Useful Identities and Inequalities in Geometry 1

Contributors in Posting Order

Samer Seraj (BigSams)2
Andrew Kirk (WakeUp)
Réda Afare (Thalesmaster)3
Luis González (luisgeometra)
Constantin Mateescu (Mateescu Constantin)

Typesetting and Editing

Ercole Suppa 4 (Leon)
Samer Seraj (BigSams)

June 29, 2011

1 Regular Notation for a 4ABC

• Let AB = c, BC = a, CA = b be the sides of 4ABC.
• Let A = m (∠BAC), B = m (∠ABC), C = m (∠BCA) be measures of the angles of 4ABC.
• Let ∆ be the area of 4ABC.
• Let P be any point in 4ABC. Let the cevians through P and A, B, C intersect a, b, c at Pa , Pb ,
Pc respectively.
• Let arbitrary cevians issued from A, B, C be d, e, f respectively.
• Let the semiperimeter, inradius, and circumradius be s, r, R respectively.
• Let the heights issued from A, B, C be ha , hb , hc respectively, which meet at the orthocenter H.
• Let the feet of the perpendiculars from H to BC, CA, AB be Ha , Hb , Hc respectively.
• Let the medians issued from A, B, C be ma , mb , mc respectively, which meet at the centroid G.
• Let the midpoints of A, B, C be Ma , Mb , Mc respectively.
• Let the internal angle bisectors issued from A, B, C be `a , `b , `c respectively, which meet at the
incenter I, and intersect their corresponding opposite sides at La , Lb , Lc respectively.
• Let the feet of the perpendiculars from I to BC, CA, AB be Ia , Ib , Ic respectively.
• Let the centers of the excircles tangent to BC, CA, AB be Oa , Ob , Oc respectively, and the excircles
be tangent to BC, CA, AB at Ea , Eb , Ec .
• Let the radii of the excircles tangent to BC, CA, AB be ra , rb , rc respectively.
• Let N be the Nagel Point, and let Γ be the Gergonne Point.

Important: CVH denotes that Cyclic Versions Hold

To refer to this document, especially on Mathlinks, call it IIG (Identities and Inequalities in Geometry)

1 Theoriginal thread: http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?f=50&t=412623/

2 Email: samer seraj@hotmail.com
3 Email: master 8701@hotmail.com
4 Email: ercolesuppa@gmail.com, Web: http://www.esuppa.it/

1
2 Trigonometric Identities for General Angles θ, φ

Note: Any identity that is included for the regular functions, but not for the reciprocal functions, can be
converted to the latter by replacing the regulars by the reciprocals and some simple cross multiplication
and fraction manipulation.

1. Reciprocal Identities
1
(a) sin θ =
csc θ
1
(b) cos θ =
sec θ
1
(c) tan θ =
cot θ

2. Pythagorean Identities
(a) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
(b) tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
(c) 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

3. Quotient Identities
sin θ
(a) tan θ =
cos θ
cos θ
(b) cot θ =
sin θ

4. Co-function Transformation Identities

(a) sin(θ + 90◦ ) = cos θ
(b) tan(θ + 90◦ ) = − cot θ
(c) sec(θ + 90◦ ) = − csc θ

5. Reflection Identities
(a) sin(180◦ − θ) = sin θ
(b) cos(180◦ − θ) = cos θ
(c) tan(180◦ − θ) = − tan θ

6. Period Identities (best constants obviously), n ∈ Z

(a) sin(θ + 360◦ n) = sin θ
(b) cos(θ + 360◦ n) = cos θ
(c) tan(θ + 180◦ n) = tan θ

2
 7. Even-odd Identities
(a) sin(−θ) = − sin(θ)
(b) cos(−θ) = cos θ
(c) tan(−θ) = − tan θ

8. Sum and Difference Identities

(a) sin(θ ± φ) = sin θ cos φ ± sin φ cos θ
(b) cos(θ ± φ) = cos θ cos φ ∓ sin θ sin φ
tan θ ± tan φ
(c) tan(θ ± φ) =
1 ∓ tan θ tan φ

9. Double Angle Identities

(a) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
(b) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
2 tan θ
(c) tan 2θ =
1 − tan2 θ

10. Half-angle Identities

θ 1 − cos θ
(a) sin2 =
2 2
θ 1 + cos θ
(b) cos2 =
2 2
θ sin θ 1 − cos θ
(c) tan = =
2 1 + cos θ sin θ

11. Product-to-Sum Identities

(a) 2 sin θ sin φ = cos(θ − φ) − cos(θ + φ)

(b) 2 cos θ cos φ = cos(θ + φ) + cos(θ − φ)
(c) 2 sin θ cos φ = sin(θ + φ) + sin(θ − φ)

12. Sum-to-Product Identities

   
θ+φ θ−φ
(a) cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
θ+φ θ−φ
(b) cos θ − cos φ = −2 sin sin
2 2
   
θ+φ θ−φ
(c) sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
θ−φ θ+φ
(d) sin θ − sin φ = 2 sin cos
2 2

3
3 Identities in 4ABC

1. Laws of the Triangle

a
(a) = 2R, CVH (Law of Sines)
sin A
b2 + c2 − a2
(b) cos A = , CVH (Law of Cosines)
2bc
a−b tan A−B
2
(c) = , CVH (Law of Tangents)
a+b tan A+B
2

2. Area of a Triangle
aha
(a) ∆ = , CVH
2
ab sin C
(b) ∆= , CVH
2
(c) ∆ = sr
abc
(d) ∆=
4R
p
(e) ∆ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) (Heron’s Theorem)
√
(f) ∆ = rra rb rc
2 X 2 1 X 4
(g) ∆2 = · ma · m2b − · ma
9 9
X  Y  
1 1 1 1 1
(h) = · − + +
∆2 ha ha hb hc
2∆ X Y
(i) = sin 2A = 4 · sin A
R2
1 X 2 Y A
(j) ∆= · a cot A = r2 · cot
4 2

BL AB
3. If AL is the angle bisector of A we have = , CVH. (Angle Bisector Theorem)
LC AC

APc BPa CPb

4. Following regular notation, · · = 1. (Ceva’s Theorem)
Pc B Pa C Pb A

5. If AD = d is a cevian, BD = m, and DC = n b2 m + c2 n = a(d2 + mn), CVH. (Stewart’s

Theorem)

6. Common Cevians in terms of a, b, c

p
2∆ 2 s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
(a) ha = = , CVH
a a
√
2b2 + 2c2 − a2
(b) ma = (Apollonius’s Theorem), CVH
2

4
 v
u  2 !
u a
(c) `a = bc 1 −
t , CVH
b+c

7. Common Radii in terms of a, b, c

r
∆ (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
(a) r = =
s s
abc abc
(b) R = = p
4∆ 4 s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r
∆ s(s − b)(s − c)
(c) ra = = , CVH
s−a s−a

8. Briggs’s Formulas
r
A (s − b)(s − c)
(b) sin = , CVH
2 bc
r
A s(s − a)
(a) cos = , CVH
2 bc
s
A (s − b)(s − c) r ra
(c) tan = = = , CVH
2 s(s − a) s−a s

9. Mollweide’s formulas
A−B a−b C
(a) sin = cos , CVH
2 c 2
A−B a+b C
(b) cos = sin , CVH
2 c 2

1
10. cos A = (s(s − a) − (s − b)(s − c)), CVH
bc

11. a = c · cos B + b · cos C, CVH (Projections Theorem)

12. a cos(B − C) = b cos B + c cos C, CVH

A B s−c r2
13. tan · tan = = , CVH
2 2 s (s − a)(s − b)

14. AG : GMa = 2 : 1, CVH

15. Distance from Vertex to Remarkable Points

(a) AO = R, CVH

5
 (b) AH = 2R cos A, CVH
r
A bc(s − a)
(c) AI = r csc = , CVH
2 s
√
2 2b2 + 2c2 − a2
(d) AG = ma = , CVH
3 3

16. Ha Hb = R sin 2A, CVH

17. HHa = 2R cos B cos C, CVH

18. Distances Between Remarkable Points

(a) OI 2 = R(R − 2r)
(b) OH 2 = 9R2 − 2(s2 − r2 − 4Rr)
2
(c) OG2 = R2 − (s2 − r2 − 4Rr)
9
(d) OH = 3OG (Euler’s Formula)
(e) ON = R − 2r
1
(f) IG2 = (s2 + 5r2 − 16Rr)
9
(g) IH 2 = 4R2 + 4Rr + 3r2 − s2
2s2 (2R − r)
 
(h) HΓ2 = 4R2 1 −
R(4R + r)2
(i) IN 2 = 9 · IG2 = s2 + 5r2 − 16Rr

 
2 ◦ A 2R − a
19. tan 45 − = , CVH
2 2R + a

B−C s A A
20. cos = · sec − sin , CVH
2 2R 2 2

21. For any point X in the plane of 4ABC:

X
(a) a · XA2 = (a + b + c) · XI 2 + abc
X
(b) 3 · XA2 = 9 · XG2 + (a2 + b2 + c2 )

4 Symmetric Sums in 4ABC

X
1. (a) a = 2s
X
(b) ab = s2 + r2 + 4rR
Y
(c) a = 4Rrs

6
 X
2. Lower Powers of an

X
(a) a2 = 2(s2 − r2 − 4Rr)
X
(b) a3 = 2(s3 − 3r2 s − 6Rrs)
X
(c) a4 = 2(s4 − 6r2 s2 − 8s2 Rr + 8Rr3 + 16R2 r2 + r4 )

X
3. (a) ra = 4R + r
X
(b) ra rb = s2
Y
(c) ra = s2 r
X 1 1
(d) =
ra r

X s
4. (a) sin A =
R
X s2 + r2 + 4rR
(b) sin A · sin B =
4R2
Y sr
(c) sin A =
2R2

X r
5. (a) cos A = +1
R
X s2 + r2
(b) cos A · cos B = −1
4R2
Y s2 − r2 − 4Rr s2 − (2R + r)2
(c) cos A = 2
−1=
4R 4R2

From (c), it follows that:

(a) 4ABC is acute-angled ⇔ s ≥ 2R + r
(b) 4ABC is obtuse-angled ⇔ s ≤ 2R + r
(c) 4ABC is right-angled ⇔ s = 2R + r

X 2sr
6. (a) tan A =
s2 − (2R + r)2
X 4R2
(b) tan A · tan B = 1 +
s2 − (2R + r)2
Y 2sr
(c) tan A =
s2 − (2R + r)2

Y A r
7. sin =
2 4R

7
 Y A s
8. cos =
2 4R

P
X A ra 4R + r
9. (a) tan
= =
2 s s
X A B
(b) tan · tan = 1
2 2
Y A r
(c) tan =
2 s

Note: The other symmetric sums of the trigonometric functions of the half-angles are sufficiently
ugly to be useless on olympiads, or anywhere else. Additionally, the symmetric sums of the trigono-
metric functions of double-angles are also quite ugly, though tame in comparison to the half-angles.
So neither set is included.

X A r
10. (a) sin2
=1−
2 2R
X A B s2 + r2 − 8Rr
(b) sin2 · sin2 =
2 2 16R2
Y A  r  2
(c) sin2 =
2 4R

X A r
11. (a) cos2
=2+
2 2R
X A B s2 + r2 + 8Rr
(b) cos2 · cos2 =1+
2 2 16R2
Y A  s 2
(c) cos2 =
2 4R

 2
X A 2 4R + r
12. (a) tan = −2
2 s
X A B 2r2 + 8Rr
(b) tan2
· tan2 =1−
2 2 s2
Y A  r  2
(c) tan2 =
2 s

X s
13. sin(A + B) =
R

X s2 + r2 + 2Rr
14. cos(A − B) = −1
2R2

Y B−C s2 + r2 + 2Rr
15. cos =
2 8R2

8
 X A
16. a tan = 2(2R − r)
2

X A−B X A B X A
17. cos =2 sin · sin + sin
2 2 2 2

X A AI + BI + CI − s
18. (a) tan
=
4 r
X A AI + BI + CI + s
(b) cot =
4 r

Note: The following is reasoning for not including symmetric sums of the reciprocal trigonometric
functions csc A, sec A, cot A:
Let {x, y, z, p, q, r} ∈ R such that:
  y
1 1 1
p + q + r = x p + q + r = z

 


 


 

 
1 1 1 x
pq + qr + rp = y =⇒ pq + qr + rp = z

 


 

 

pqr = z  1 = 1

pqr z
Thus, it is a trivial task to convert symmetric sums of sin A, cos A, tan A into symmetric sums of
csc A, sec A, cot A respectively.

X
19. a · IA2 = abc = 4Rrs

X
20. IA2 = s2 + r2 − 8Rr

X 2 2
21. GA2 = (s − r2 − 4Rr)
3

X
22. tan A · AH 2 = 4sr

5 Other Identities
1. In a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, ∠A + ∠C = ∠B + ∠D = 180◦ .

p
2. For a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with sides a, b, c, d, [ABCD] = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
(Brahmagupta’s Formula)
(It produces Heron’s Formula as d → 0).

3. In
s any quadrilateral ABCD with sides a, b, c, d and opposite angles A, C we have [ABCD] =
A+C
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos2 (Bretschneider’s Formula)
2
(It produces Brahmagupta’s Formula when ABCD is cyclic)

9
 4. (a) For any n-sided polygon, the sum of the interior angles is 180◦ (n − 2).
180◦ (n − 2)
(b) For any regular n-sided polygon, each interior angle is .
n
◦
(c) For any convex polygon, the sum of the exterior angles is 360 .

◦
s cot 180
n
5. (a) For any regular n-sided polygon with side length s, the inradius is rn = .
2
◦
s csc 180
n
(b) For any regular n-sided polygon with side length s, the circumradius is Rn = .
2

6 Geometric Inequalities
1. b + c ≥ a, CVH, with equality holding if and only if ∠C = 180◦ , or in other words the triangle is
degenerate as the segment a. As such, the > symbol is more popular. (Triangle Inequality)

2. Let there be an n-sided polygon with side lengths represented by the sequence {ai }, 1 ≤ 1 = i ≤
n
X
n, i ∈ N. Let ai = p. Then it holds that ai ≤ p − ai for each i. Equality holds if and only if the
i=1
polygon is degenerate as the segment ai so, the > symbol is more popular. (Polygon Inequality)
This is produces the Triangle Inequality when n = 3.

3. R ≥ 2r (Euler’s Inequality)

27R2
4. 27r2 ≤ s2 ≤ (Mitrinovic’s Inequality)
4
This is quite weak, but an easy problem can regularly be reduced to it.

p p
5. (2R2 + 10Rr − r2 ) − 2(R − 2r) R(R − 2r) ≤ s2 ≤ (2R2 + 10Rr − r2 ) + 2(R − 2r) R(R − 2r)
(Blundon’s Inequality)
Blundon is the strongest inequality of the form f (R, r) ≤ s2 ≤ F (R, r), where f (R, r), f (R, r) are
functions of R, r, that is still algebraically un-complicated enough to prove aesthetically pleasing
results.

6. 16Rr − 5r2 ≤ s2 ≤ 4R2 + 4Rr + 3r2 (Gerretsen’s Inequality)

Though it is weaker than Blundon, its simple form allows it to be used much more flexibly, and is a
more popular tool in olympiads. Additionally, it is the strongest inequality of the form mRr−nr2 ≤
s2 ≤ xR2 + yRr + zr2 where {m, n, x, y, z} ∈ R.

2r(2R − r)(4R + r) R(4R + r)2

7. ≤ s2 ≤
R 2(2R − r)
This unnamed inequality is weaker than Blundon, but stronger than Gerretsen. It may not be
allowed to be quoted without proof at a competition.

10
 27Rr   √  2 (4R + r)2
8. 3r(4R + r) ≤ ≤ s2 ≤ 2R + 3 3 − 4 r ≤
2 3
Note that this chain is stronger than (3), but weaker than (5),(6),(7). It is included to inform of
some inequalities that a problem may be reduced to, but these should not be used as lemmata.
Official competitions likely do not condone their use without proof (which are simple).

9. For a non-obtuse triangle, s2 ≥ 2R2 + 8Rr + 3r2 (Walker’s Inequality)

Equality holds if and only if the triangle is equilateral or right-isosceles.

10. Let a , b , c be the side-lengths

X of a triangle with area f , and A , B , C be the side-lengths of a
triangle with area F . Then A2 (b2 + c2 − a2 ) ≥ 16F f . (Pedoe’s Inequality)

11. For a quadrilateral ABCD, AC · BD ≤ AB · CD + BC · AD. Equality occurs if and only if ABCD
is cyclic. (Ptolemy’s Theorem)

11