r|. T p- L

1100
a
A
b i
4
* 4
- A m S; \ .... -ÿ.

FELDSPARPHVRIC RHYOLITE DIKE(S) QUARTZPHYRIC RHYOLITE DIKElSl

die deck level of up to 95 m/s. A 1:100 freestanding tower

at tified. A study of the risk levels established seismic events for i-

model also was tested, and a 1 :200 tieroelasdc: model of the fltll return periods of 120 years for what is known in British anti
bridge was used to confirm the bridge’s overall behavior. Ruro]x.*an codes as tlie serviceability limit state, 2,400 years for
Wind buffeting calculations, which make it possible to as¬ the ultimate limit state, and 6,000 years for die more extreme
sess the actions of a flexible structure in response to the inter¬ structural integrity limit state. The bridge should behave elas¬
action between gusty winds and the dynamics of the structure, tically during frequently occurring or minor earthquakes (the
were carried out in two separate software programs to ensure serviceability limit state) without the need for any repair. Dur¬ I
full confidence in the results for this complex interaction. ing a moderate earthquake (the ultimate limit state) certain
As mentioned above, ship impacts also were considered. elements may undergo large deformations in the posteiastic
The tower foundations are located approximately 10 m from range without a substantial reduction in strength, and the
seawalls that exist on both sides of Rambler Channel, and in damage level would be minimal. Thus,repairs could becarried
view of this close proximity, the design had to account for out without closing the bridge. The deformation and damage
loading induced by a ship collision with the seawall. Deter¬ during a severe earthquake (the structural integrity limit state)
mining the forces that such an event would impose on the were to be such that no loss of structural integrity would occur
bridge structure is difficult to analyze because of the interac¬ and emergency traffic would be able to use die bridge. How¬
tion of die ground response and the structural response. For ever, the repair work might be substantial and might require
this reason, a series of centrifuge tests were carried out at a scale closure of the bridge. The design earthquake ground motion
of 1:200 to model the effect of a 155,000 metric ton contain- was represented by design response spectra for the site in ques¬
ership hitting the seawall at a speed of 6 knots. The centri¬ tion (with 5 jiercent damping) determined by a probabilistic
fuge imposed an acceleration of 200g on the model to ensure seismic hazard assessment for the three return ixncxls.
that the stress distributions represented the full-scale scenario. The probabilistic seismic hazard assessment combined
From the results of the test and the correlation of the pressure die seismic source zone, the earthquake recurrence period,
measurements with dynamic three-dimensional finite-ele¬ and the attenuation relationship to produce “hazard curves”
ment models, the design forces exerted by the vessel impacts with respect to the level of ground motion and the associated
at the front face of the bridge foundation were established. annual frequency being exceeded. By adding the annual fre¬
Hong Kong does not experience a significant amount of quencies f rom all possible magnitude ranges, the overall fre¬
seismic activity; its seismicity can be likened to what might quency of a particular ground motion level being exceeded
be periodically experienced in the eastern United States. But ( “exceedance") was determined.
the effects on such a large structure needed to be fully quan¬ Other design considerations included the expected fatigue
BRIDGE
26,650 mm 26,650 mm
I
24,600 mm a 7,150 mm 600 4000 1 1,000 mm _ 3,300 mm
f n 2 LANE CARRIAGEWAY g f STAY CABLE
i STAY CABLE J >
T?
J-1'
O
9

Vi
ll
k
STEEL DECK I
LI
to
J)
rj-
X
o
c ftl"*
I

Vi
B

L.1
•J
I m i'1
rn
T I
3 D >ÿ

I
II L 4

/ i.
UIJ v
u if u u Li tro
B

JU uu
mj U U i
*
r B
a
I
i

I
1
H
j
—
i
4
fa

f
RAIL FOR
INSPECTION VEHICLE
GUIDE VANE *
[64] Civil Engineering OCTOBER zoto
 '"S

j
/
.J
I
-
“ L
F
w f

p_ '

5? '
IT."

'ÿ;JP
'ÿÿ r

y-
.. 1
;V"V
V\ £ÿ /
w*
'
\ /
;
S' II /
+j>iÿrL J

> a

- -

vu-j/y iKi/Ui I flJ t [: nnel and carefully lifted

lulu jJhitiij 'Jii'j in UiiiJ Jill >

a SHiihlliJsJ liiÿ IJJJ J-

f
ph
jI I (
*
i
ri
rr ,'fil:i liti i
4u« 7 I
irjiuaij ni liid -kji Jiml iniiuJ JiXOLt-iiuuuaiiv JiiWiiHv id
i *', J
-t
a
XHl ijlr i t
I
i
I

dfiHh,
m
I
3
...
J vm [ .
— r I'i.i ilit afK —
H
mmm
ac
asew 3 £cE: Jr1--'
"1 ;:;>7; ' l‘l *ÿ
J::'"'. 'ÿ
,..l‘ • •
fltW A'.
J$S££,*'- - : - -£.- VL-f •!-•’- '•
wtr..± •ÿi-

•i 'IIT • •• •
J• [ÿ.-j

' 7 ../All JSWw11- " '•• jU*'

-:"ÿÿÿ '.T- -- i!'--
-v. ".
'a
.* .
*_Ti t"

: -

loading in the steel deck plate, which is considerable because of an oscillator. A suspended piece ofgrasping equipment called
the number ofheavy vehicles that will use the bridge. The struc- a grab was used to excavate the sand, and this was followed by
tore is located in a subtropical climate with summer tempera- rotary core drilling to form the bailouts, which were seated
tures frequently above 30°C The reduction in stiffness of the slightly within the rock.
asphalt surfacing at such high temperatures limited the usual Because of the large size of the piles, the pile caps were sub¬
benefit conferred by the composite action of the asphalt surface stantial, and their construction in permeable sand adjacent to
with the deck plate. To address this* the tile sea required carefully designed sheet-
orthotropic steel deck was designed with
an 18 mm thick deck place and 325 mm
i ice 1 le concrete pile cofferdams and dewatering systems.
The back-span caps, typically 1 9 by
Si 1
deep, 9 mm thick trough stiffeners. 1 1 m in plan and t ni thick, were cast in a back spans were
The construction sequence also had to single placement. To control differential
{

be taken into account in the design analy¬ to constructe( i temperatures, insulation was provided to be
sis. Since the concrete back spans were to impede heat dissipation. The cofferdam
lx* constructed in advance of the candle- for each rower pile cap involved a 38 by in advance of the
vering of the main-span deck, they were
fully supported on falsework prior to the
50 m excavation 1 0 m deep and included
three layers of steel struts, which were in¬
can tilevering o!
installation of the stay cables. The back corporated into the caps. Concrete place¬ the main-span
spans provided stability and resistance to ments that were typically 1 m thick were
the buffeting wind loads on thecantilever. used to form the 8 m thick caps, with ad¬ deck, they were
The design of the foundations had ditional reinforcement provided at each
to cope with the fact that the reclaimed
on layer to control thermal cracking. fully supported
ground consisted of overlying alluvial
deposits atop bedrock. However, two
t:o The intermediate pier shafts are be¬
tween 60 and 65 m tall. These hollow box
falsework prior
major faults running through the site sections taper from 1 2.5 m to JO m in the installation of
resulted in some local areas having wide¬ width and have a constant depth of 4 m.
ly varying depths of bedrock, some very (lie stay
J The walls are either 600 mm or l m thick cables.
deep. For these reasons, cast-in-place, and were constructed with 60 MPa con¬
end-bearing bored piles up to 2.8 m in diameter were con- crete using a hydraulic climbing formwork system. The end-
stmeted using 45 MPa concrete. The piles range in length up span shafts were constructed by means of similar techniques. At
to i 1 0 m, the “bellouts” at their bases reaching diameters of each intermediate pier, the monolithic crosshead was formed by
UJ
UJ
tt
4.5 m (see the figure at the top of page 64). The bellouts limit in situ cantilever construction. Temporary trusses cantilevering
E
the stresses imposed on the r<xk. from each side of the pier shaft provided support in the tempo-
•J
The piles were constructed within very tight tolerances rary condition while the concrete gained the required strength.
fc
I>
e
with respect to both position and vertically; this was accom- There are three cross-girders in each deck segment in the
O plished using full-depth temporary steel casings installed by back spans, and these were cast first as independent units.

OCTOBER 2010 Civil Engineering 65