Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2006, 20(1), 136–140
q 2006 National Strength & Conditioning Association
THE RELATIONSHIP OF BODY SEGMENT LENGTH
AND VERTICAL JUMP DISPLACEMENT IN
RECREATIONAL ATHLETES
D. SCOTT DAVIS, ERIN E. BOSLEY, LINDSAY C. GRONELL, SARAH A. KEENEY,
ANDREA M. ROSSETTI, CORRIE A. MANCINELLI, AND JOHN J. PETRONIS
Division of Physical Therapy, Department of Human Performance and Exercise Science, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505.
ABSTRACT. Davis, D.S., E.E. Bosley, L.C. Gronell, S.A. Keeney,
A.M. Rossetti, C.A. Mancinelli, and J.J. Petronis. The relation-
ship of body segment length and vertical jump displacement in
recreational athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 20(1):136–140.
2006.—The purpose of this study was to determine if segmental
skeletal length contributes to vertical jump (VJ) displacement
in recreational athletes. Skeletal length measurements of the
trunk, femur, tibia, and foot were obtained by palpation of bony
landmarks and a standard tape measure. A pilot study (n 5 10)
examined the intratester and intertester reliability for each
skeletal measure. The pilot investigation revealed fair to excel-
lent intratester and intertester reliability. Seventy-eight recre-
ational athletes (55 men and 23 women) with a mean age of 21.9
6 2.9 years participated in the investigation. Multiple regres-
sion analysis with gender as a categorical indicator variable re-
vealed a significant gender difference; therefore, men and wom-
en were analyzed separately. Regression analysis for men iden-
tified foot length (p , 0.033, R2 5 0.08) as the only significant
skeletal length predictor of VJ displacement. None of the skel-
etal length measures was predictive of VJ displacement in wom-
en. Based on the results of this investigation, intrinsic skeletal
length is not a strong predictor of VJ displacement in young
adult recreational athletes.
KEY WORDS. skeletal measurements, biomechanics, functional
testing
INTRODUCTION
he vertical jump (VJ) test is a common func-
T tional measure of an athlete’s current and po-
tential level of athletic performance (2, 5, 6, 12).
Several studies have documented the influence
of VJ displacement on the playing status, level of play,
and position in college football players (5, 6, 12). As a
result, coaches and athletes are interested in improving
VJ displacement in those sports in which vertical jumping
is required. If the factors that predict VJ displacement
are clearly identified, then targeted training programs
can be investigated to determine the most efficacious pro-
gram. Many studies have attempted to identify the fac-
tors that influence VJ displacement (2, 4–10, 12, 15, 17,
21, 24, 28, 30). Despite the efforts of many investigators,
a strong prediction model for VJ displacement has not
been identified. Previous studies have focused on train-
able variables, such as muscular strength and power,
flexibility, balance, coordination, body weight and com-
position, and jumping technique (2–10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 21,
24, 28, 30). To date, no studies have examined the influ-
ence of nontrainable variables such as the length of in-
dividual body segments in predicting VJ displacement.
The biomechanical model of the body, as described by
Aragon-Vargas and Gross (3) depicts a 4-segment model
consisting of the trunk, thigh, leg, and foot connected by
3 joints between each segment. During a VJ, muscle force
production primarily from the back extensors, gluteus
maximus, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, and soleus results
in a powerful ground reaction force that propels the body
upward against gravity. As in any lever system, the
length of the lever arm affects joint torque (19). There-
fore, it is theorized that body segment length (trunk, fe-
mur, tibia, and foot) may influence VJ displacement.
Body segment length has been measured in several
investigations by identification of bony landmarks via
palpation (1, 11, 13, 16, 20, 26). Biomechanical studies
using motion analysis often use reflective markers that
are placed on bony landmarks by palpation to measure
body segment length (16, 20). Al-Eisa et al. (1) measured
tibia length as the distance from the medial joint line of
the knee to the medial malleolus. They measured femur
length from the greater trochanter of the femur to the
lateral joint line of the knee. Duyar and Pelin (11) also
measured tibia length from the medial joint line of the
knee to the medial malleolus. Fry et al. (13) measured
tibial height by measuring the distance from the lateral
tibial condyle to the ground. Al-Eisa et al. (1) measured
foot length from the posterior heel to the longest toe,
whereas McWhorter et al. (22) measured foot length us-
ing a Brannock device that measured the distance from
the posterior heel to the longest toe.
To date, no investigation has attempted to determine
the relationship between body segment length and VJ
displacement. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
determine if body segment lengths (trunk, femur, tibia,
foot) are predictors of VJ displacement in male and fe-
male recreational athletes.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
This investigation used an exploratory correlational de-
sign and regression analysis to test the null hypothesis
that there is no predictive relationship between the skel-
etal length variables and VJ displacement in recreational
athletes. A pilot study was conducted before performing
the main investigation to establish intratester and inter-
tester reliability for each skeletal measure. The investi-
gation was approved by the university’s Institutional Re-
view Board for Human Subjects and all subjects complet-
ed a health history questionnaire and signed a written
informed consent before testing.

FIGURE 1. Measurement of foot length with a modified Bran-
nock device.
Subjects
Seventy-eight recreationally active men (n 5 55) and
women (n 5 23) volunteered to participate in this study
(age: men 21.9 6 2.9 years, women 21.6 6 2.1 years). A
recreational athlete was defined as any individual who
participates in nonprofessional or noncollegiate athletics
3 or more times per week. No attempt was made to sub-
divide the sample based on type of athletic participation.
All subjects were informed of the purpose and risks of the
study before signing an informed consent document. Sub-
jects completed a health-screening questionnaire to iden-
tify conditions that would limit their ability to participate
in the study.
Procedures
Preliminary Testing. A pilot investigation was conducted
on 2 separate occasions (men: n 5 4; women: n 5 6) to
establish intratester and intertester reliability of the
skeletal length measures (age: 22.1 6 1.69 years). The
first testing session examined right tibia and femur
length. Femur length was measured in a sidelying posi-
tion, with a standard clinical tape measure. The length
of the femur was measured from the inferior aspect of the
subject’s greater trochanter to the distal lateral femoral
condyle, identified by the proximal lateral joint line of the
knee. Tibia length was measured in a supine position
from the medial joint line of the knee to the inferior as-
pect of the medial malleolus.
The second testing session measured right foot and
trunk length. Foot length was measured in the seated
position using a Brannock device (Figure 1) that was
modified to include a standard clinical tape measure. The
length of the foot was measured from the posterior heel
to the longest toe. Trunk length was measured with the
subject in a prone position with a standard clinical tape
measure from the base of the sacrum to the inferior as-
RELATIONSHIP OF BODY SEGMENT LENGTH 137
pect of the C7 spinous process. The base of the sacrum
was identified by palpation using the sacral sulcus and
the posterior superior iliac spine as easily identified land-
marks. All measurements were taken in centimeters and
were repeated 3 times by 4 examiners in random order.
The examiners were blinded from the subject’s identity
by a curtain throughout the testing session.
Testing Procedures. The main study was conducted at
the University Student Recreation Center in a large aer-
obics room on 2 separate occasions. After completing a
health history and signing an informed consent docu-
ment, each subject rotated through a series of 6 stations.
For each of the lower extremity measurements, only the
right lower extremity was measured. The examiner at the
first station measured the total body height in centime-
ters using a standard scale (Continental Scale Corp.,
Bridgeview, IL) with height attachment. The second
through fifth stations included foot, tibia, femur, and
trunk length measurements. Each of the skeletal length
measurements was performed as described previously for
the pilot investigation. The examiners were chosen to per-
form a measurement at a given station based on their
intratester reliability. Each measurement was conducted
by an investigator with a minimum intratester reliability
coefficient of 0.76.
VJ displacement was measured at the sixth and final
station. VJ was performed with shoes on using a coun-
termovement but no step. Blue chalk was applied to the
long finger of the subject’s chosen hand. The subject was
then instructed to stand with the self-selected side next
to a wall covered with white paper. Baseline reach was
recorded by having the subject reach as far as possible
and touch the chalked finger to the wall, while maintain-
ing both feet in contact with the floor. VJ displacement
was determined as the difference between the superior
aspect of the best VJ mark and the superior aspect of the
baseline standing reach mark. Measurements were ini-
tially recorded in inches but later converted to centime-
ters for data analysis. Each subject performed 3 jumps.
The jump with the greatest displacement was recorded
and used for analysis (31).
Statistical Analyses
Data from the pilot study were analyzed using a repeated
measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and intraclass
correlation coefficient (ICC) (2,1) for intertester reliability
and ICC (3,1) for intratester reliability according to the
formula described by Shrout and Fleiss (25). The main
investigation was initially analyzed using multiple re-
gression analysis (least squares) with gender as a cate-
gorical indicator variable. Based on the results of the ini-
tial analysis, men and women were analyzed separately
using multiple regression analysis to identify predictors
of VJ displacement. In each case, the response variable
was VJ displacement and the regressor variables were
age, body height, trunk, femur, tibia, and foot length. Par-
tial regression coefficients were used in hypothesis test-
ing.
RESULTS
The intratester and intertester reliability values for all
skeletal measurements are listed in Table 1. The intra-
tester reliability was found to be excellent (ICC . 0.81)
for all testers for tibia, foot, and trunk length measure-
ments. Intratester reliability for femur length was found
138 DAVIS, BOSLEY, GRONELL ET AL.

TABLE 1. Intratester and intertester reliability for skeletal TABLE 3. Predictors of VJ* displacement in men.
measures.
Regressor Partial
Intratester Intertester variables coefficients p value
Measurement ICC* (3,1) ICC (2,1)
Age 20.073 0.8684
Femur SD 5 0.76 0.61 Height 20.463 0.3244
CM 5 0.50 Trunk 20.273 0.5855
SK 5 0.37 Femur 0.598 0.3304
AR 5 0.12 Tibia 20.028 0.9829
Tibia SK 5 0.98 0.61 Foot 3.02 0.0330†
CM 5 0.93
* VJ 5 vertical jump.
SD 5 0.92
† Statistically significant at p ,0.05.
AR 5 0.85
Foot length JP 5 0.99 0.99
CM 5 0.99 TABLE 4. Predictors of VJ* displacement in women.
AR 5 0.99
EB 5 0.99 Regressor Partial
Trunk JP 5 0.93 0.74 variables coefficients p value
CM 5 0.91 Age 20.237 0.7544
AR 5 0.89 Height 0.041 0.9526
EB 5 0.81 Trunk 0.941 0.2383
* ICC 5 intraclass correlation coefficient. Femur 20.575 0.5590
Tibia 20.177 0.9160
Foot 20.165 0.9255
to be poor to fair with only 1 tester having a reliability * VJ 5 vertical jump.
coefficient greater than 0.75. As would be expected, the
intertester reliability was generally less than the intra-
tester reliability. TABLE 5. Pearson correlation coefficients.
Descriptive statistics including means and standard Variables Men Women
deviations are listed in Table 2. Inspection of the descrip-
tive statistics revealed a possible difference between men Age by VJ* 0.02 20.16
Height by VJ 0.09 0.23
and women for all the variables except age, indicating Trunk by VJ 20.03 0.35
that gender should be used as a categorical indicator var- Femur by VJ 0.18 0.11
iable in the initial regression analysis. Multiple regres- Tibia by VJ 0.18 0.15
sion analysis with gender as an indicator variable re- Foot by VJ 0.28 0.13
vealed a significant difference between men and women
* VJ 5 vertical jump.
(p , 0.0001). Because of the heterogeneity of the sample,
men and women were separated for further data analysis.
Multiple regression analysis of the male data (Table can be altered by training. The results of these investi-
3) revealed that foot length was the only significant var- gations revealed that VJ displacement is difficult to pre-
iable (p , 0.0330, R2 5 0.08). This model resulted in a dict; however, 2 variables, power (3, 4, 9) and body com-
positive partial beta coefficient of 3.02 revealing that as position (9, 21, 23, 27–29), appear to hold the greatest
foot length increases, VJ displacement increases. Inspec- promise. In contrast, no investigations have examined the
tion of the residual plot revealed a good fit of the linear importance of intrinsic (nontrainable) variables in the
model. A similar examination of the female data (Table prediction of VJ displacement. Therefore, the present
4) revealed that none of the regressor variables was pre- study attempted to identify the importance of intrinsic
dictive of VJ displacement. Pearson product-moment cor- skeletal length variables in predicting VJ displacement
relation coefficients, for each of the skeletal length vari- in young adult recreational athletes.
ables against VJ, are listed in Table 5. Based on the literature, it was not surprising to find
that gender was a significant indicator variable. Previous
DISCUSSION investigations have identified a difference in VJ displace-
Previous investigations have attempted to determine pre- ment between men and women (14, 31). Additionally, on
dictors of VJ displacement based largely on variables that average, men have greater body height and skeletal seg-

TABLE 2. Descriptive statistics for each variable.

Means (range) Standard deviation (6)
Variable Men Women Men Women
Age (years) 21.9 (18–36) 21.6 (18–27) 2.9 2.1
Height (cm) 178.5 (165–195) 166.1 (150-177) 7.4 7.2
Trunk (cm) 56.4 (48–64) 51.6 (44.5–57.5) 3.7 3.5
Femur (cm) 41.4 (36.4–49.9) 39.3 (34.2–45.1) 2.8 2.6
Tibia (cm) 39.5 (35.4–45.9) 36.7 (32.2–40.2) 2.5 2.2
Foot (cm) 27.2 (23.4–31.5) 24.6 (22.7–26.4) 1.6 1.1
VJ* (cm) 56.8 (40.0–85.1) 36.8 (26.7–50.8) 9.0 6.3
* VJ 5 vertical jump.

ment length than women. It is surprising, however, that
the length of the foot was found to be a predictor in men
but not in women. There are several possible reasons that
may explain this difference. The first is that the sample
size for men (n 5 55) was larger than for women (n 5
23), which may account for the low variability among the
women. Inspection of Table 2 reveals that the standard
deviation for foot length in men was larger than for wom-
en. Foot length in women ranged from 22.7 to 26.4 cm for
a difference of 3.7 cm, whereas foot length in men ranged
from 23.4 to 31.5 cm, for a difference of 8.1 cm. It is also
possible that women use a different jumping strategy
than men, which requires less ankle joint contribution.
This possible difference in technique may place more em-
phasis on back, hip, and knee extension and less empha-
sis on ankle plantarflexion.
It may be hypothesized that for a given ground reac-
tion force, an individual with a longer foot would generate
greater ankle torque due to a longer lever arm and more
propulsive force would be delivered in the vertical direc-
tion. Further research should attempt to determine the
reason for this difference between men and women. It
should also be noted that the strength of prediction, as
determined by the R2 statistic, reveals that foot length is
not a strong predictor of VJ displacement. An R2 of 0.08
indicates that 8% of the variability in VJ displacement is
explained by foot length. The relatively low prediction
strength of foot length and the fact that none of the other
skeletal measurements was significant supports the null
hypothesis that intrinsic skeletal length measures have
very little influence on VJ displacement in recreational
athletes.
In this investigation, a recreational athlete was de-
fined as any individual who participates in nonprofes-
sional or noncollegiate athletics 3 or more times per week.
VJ displacement of this sample is consistent with data
presented in other investigation of recreational athletes.
In this investigation, the mean VJ displacement was 56.8
cm for men and 36.8 cm for women. Davis et al. (9) re-
ported an average VJ displacement of 59.8 cm for male
recreational athletes. Ashley and Weiss (4) reported a
mean VJ displacement of 27.0 cm in college women. This
is compared with a mean VJ displacement of 73.9 cm re-
ported by Davis et al. (8) in Division I college football
players. No attempt was made to identify the specific
sport in which the subjects participated. Future investi-
gations should identify the type of sport in which the sub-
jects participate. Therefore, the results of this investiga-
tion should only be applied to young adult male and fe-
male recreational athletes between the ages of 18 and 40
who fit this definition of recreational athlete. Future re-
search should attempt to replicate these procedures in
collegiate, Olympic, and professional athletes who partic-
ipate in various sporting events.
Despite the relatively large number of subjects, the
number of women was low compared with men. The in-
tratester and intertester reliability of the measurements
were established before the investigation; however, the
validity of the measurements remains in question. The
use of a tape measure and palpation of bony landmarks
by experienced testers has been used by previous inves-
tigators and has face validity; however, criterion-related
validity of this technique compared with radiographic
measurements was not assessed.
To date, the study of VJ displacement has relied
RELATIONSHIP OF BODY SEGMENT LENGTH 139
heavily on the examination of isolated body systems. A
VJ maneuver is a complex task that requires the coordi-
nation of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems and
is largely regulated by affective factors such as motiva-
tion and desire. Within the human system, bones, mus-
cles, ligaments, tendons, nerves, and emotions must in-
teract synchronously for optimal athletic performance.
The results of this investigation identified that intrinsic
nontrainable variables (age; body height; trunk, femur,
and tibia length) are not predictive of VJ displacement in
recreational athletes, whereas foot length was found to be
a weak predictor of VJ displacement in male recreational
athletes. Based on the literature and the results of this
investigation, future studies should examine the inter-
action of promising variables in a comprehensive model
that better captures the complexities of the human sys-
tem.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The importance of VJ in athletes is well documented in
the literature. VJ displacement has been shown to be re-
lated to performance in several different sports. The
search for ways to improve VJ displacement has lead in-
vestigators to examine many different variables. Howev-
er, to date, skeletal length measures have not been in-
vestigated. The results of this investigation support the
hypothesis that skeletal length measurements generally
have no predictive value. The only exception is that foot
length appears to be an intrinsic factor that is predictive
of VJ displacement in recreational male athletes. From a
biomechanical perspective, the length of the foot may
serve to provide additional mechanical leverage by which
the ankle plantarflexors exert a propulsive force. The re-
sults of this investigation revealed that VJ displacement
is minimally influenced by intrinsic foot length. There-
fore, based on the literature, strength and conditioning
specialists should continue to focus efforts on improving
anaerobic muscle power (3, 4, 9), while optimizing body
composition to maximize VJ displacement (9, 21, 23, 27–
29).
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