Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes

Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes
Jennifer Li
Department of Mathematics
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA
A Tessellation
Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 2 / 63

Spaces of constant curvature

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):


1. Euclidean space Ed


2. The d-dimensional sphere Sd


3. Hyperbolic (or Lobachevskian) space Ld


Our focus: dimension d = 2


Our focus: dimension d = 2

Reflection in E2
Reflection across one mirror in E2 (think of R2 ):

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2
Reflection across two mirrors A and B in E2 :

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2

Reflection in E2

This is how a kaleidoscope works!

Reflection in E2

Groups
G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

Groups
Elements of G are motions of the plane E2 .

Groups
Elements of G are motions of the plane E2 .
“motion”: one or more reflections across the two mirrors.

Groups

Groups
The set G is an example of a group. This means:

Groups
Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Groups

There is an “neutral” motion in G, denoted by 1, which does not
change anything.

Groups

change anything.
Each motion can be “undone” by an inverse motion.

Groups

change anything.
Each motion can be “undone” by an inverse motion.
Notice: G has eight elements and they have relations:
a2 = b2 = 1 and (abab)2 = (ab)4 = 1.

Dihedral Groups
The group G from our example is called a (finite) reflection group.

Dihedral Groups
The group G from our example is called a (finite) reflection group.
G has a special name: it is called a dihedral group.

Fundamental domain
Back to our kaleidoscope:

Fundamental domain
There are eight regions, called fundamental domains.

Fundamental domain

Fundamental domain
Notice: the fundamental domains

do not intersect, except at boundaries
Fundamental domain
Notice: the fundamental domains

do not intersect, except at boundaries
union to give all of E2
Fundamental domains
Examples.

Fundamental domains
Examples.

Fundamental domains
Examples.
Notice: These fundamental domains have infinite areas

Fundamental polygons
Example. Let F be an equilateral triangle in E2 .

Example. Let F be an equilateral triangle in E2 .
Suppose each side of F is a mirror.

Reflection of F across each mirror results in the following:




Tessellation!

Coxeter Polygons
A convex polygon F is called a Coxeter polygon if

Coxeter Polygons

its vertex angles are of degree π/k for any k = 2, 3, 4, . . . , and

Coxeter Polygons

the regions formed by reflections across the sides of F do not overlap.

Coxeter Polygons

Any Coxeter polygon is a fundamental domain of a reflection group

Coxeter Polygons

Fact. The only Coxeter polygons in E2 are the following:

Coxeter Polygons


(i) rectangles

Coxeter Polygons


(i) rectangles
(ii) the equilateral triangle

Coxeter Polygons


(i) rectangles
(iii) the isosceles right triangle

Coxeter Polygons


(i) rectangles
(iv) the right triangle with angles π/3 and π/6

Coxeter polygons in the Euclidean plane


Coxeter Polygons

(i) rectangles

Coxeter Polygons

(i) rectangles
Why?

Gauss-Bonnet Theorem
Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.

Xd : a d-dimensional space of constant curvature

P : a polygon in Xd

P : a polygon in Xd
αi : interior angles of P

P : a polygon in Xd
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

P : a polygon in Xd
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Our focus: d = 2

Our focus: d = 2
Fact. The sum of the angles inside of an n-sided convex polygon P
equals π(n − 2).

Our focus: d = 2
Fact. The sum of the angles inside of an n-sided convex polygon P
equals π(n − 2).

F : Coxeter polygon with n sides.


Gauss-Bonnet:
Xm
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1


Gauss-Bonnet:
Xm
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Ed : constant curvature = 0.


Gauss-Bonnet:
Xm
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Then the sum of the angles is
Xm
αi = π(n − 2)
i=1


Gauss-Bonnet:
Xm
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Then the sum of the angles is
Xm
αi = π(n − 2)
i=1
Average value of the angles:

π(n − 2) 2
=π 1−
n n

If Coxeter polygon F has n > 4 sides:


2 2
<
n 4


2 2
<
n 4
2 2
1− >1−
n 4


2 2
<
n 4
2 2
1− >1−
n 4
2 2 π
Then π 1 − >π 1− = .
n 4 2


2 2
<
n 4
2 2
1− >1−
n 4
2 2 π
Then π 1 − >π 1− = .
n 4 2
⇒ F has an obtuse angle


2 2
<
n 4
2 2
1− >1−
n 4
2 2 π
Then π 1 − >π 1− = .
n 4 2
But this contradicts definition of Coxeter polygon!


2 2
<
n 4
2 2
1− >1−
n 4
2 2 π
Then π 1 − >π 1− = .
n 4 2
But this contradicts definition of Coxeter polygon!
Thus n ≤ 4.

If F has n = 4 sides:

If F has n = 4 sides:
2 π
π 1− = .
4 2
⇒ F is a rectangle.

If F has n = 3 sides, then F is a triangle.


π π π
Suppose interior angles of F are , , .
k l m


π π π
k l m
π π π
+ + =π
k l m


π π π
k l m
π π π
+ + =π
k l m
1 1 1
⇒ + + =1
k l m


π π π
k l m
π π π
+ + =π
k l m
1 1 1
⇒ + + =1
k l m
⇒ (k, l, m) = (3, 3, 3), (2, 4, 4), or (2, 3, 6).

The Coxeter Scheme
A Coxeter scheme is a graph with vertices representing the edge of a
Coxeter polygon, which follows the rules:

The Coxeter Scheme

The Coxeter Scheme
These descriptions are useful when working in higher dimensions.

The Sphere S2

The Sphere S2

The Sphere S2

The Sphere S2
Spherical angles:

The Sphere S2
Spherical angles:

The Sphere S2
Spherical angles:

The Sphere S2
Spherical angles:

The Sphere S2
Spherical angles:

The Sphere S2
Gauss-Bonnet:

The Sphere S2
Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

The Sphere S2
Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Sd : constant curvature = 1.

The Sphere S2
Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) + Area(P )
i=1

The Sphere S2
Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) + Area(P )
i=1
⇒ sum of interior angles of P > π(n − 2)

The Sphere S2
For P a triangle: n = 3

The Sphere S2
π
Suppose the interior angles of P are αi = . Then,
ki

The Sphere S2
π
ki
1 1 1
+ + > π(3 − 2)
k1 k2 k3

The Sphere S2
π
ki
1 1 1
+ + > π(3 − 2)
k1 k2 k3
1 1 1
⇒ + + > 1.
k1 k2 k3

The Sphere S2
π
ki
1 1 1
+ + > π(3 − 2)
k1 k2 k3
1 1 1
⇒ + + > 1.
k1 k2 k3
⇒ (k1 , k2 , k3 ) = (2, 3, 3), (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), or (2, 2, k) for any k ≥ 2.

The Sphere S2

Relation to Platonic Solids
There are five platonic solids:


Convex polyhedron
All faces are convex regular polygons
Same number of faces are joined at each vertex
Faces only intersect at edges

The Hyperbolic (Lobachevskian) plane L2
A pseudo-Euclidean space V 2,1 is a 3-dimensional vector space over R,

with scalar product
(x, x) = −x21 + x22 + x23
for any x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).


with scalar product
(x, x) = −x21 + x22 + x23
for any x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
Consider set C = {x ∈ V 2,1 |(x, x) < 0}. Then C = C + ∪ C − , union of

two cones:


with scalar product
(x, x) = −x21 + x22 + x23
for any x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).

two cones:


with scalar product
(x, x) = −x21 + x22 + x23
for any x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).

two cones:
All rays in C + form hyperbolic plane L2 .

The Klein model

The Klein model
Take a cross section (slice) of C + at x1 = 1 and obtain a unit disk.

The Klein model
Take a cross section (slice) of C + at x1 = 1 and obtain a unit disk.
Unit disk
Boundary of C +: infinite points of L2
Chord: straight line in unit disk that comes from rays in V 2,1 which
extend from the origin and into C +

The Klein model
Lines on the Klein model:

The Klein model

The Klein model
Boundary of unit circle: the circle at infinity

Convex polygons in L2
A convex polygon P in L2 is the intersection of lines in L2 .


Klein model: angles are distorted! (circles too)

The Poincaré disk model



Some properties:

Some properties:
Ends of arcs and diameters are perpendicular to the boundary of the
unit disk.

Some properties:
unit disk.
If two arcs do not meet, then they are parallel.

Some properties:
unit disk.
If two arcs that meet orthogonally represent perpendicular lines.

Some properties:
unit disk.
If two arcs that meet orthogonally represent perpendicular lines.
Objects close to boundary seem smaller, but in H2 they are the same
size.
Klein and Poincaré models
Relation with Klein model:




The hyperbolic plane L2
Gauss-Bonnet:

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1
For L2 we have = −1.

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) − Area(P )
i=1

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) − Area(P )
i=1
⇒ sum of interior angles of P < π(n − 2)

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) − Area(P )
i=1
π π π
⇒ + + ··· + < π(n − 2)
k1 k2 kn

Gauss-Bonnet:
Xn
· Area(P ) + (π − αi ) = 2π
i=1

Xn
⇒ αi = π(n − 2) − Area(P )
i=1
π π π
⇒ + + ··· + < π(n − 2)
k1 k2 kn
1 1 1
⇒ + + ··· + <n−2
k1 k2 kn

If P is a triangle in L2 , then we need:

1 1 1
+ + <1
k1 k2 k3

There are infinitely many possibilities!

There are infinitely many possibilities!

Other polygons may tessellate L2 :

Which regular hyperbolic n-gons tessellate L2 , with k polygons joining

at each vertex? This happens if and only if the following holds:


1 1 1
+ <
n k 2


1 1 1
+ <
n k 2

More examples:

More examples:

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Paul Hacking, Tetsuya Nakamura, and Luca Schaffler!

References
Introduction to Geometry by Harold (H.S.M.) Coxeter

Visual Geometry and Topology by Anatolij Fomenko
Reflection groups in Algebraic geometry by Igor Dolgachev
Alice through looking glass after looking glass: the mathematics of
mirrors and kaleidoscopes by Roe Goodman
Hyperbolic Geometries and Coxeter Groups by Marilee Murray
Geometries by Alexei Sossinsky
Software used to create some hyperbolic tessellations (Klein vs.
Poincaré models) is from the website:
https://dmitrybrant.com/2007/01/24/hyperbolic-tessellations
All photos, platonic solid images, and other computer generated
hyperbolic tessellations are from Wikipedia

Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 2 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

There are three d-dimensional spaces of constant curvature (d ≥ 2):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 3 / 63

Reflection across one mirror in E2 (think of R2 ):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 4 / 63

Reflection across one mirror in E2 (think of R2 ):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 4 / 63

Reflection across one mirror in E2 (think of R2 ):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 5 / 63

Reflection across one mirror in E2 (think of R2 ):

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 6 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 7 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 8 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 9 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 10 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 11 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 12 / 63

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 13 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 14 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

Elements of G are motions of the plane E2 .

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 14 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

Elements of G are motions of the plane E2 .

“motion”: one or more reflections across the two mirrors.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 14 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

The set G is an example of a group. This means:

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

The set G is an example of a group. This means:

 Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

The set G is an example of a group. This means:

 Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

The set G is an example of a group. This means:

 Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

G = {1, a, b, ab, ba, aba, bab, abab}

The set G is an example of a group. This means:

 Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

a2 = b2 = 1 and (abab)2 = (ab)4 = 1.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 15 / 63

The group G from our example is called a (finite) reflection group.

Jennifer Li (UMass Amherst) Mathematics in Kaleidoscopes 16 / 63

Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.

Any two motions from G results in another motion from G.