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Empirical correlations of soil parameters based on Cone Penetration Tests

(CPT) for Greek soils

Article  in  Geotechnical and Geological Engineering · January 2003

DOI: 10.1023/B:GEGE.0000006064.47819.1a

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 Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 21: 377–387, 2003. 377
# 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Empirical correlations of soil parameters based on

Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) for Greek soils

A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS1, G. KOUKIS2, N. SABATAKAKIS2 and

$
G. TSIAMBAOS1
1
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece.
2
Department of Geology, Patras University, Greece.
(Received 30 July 2002; revised 6 January 2003; accepted 22 January 2003)

Abstract. This study presents the results of Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) and estimated
correlations with the results of other in-situ tests (standard penetration test, cross-hole,
seismocone) and laboratory tests (classification and undrained shear strength tests). These
tests cover nearly all types of penetrable soils in Greece and, together with the formulation
of empirical correlations, complement and improve on previous studies due to the significant
number of CPT measurements.
Key words. cone penetration test, Greek soils, in-situ tests, laboratory tests, site investigation.

1. Introduction
1.1. THE CPT TESTS

The cone penetration test, CPT, has been used for many years as a standard inves-
tigation tool, mainly to determine quickly the soil profile (through the friction ratio)
as well as for the estimation of the undrained shear strength, su, in the case of cohe-
sive soils. There exist mainly two kinds of CPT apparatuses, namely mechanical and
electrical. The majority of them use a cone with the standard dimensions of the
Dutch Cone (60
apex angle and a base area of 10 cm2).
Although the CPT is gaining popularity, the older in-situ apparatus known as
standard penetration test, SPT, is still used in almost all geotechnical investigations,
during sampling boring. Thus, correlations between SPT and CPT are of practical
interest, considering the great number of existing data obtained with SPT.
More recently, the seismocone was developed to assess additionally the dynamic
behaviour of soils by estimating the shear modulus, Go, through the measurement
of the shear wave velocity, Vs.

1.2. TESTING PROCEDURE AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS

The Greek Central Public Works Laboratory carried out a significant number of
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) over the last years, within the framework of research
? Department of Geotechnical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece, 42 Patission
Street, 10682 Athens, Greece. e-mail: gktsiamb@central.ntua.gr
378 A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS ET AL.

project including several geotechnical investigations. The collection and analysis of

this information allowed the creation of a data bank that includes the results of
in-situ and laboratory tests. Cone penetration tests have been carried out with the
help of a Gouda penetrometer of 200 kN capacity. Both a mechanical cone with a
friction sleeve (Begemann type) and an electrical one were used having a cone with
60-degree apex angle and a diameter of 35.7 mm (10 cm2 cross-sectional area). The
constant penetration rate was 2 cm/s.
Furthermore, laboratory tests were carried out on undisturbed samples taken
from boreholes drilled close to the cone penetration test sites. Classification tests
were performed for all the samples in order to determine the soil type, while the
undrained shear strength of cohesive soils was determined with the aid of quick
triaxial tests.
The data collected were organized, with the aid of the Excel software, so that
laboratory test results correspond to in-situ test results from the same depth. The
results have been recorded in detail and a geotechnical profile has been compiled
for each investigated site. This database includes results from laboratory tests, stan-
dard penetration tests (SPT), cone penetration tests (CPT), as well as from seis-
mocone and cross-hole tests.
Statistical analysis of the data resulted in the formulation of empirical correlations
between the various soil parameters, with often reasonably high correlation coeffi-
cients considering the wide variation of soil types tested. However, the confidence
limits for these correlations have a value of 95%, after performing a data filtering
for the regression analysis. Due to the large size of the data base, the proposed cor-
relations can be considered as highly reliable for Greek soils; the consistent unifor-
mity of testing procedures is also ensured as testing was carried out by one specific
public organization using standard techniques.

2. Geological description of Greek soil deposits

The cone penetration tests were carried out in different types of soils covering a wide
range of geological deposits from Neogene to Quaternary in age, as described below.
Neogene deposits cover a large part of the Greek territory and are located in
basins of mainly tectonic origin. They consist of marls, sandy clays, sandstones,
marly limestones and conglomerates of lacustrine or marine origin. Their engineering
behaviour depends on the prevailing phase, tectonism, morphology and hydrogeolo-
gical conditions and is mainly similar to that of stiff soils to soft rocks. Marls, the
dominant Neogene formation in Greece, are of great interest from a geotechnical
point of view, due to the cementation of their particles resulting in an apparent over-
consolidation, the sensitivity of their structure and the medium to high potential of
swelling of the clayey members. They are described mainly as stiff soil to very soft
rock with a calcium carbonate content, for normal marls, of 35–65 per cent, the
remaining being clay. Marls can be divided in two individual groups according to
their mineralogical composition and their physical and mechanical characteristics.
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS OF SOIL PARAMETERS 379

They can also be distinguished by their different colour. The upper layers, usually of
a whitish-yellow or light yellow colour, contain a high percentage of calcite (higher
than 65 per cent) and belong to the category of limey marls, whereas the deeper lay-
ers of a grey, brownish-grey or bluish-grey colour present a low calcite content (less
than 35 per cent) and are classified as clay marls. The latter exhibit higher values of
Atterberg limits (liquidity limit greater than 50 and plasticity index greater than 30)
and very often are considered as expansive soils (Tsiambaos, 1991).
After the deposition of marls various processes took place, the most important
being cementation due to the presence of calcium carbonate. Cementation produces
strong bonds between the particles, especially for normal and limey marls with a cal-
cium carbonate content higher than 50 per cent. The difficulty to obtain undisturbed
samples of very stiff to hard marls, on which laboratory tests can be carried out, ren-
ders in-situ tests, and particularly CPT, the best methods of assessing the mechanical
properties of those marls, when they can be penetrated by the cone.
The Pleistocene and Holocene deposits in Greece are of terrestrial, lacustrine and
marine origin. These are located in rather restricted areas around river flow plains,
coastal regions, recent lakes and inland basins.
In typical Mediterranean climatic conditions Quaternary terrestrial clays have
been formed by the disintegration and decomposition of calcareous rocks (lime-
stones, dolomites and marls). These clays are relatively permeable due to the calcium
carbonate content.
Soft soils of lacustrine and paludal origin show a regular succession of alternating
layers of sands, silts and clays. They exhibit a varved structure, with a more or less
uniform distribution of organic matter into the silt and clay layers.
The alluvial deposits are usually mixed phases of both coarse and fine-grained
materials of various thickness and consistency, as well as variable strength, bearing
capacity and compressibility. These mixed phases exhibit either lateral and vertical
transitions, or distinct alternations of the different lithological types.
Cone penetration tests are applicable to alluvial soils finer than gravel. However,
high capacity CPT equipment can penetrate stiff to hard soils. The soil types tested
and recorded in the database are mainly clays and marls (54%), silts (20%) and
sands (20%) with a small percentage of sands with gravel (6%).

3. CPT correlations with laboratory and in situ tests

3.1. UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH (su )

The estimation of undrained shear strength for cohesive soils, with the help of the
cone resistance computed from CPT results, is based on the following formula as
noted by many authors:
qc ¼ Nk :su þ p ð1Þ
where: qc is the cone resistance.
380 A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS ET AL.

Figure 1. Relationship between cone resistance and undrained shear strength for cohesive soils

Nk is a non-dimensional cone coefficient affected by the type of clay deposits, the

type of penetrometer used.
p is the total overburden pressure (usually considered to be the total vertical stress
at the point of testing, i.e., equal to po).
Figure 1 shows the CPT results, in the form of qc – p, plotted against the
undrained shear strength su, as determined by undrained unconsolidated (UU) triax-
ial tests. The figure demonstrates that these two quantities exhibit a very good linear
relationship resulting in a Nk value equal to 18.3 with a correlation coefficient, r,
equal to 0.92, when evaluating the results obtained from both mechanical and elec-
trical cones. When separating the results with respect to cone type, the estimated Nk
value varies from 17.2, for the electrical cone, to 18.9, for the mechanical cone.
These Nk values fall within the range of values reported in the international litera-
ture (Lunne et al., 1997). It is also comparable to findings from previous investiga-
tions for the alluvial deposits of Greece. From those studies, the Nk was determined
to be equal to 17, 18 and 19, according to Anagnostopoulos (1974), Zervogiannis
et al. (1987) and Koukis et al. (1997), respectively. It should be noted that all the pre-
vious researchers used a Dutch cone type.
Begemann (1965) was the first to suggest that the undrained shear strength (su) in
clay soils can also be assessed from the sleeve friction ( fs). In the following years sev-
eral authors (Drnevich et al., 1974; Cancelli et al., 1982, etc.) proposed formulas to
quantify this relationship. Figure 2 shows the correlation between su (from triaxial
UU tests) and fs obtained with mechanical and electrical cone tests. When
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS OF SOIL PARAMETERS 381

Figure 2. Relationship between sleeve friction and undrained shear strength for cohesive soils

considering both cone types, the fs/su ratio is 1.21, with a correlation coefficient of
0.94. When separating the results according to the cone type, this ratio equals to
1.26 and 1 for the mechanical and the electrical cone, respectively. It should be stated
that the estimated value for the mechanical cone is similar to those suggested by
Drnevich et al. (1974), Cancelli et al. (1982) and Zervogiannis et al. (1987).

3.2. STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) N VALUE

A number of studies has been presented over the years to relate SPT N values to CPT
cone resistance qc. Thorburn and Mac Vicar (1970), Muromachi (1981) and Robert-
son et al. (1983) have ascertained that the ratio qc/NSPT is related to the soil grain size
distribution, as expressed by the mean particle size (D50). It is usual practice to nor-
malize the qc values by dividing them with the atmospheric pressure, pa. It has been
demonstrated by the previous researchers that the ratio (qc/pa)/N increases with
increasing mean grain size.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the (qc/pa)/N60 ratio and D50, using N60
values corresponding to an energy ratio, Er, of about 60%. This relationship, which
is based on results obtained with both mechanical and electrical cones, is quite simi-
lar to that initially suggested by Robertson et al. (1983). It should be noted that a
different correlation has been suggested by Zervogiannis and Kalteziotis (1988),
based on another set of data from Greece. The difference can be attributed to the
uncorrected SPT values used by Zervogiannis and Kalteziotis which may produce
a low ratio of CPT to SPT (Lunne et al., 1997).
382 A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS ET AL.

Figure 3. CPT–SPT correlation with grain size

3.3. SOIL IDENTIFICATION

Douglas and Olsen (1981) produced charts for soil identification using CPT data
obtained with electrical cone and confirmed early observations that sandy soils tend
to produce high cone resistance, qc, and low friction ratio ( fs/qc), whereas, for soft
clay soils the reverse is true (i.e., they tend to produce low cone resistance and high
friction ratio).
The value of the mean soil particle size D50 plays a significant role in the evalua-
tion of a classification diagram based on the results of the cone penetration test and
especially the friction ratio (Rf ¼ fs/qc). Figure 4 shows the correlation of D50 and
Rf, which is linear on a semi-logarithmic plot diagram, with sufficiently high corre-
lation coefficients for both cone types.
Similar correlations have been formulated by Muromachi (1981), for alluvial
soils in Japan, and by Zervogiannis et al. (1987) for soils of the city of Kalamata,
in southern Greece.

3.4. SMALL STRAIN SHEAR MODULUS (Go)

The small strain shear modulus, Go, can be estimated through the shear wave
velocity, Vs, as determined from seismocone and cross-hole tests, according to the
equation:
Go ¼ rVs2 ð2Þ
where r is the mass density of the soil tested.
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS OF SOIL PARAMETERS 383

Figure 4. Relationship between friction ratio (Rf ) and mean soil particle size D50

Baldi et al. (1986) and Jamiolkowski et al. (1988), among others, believe that at
least in cohesionless soils the small strain shear modulus (Go) can be directly and
fairly reliably correlated with qc using the following linear formula:

Go ¼ Aqc ð3Þ

where the value of the coefficient A ranges from 4 to 10 (qc and Go in MPa).
Figure 5 shows the estimated Go–qc relationship for all soils (107 tests) from
the present study, using mechanical and electrical cones. The correlation is expo-
nential (the exponent is approximately 1), with correlation coefficients r ¼ 0.85
for all cones. When separating the results by cone type, the correlation coeffi-
cient decreases slightly, and becomes 0.84 and 0.82 for mechanical and electrical
cones, respectively. It is interesting to note that no difference can be discerned
in the relationship when plotting separately results from cohesive and cohesion-
less soils.
Similar formulas, although from a limited number of tests, have also been
defined by Zervogiannis et al. (1987), Bouckovalas et al. (1989) and Koukis
et al. (1997) for the alluvial soils from the cities of Kalamata and Patras, in
southern Greece. It should be pointed out that the formulas suggested by Baldi
et al. (1986) and Jamiolkowski et al. (1988) are quite different from the
correlations estimated for Greek soils.
384 A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS ET AL.

Figure 5. Relationship between cone resistance and dynamic (elastic) shear modulus

4. Comparison of mechanical and electrical cone results

As already mentioned, both mechanical and electrical cones were used in this study.
The Begemann type mechanical cone has traditionally been used in Greece and else-
where due to its simplicity, robustness and low cost. However, the electrical cone is
being increasingly used from the last decade onwards. Hence, knowledge of the cor-
respondence between the results obtained with the two types of cones is of practical
interest.
In some locations where both mechanical and electrical cones were used, the com-
parison of results was possible and allowed a qualitative study of the correlation
between the two test types. Figure 6 shows the relationship of the qc(mech)/qc(elec)
ratio, with the mechanical cone resistance (qc(mech)). Figure 7 shows the relationship
of the ratio of sleeve friction for the two cones, fs(mech)/fs(elec), to the mechanical cone
sleeve friction fs(mech). The correlations suggested by Figures 6 and 7 apply mainly to
cohesive soils, because the majority of tests using electrical cone were carried out in
such soils.
From these figures, it is apparent that the qc(mech)/qc(elec) ratio for low cone resis-
tance values (qc(mech)<1000 kPa) is higher than 1, whereas for values ranging from
1000 to 2000 kPa, this ratio usually ranges from 0.7 to 1.7. Finally, for values higher
than 2000 kPa, the limited available data suggest that this ratio has a value close to 1.
With respect to the fs(mech)/fs(elec) ratio, it appears that, for values smaller than
30 kPa, the ratio is lower than 1 and then fluctuates between slightly lower or higher
than 1. Meyerhof (1974) has also arrived at similar conclusions.
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS OF SOIL PARAMETERS 385

If the two cone types were equivalent, the cone resistance and sleeve friction
ratio would obviously be equal to unity. The discrepancy revealed by Figures 6 and 7
can be attributed to the following reasons. First the different function of the
two cones, e.g., the stepwise penetration of the mechanical cone, versus the
continuous penetration of the electrical cone, produces an inherent variation.

Figure 6. Relationship between the qc(mech)/qc(elec) ratio and cone resistance (qc(mech))

Figure 7. Relationship between the fs(mech)/fs(elec) ratio and mechanical cone sleeve friction fs(mech)
386 A. ANAGNOSTOPOULOS ET AL.

Second, the electrical cone is able to better capture maximum and minimum
values when it encounters strata of higher and lower resistance, respectively.
Finally, significant influence is exerted by the structural characteristics of both
cones (e.g., the position of the resistance measurement ring) as well as the dif-
ferent kinds of disturbance they create in the soil.

5. Conclusions
The evaluation of the results of the Dutch cone penetration tests (using both
mechanical and electrical cones), which were carried out in different types of soils
in Greece, led to the formulation of empirical correlations with other in-situ and
laboratory tests.
According to the results of this work, the cone resistance as well as the sleeve fric-
tion exhibit a very good linear relationship with the undrained shear strength of
cohesive soils, as it has been also determined in previous studies. Furthermore, the
ratio of the cone resistance to the SPT values is related to the mean particle size
of soils; this relationship is quite similar to that initially suggested by Robertson
et al. (1983).
In addition, a linear relationship was found between the friction ratio, expressed as
the ratio of sleeve friction to the cone resistance, and the logarithmic value of the
mean particle size of soils. This finding is consistent with the results presented by
other authors.
The relationship between the small-strain shear modulus and the cone resistance
for Greek soils was found to be exponential, as also suggested by other authors.
However, the constant factors of that relationship are different from previously pub-
lished expressions.
Finally, the comparison between results obtained with mechanical and electrical
cones, reveals a discrepancy for the same soil types. This discrepancy is more
pronounced for low values of cone resistance. This could be attributed to the non-
continuous penetration of the mechanical cone, as well as to differences in the
construction of the two types of cones and the disturbance they cause in the soils
during penetration.
It must be noted that since this investigation covered a wide range of soils and the
number of test results was significant, the obtained empirical correlations can be con-
sidered as highly reliable for Greek soils. Moreover, the correlations can serve as a
basis for extending their applicability to other soils in the Mediterranean region and
other areas with comparable geological conditions and similar soil formations.

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