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In-situ and laboratory testing of soft clays

Article  in  Australian Geomechanics Journal · September 2013

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 IN-SITU AND LABORATORY TESTING OF SOFT CLAYS

Richard Kelly1, Paul W. Mayne2, Jubert Pineda3

1. Research Associate, Centre for Excellence in Geotechnical Science and Engineering, University of Newcastle,
Australia: Principal, Coffey Geotechnics, Sydney, Australia

2. Professor, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia USA 30332-0355

3. . Research Associate, Centre for Excellence in Geotechnical Science and Engineering, University of Newcastle,
Australia

Department of Civil Engineering

EA Building, University of Newcastle

Callaghan, Newcastle, 2308

Richard.kelly@newcastle.edu.au

61 2 4921 6137

ABSTRACT
Current Australian practice for sampling, laboratory testing, and in-situ testing of soft clays falls short of world’s best
practices. Consequences include risks of increased cost and time during construction, as well as geotechnical solutions
that are more elaborate than necessary. Some limitations in current practice are identified and alternative methods are
proposed that provide higher data quality at similar cost to current methods and improved understanding of the
geomaterials under study, thus optimizing the selection of geotechnical solutions.

1 INTRODUCTION
An accurate assessment of the strength and compressibility response of soft clays is required to achieve optimal
performance of infrastructures that are constructed over estuarine soils. Typical commercial methods of sampling and
laboratory testing for soft soils cause inevitable disturbance and alteration of the materials along with consequent
inaccuracy in measured parameters. Inaccuracy affects pre-construction embankment settlement predictions and can
trigger remedial work during construction along with associated time delays and costs. For example, design settlement
calculations for low embankments placed on untreated soft clay for the Ballina Bypass predicted that the embankments
would settle to subgrade level in time for construction of pavement to design level just prior to opening. During
construction, the embankments settled faster and greater than anticipated, resulting in a $2.8M exercise in placing
additional fill. Back analysis during construction resulted in operational values of compression ratios increasing by
15%, effective preconsolidation stresses reducing by 30%, and coefficients of vertical consolidation in the upper 6m of
soil increasing by factors of 5 to 10. Errors in judgement made with respect to parameter selection during development
of the initial geotechnical models had been based on the need to correct for effects of sample disturbance and limitations
in the quality of the in-situ test data. A typical site investigation had been performed adopting conventional industry
practices on the east coast of Australia.

The current state of practice for sampling and testing soft clays is nowhere near world’s best practice or state-of-the-art.
While a state-of-the-art site investigation programme is not required for most projects, we argue that significant
improvements in data quality can be achieved by using better equipment and methods than are currently adopted, with
little or no increase in cost.
There is always tension between time, cost, and quality constraints when planning and performing site investigations,
and consequently, demonstrating the value of investing in high quality testing to the client is often difficult. Convincing
the client of value can be done, however. Lacasse et al (2001) report saving US$1.5M for a 1.5km rail project in
Norway through refined parameter selection using Sherbrooke block sampling for laboratory testing in conjunction with
piezocone penetration testing (PCPT).

In this article, we identify some limitations in current practice and compare with some state-of-the-art procedures.
Some recommendations for achieving cost effective increases in quality for site investigations are made. Discussions
about the state-of-the-art in sampling, laboratory methods, and in-situ testing can be found in Hight (2001), DeGroot
(2001), and Mayne et al (2009).

2. SAMPLING, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Current practice in NSW is to sample soft clays using 75mm diameter Shelby tubes. The tubes are sealed with wax at
either end prior to transport to a laboratory. The tubes are constructed from mild steel and are prone to rusting prior to
testing depending on the period of storage and the chemical composition of the soil and pore water.

The early work by Hvorslev (1949) pointed out the relevance of soil disturbance induced during tube sampling but also
the necessity of improving sampling procedures to minimize this phenomenon which is even more relevant in soft
clays. Based on it, some geometric descriptors were proposed which allows an easy comparison between different types
of samplers. Significant contributions were made by Baligh (1985) and Baligh et al (1987) towards developing an
analytical method able to reproduce the behaviour of soils during tube sampling. Despite that a detailed description of
the geometry of the tube sampler was not taken into account, in particular the geometry of the cutting shoe, an
important conclusion emerged from this work: as the sampler is inserted into the soil it is first subjected to compression
(in the front of the tube) and then to extension (inside the tube). This analysis was made for the soil located at the centre
line of the sampler. These results were corroborated later by Clayton et al (1998) who did a numerical analysis
including a detailed description of the sampler geometry. They confirmed the strong importance of the geometric factor,
in particular the angle of the cutting shoe, on the induced sample disturbance. Based on experimental evidence, Hight
(2001) reported that sample quality improves with increasing tube diameter, a thin wall, a sharp cutting edge, and no
inside clearance. The induced deformations in the soil located at the centre line of a tube sampler are inversely
proportional to the tube diameter. Hight (2001) also recommends using a long tube to reduce end effects and suction
effects when removing the sample from a borehole. A number of specialized samplers have been developed for
obtaining higher and highest quality of results. These include samplers referred to as: Laval, Sherbrooke, Gus, JPN, and
NGI types. Superior results in laboratory testing have been reported by Lacasse et al. (1985), Hight et al. (1992),
Tanaka (2000), Hight and Leroueil (2003). DeGroot et al. (2005), Lunne et al. (2006), and others using these
specialized samplers than when compared with standard 75mm tubes or similar (i.e., ELE sampler). An example of just
how much difference to measured shear strength high quality sampling can make is provided in Figure 1 where it can be
seen that the measured stiffnesses and shear strength increase with sample quality. In particular, a rather modest and
low undrained shear strength of around su = 15 to 16 kPa for Ariake clay is obtained for both the low-end Shelby and
ELE samplers, whereas the higher quality methods procured by the JPN, Laval, and Sherbrooke samplers give values of
su = 32, 33, and 38 kPa, respectively. These are more than a factor of two! The stiffnesses (a.k.a, modulus) are even
more pronouncedly affected.
 Figure 1. Results of UC Strength Tests on Ariake Clay from Different Samplers (Tanaka 2000).

In addition to drilling and sampling operations, the soil can be disturbed and seriously affected by other factors,
including sealing, inadequate care of samplers, protection from weather, transport to lab, extrusion of specimens for
testing, trimming, mounting, ageing, exposure to zero isotropic stress state, and recompression (Ladd & DeGroot,
2003).

An assessment of sample disturbance from oedometer tests performed for the Ballina Bypass was made using Lunne et
al’s (1997) proposal. The results are shown in Figure 2. There, the change in void ratio required to bring the specimen
to the estimated in-situ stress state (∆e) is compared to the initial void ratio (e0). As there is assumed elastic behaviour
for stresses below the in-situ value so small changes in void ratio indicates specimens of high quality whereas
increasing changes in void ratio suggest progressively decreasing quality. The majority of the test data were in the Fair
to Very Poor categories. Just as disturbing is the wide range in quality. Clearly the sampling and testing process was
very inconsistent. Some examples of oedometer tests with varying sample quality are provided in Figure 3.An
alternative approach to quantification of sample disturbance is afforded by the measured strain needed to reattain the
effective overburden stress, termed the sample quality index (SQI), as detailed by Terzaghi et al. (1996).

Lunne et al’s (1997) criteria and Terzaghi et al’s (1996) criteria are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 Criteria for assessment of sample disturbance

Specimen Quality Designation (SQD)

De/e0 Criteria Lunne et al (1997)
Terzaghi et al (1996)
Volumetric strain
SQD OCR = 1 - 2 OCR = 2 - 4 Rating
(%)
Very good to
<1 A < 0.04 < 0.03
excellent
1–2 B 0.04 – 0.07 0.03 – 0.05 Good to fair
2–4 C 0.07 – 0.14 0.05 – 0.10 Poor
4–8 D >0.14 >0.10 Very poor
>8 E

It appears that the insertion process using 75mm thin walled tubes may have caused high levels of disturbance. As such,
the apparent degree of preconsolidation has been been lowered compared to the true field value. Disturbance tends to
remould the clay, thus reducing the apparent values of preconsolidation stress (σp'), virgin compression index (Cc),
recompression index (Cr), coefficient of consolidation (cv), and constrained modulus (D'), as well as affect other
parametric values. In Figure 3, two tests (BH 822 - 4.2 m and BH 825 at 7.2 m) exhibit an unusual drop in the e-logσv'
curve at the 100 kPa mark. Perhaps these anomalies were caused by a combination of sample disturbance effects, or
equipment difficulties. In another consolidation test (example BH 822 at 5.7 m), the recompression data leading up to
σp' appear missing or omitted. The last graph shows what a good consolidation test result should look like.

An X-ray taken of a 75mm tube sample of Ballina Clay is shown in Figure 4. The radiography from the X-ray shows
disturbance at the base of the sample and compression in the second plate from the bottom. The feature shown in the
fourth plate from the bottom was found to be associated with a large shell when the sample was extruded. There is
about a 100mm length of sample between plates 2 and 4 that appears to be least disturbed and most suitable for testing.
Radiography is not common in Australia and currently is expensive. Experience in Atlanta, USA suggests that some
medical clinics may perform these tests for a fee.

∆e/e0

Very good Good

Fair to poor Very poor
to excellant to fair

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

0

10
Depth (m)

15

20

25

R32 R34 R36 R66 R76

R86 R87 BH1015 BH1020 BH3004
BH3011 BH805 BH809 BH821 BH822
BH825 BH826 BH830 BH832

Figure 2 Assessment of sample quality

Ballina Bypass Consolidation Test Ballina Bypass Consolidation Test

1.9 2.6
σvo' = 37 kPa σvo' = 44 kPa σp' = 50 kPa
1.8 2.4
σp' = 37 kPa 2.2
1.7
2.0
?
Void Ratio, e

Void Ratio, e

1.6
1.8
1.5
? 1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.0
1.2

1.1 BH822 4.2 m

0.8
0.6
BH822 5.7 m
Figure 4 X-ray of Shelby tube from Ballina project
1.0 0.4
10 100 1000 10 100 1000

Vertical Stress (kPa) Vertical Stress (kPa)

Ballina Bypass Consolidation Test Ballina Bypass Consolidation Test

3.2 1.8
σvo' = 56 kPa
σvo' = 108 kPa
3.0
σ p' = 53 kPa 1.7 Good
2.8
1.6
2.6 σp' = 225 kPa
Void Ratio, e

Void Ratio, e

2.4 ? 1.5
2.2
1.4 BH825 14.7 m
2.0 BH825 7.2 m
1.8 1.3
1.6
1.2
1.4
1.1
1.2
1.0 1.0
10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000

Vertical Stress (kPa) Vertical Stress (kPa)

Figure 3 Oedometer tests of varying quality

 3 LABORATORY TESTING
Laboratory testing programmes generally comprise large number of moisture content, grading, and index testing, a
lesser but significant number of incrementally-loaded oedometer tests or consolidation tests to obtain compression
parameters, and a few isotropically-consolidated undrained triaxial tests (CIUC) with pore pressure measurements. The
CIUC are generally for the purposes of determining effective stress parameters (c', φ') while also obtaining a mode of
undrained shear strength (suCIUC). Less common tests include: organic content, x-ray diffraction analysis, shear box
tests, drained triaxial tests, K0 triaxial tests, and constant-rate-of-strain (CRS) consolidation tests. Simple shear tests are
almost never performed.

The state-of-the-art in laboratory testing involves local stress, pore pressure, strain, and shear wave measurements
coupled with fully flexible computer control of applied stress paths. This level of complexity is not required for the
majority of commercial applications.

The state of practice is that some of the Australian Standard methods for laboratory testing adversely affect the
measured data.

The default methodology for liquid and plastic limit testing is that soils are dried in a high temperature oven then
reconstituted using de-ionised water. A note suggests that drying should not occur for some soils if it is suspected that
it will alter the result. Another note suggests that some soils need to cure for 24hrs between each increment of added
water. Drying soft soils prior to testing has a significant effect on the measured results. A comparison of liquid and
plastic limit tests using different preparation methods is presented in Table 1. The liquid limit changes by about 30% as
a result of drying in a high temperature oven. The plastic limit is slightly affected. There are many correlations
between the plasticity limits, compressibility, and shear strength that can be made based on the results of index testing.
All of these correlations are useless, unreliable, and misleading, especially if samples are dried prior to testing. For
example, samples dried in the high temperature oven have liquid limits less than the natural moisture content which is
an indication that the soils are sensitive or structured and possibly prone to collapse. This is not how Australian clays
behave. For Australian soft clays, the standard should be inverted such that soils can only be dried if it is known that
drying does not affect the data.

Table 1 Variation in Liquid and Plastic Limits with Oven Temperature

MC LL PL IP IL MC oven LL oven
Depth (m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) temp temp
4-4.5 91 104 26 78 0.83 110 deg. Air
4-4.5 87 73 23 50 1.28 50 deg. 50 deg.
5.5-6.0 112 131 36 95 0.80 110 deg. 50 deg.
5.5-6.0 112 93 36 57 1.33 110 deg. 110 deg.
8.5-9.0 114 118 40 78 0.95 110 deg. 50 deg.
8.5-9.0 114 69 37 32 2.41 110 deg. 110 deg.

The liquid limit is usually measured using the Casagrande cup percussion method. In many respects, it would be better
to measure the liquid limit using a fall cone apparatus because fall cone data can also be interpreted to obtain undrained
shear strengths and sensitivity of natural soils, as well as virgin compression indices for remoulded soils. If fall cones
of different masses are used, then an estimate of the plastic limit can also be obtained. Fall cones in conjunction with
measurements of sensitivity can be employed to estimate the coefficient of compression of natural soils (Wood, 1990).
Fall cone tests are less operator-dependent than the Casagrande cup. Specifically, Kuomoto and Houlsby (2001) show
that a 60º fall cone provides more accuracy than the Australian Standard 30º fall cone. Australian clays are often high
plasticity and these soils require curing for 24hrs after adding an increment of water to allow the water to hydrate into
the soil.

It is conventional to use de-ionised or tap water for index, oedometer, shear box, and triaxial testing. However, most of
the natural clays come from estuaries and river systems where the pore water is saline. Pineda et al (2013) investigated
effects of electrolyte salinity on the results of drained shear box tests on Ballina Clay using de-ionised water and 35g/l
NaCl solution that has a similar ionic strength to sea water. Figure 4a shows the peak conditions (τpeak vs σ’v) for all
specimens subjected to shearing. τpeak varied with the pore fluid salinity but also depending on the specimen origin
(Shelby I or Shelby II). Except in one case, only two specimens were available to define (roughly) the peak strength
envelope. For specimens from Shelby I, values of strength parameters were equals to c’=0.6kPa and φ’=31º (NaCl) and
c’=0 and φ’=26º (deionized). In the case of Shelby II, they displayed values of c’=7kPa and φ’=32º (NaCl) and
c’=0.82kPa and φ’=30º (deionized). Figure 4b compares the strength parameters with the average electrical
conductivity (EC) obtained in each case. Reference values of EC for intact soil as well as values of reference pore fluids
have been included in this figure using vertical lines. The exposure to deionized water induced a decreasing in both c’
and φ’ for specimens from both Shelby tubes. However, the change induced seemed to depend of two factors: (i) the
initial salinity of the specimen and (ii) the concentration gradient induced. It has been assumed here that strength
parameters for intact Ballina clay are closer to values obtained using synthetic sea water (NaCl) due their similar values
of EC. The maximum change in φ’ was around 6º and 2º in specimens from Shelby I and Shelby II, respectively.
Effective cohesion was almost completely erased in specimens from Shelby II once subjected to deionized water
whereas negligible values were obtained in the case of Shelby I. Despite the few experimental results presented in this
paper it suggests that as higher salinity a larger friction angle develops. Low or null effective cohesion seems to be
developed depending of the soil salinity. However, it may easily be degraded if the clay is exposed to deionized water.
The use of saline electrolyte also had a tendency to increase volume change during the initial consolidation stages of the
tests. This could be due to osmotic consolidation (Mitchell, 2001). Osmotic swelling can also occur when de-ionised
water is used and the natural pore water is saline.

The state of practice testing using de-ionised or tap water would be expected to result in smaller strength parameters and
potentially smaller compression parameters than if an electrolyte is prepared at the same ionic strength as the natural
water was used. Sampling natural water for use in laboratory tests has its limitations because sulphates in the water can
oxidise to acid and slimes can form over time, both of which can affect the test data. A compromise is to prepare
artificial saline solutions in the laboratory. It is not clear whether the saline solutions need to have similar chemical
makeup to the natural water (typically Mg, Ca, Al, Fe, Na cations) or whether NaCl solutions prepared to the same ionic
strength as natural water will suffice. When saline electrolyte is used a water-water or air-water interface may be
required to prevent corrosion of the test equipment.

70 34
Ballina clay (-4<z<-4.5m) II
Ballina clay (-4<z<-4.5m) lby
I 32 S he
60 y )
lb m
S he S/c )
l - .2 m 30 Reference value Shelby II
φ' (º)

cm
aC 5 S/ I
N =3 m by
50 (E
C
40
.2
28 el
< Sh
EC
Reference value Shelby I
Deionized water

<
2 26
NaCl : 35gr/lt

0. )
/cm
τ (kPa)

40 II
(3
mS
)

y
cm

lb 6
.5 II

he 7 24
S/

.
21
4 3 lb y
m

-S <
< he

d EC
ize
EC l - S

30 n <
io 94 8
3 aC

De 9.
(1
2. N

yI
<

c' (kPa)

e l b
20 Sh 6
(4

d-
I

ize
yI

ion 4
elb

De
Sh

10
2
Shelby I
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 0 10 20 30 40 50
σ'v (kPa) Electrical conductivity (mS/cm)
(a) (b)

Figure 4. Effects of electrolyte on effective frictional parameters of Ballina clay, eastern Australia

Oxidation of clays during prolonged storage has been investigated by Lessard and Mitchell (1985) and Koslanant
(2006). Oxidation of iron sulphide in the clay results in formation of sulphuric acid and dissolution of calcium
carbonate thereby increasing the concentration of divalent calcium ions, reducing interparticle repulsions, increasing
remoulded shear strength, liquid limit and decreasing the sensitivity, liquidity index and pH. The natural moisture
content and undrained shear strength of the undisturbed clay were not observed to change. Reductions in liquid limit of
bentonite after soaking in sulphuric acid have also been observed by Liu et al (2012) who also observed that addition of
organic compounds can reduce the changes to liquid limit at low acid concentrations. If oxidation of the clay is limited
or does not occur, then little or no change to the material properties can be expected, as demonstrated by Lessard and
Mitchell (1985) from test results obtained using a well sealed tube 14 months after sampling. Long term tests such as
oedometer tests can be affected by oxidation of the samples. It is common to observe corrosion to brass componentry
after incremental load oedometer tests and it would be expected that the test data would be affected adversely. Effects
of oxidation on consolidation tests can be reduced by using constant-rate-of-strain consolidometer (CRSC) equipment
because a period of days is required to complete these tests, whereas a period of weeks is often required to complete the
incremental load tests. CRSC tests have an additional advantage of providing a continuous profile of void ratio with
effective vertical stress, making evaluation of the preconsolidation stress and compression indices more accurate. An
example comparison of CRSC and IL oedometer data is provided in Figure 5. The rate of strain in the CRSC test was
about 8.6%/day. In the incremental load test, in the normally consolidation range, each stage took about 17 hours to
reach 100% consolidation. The different values of preconsolidation stress observed in these tests can be associated with
the different rates of loading (Hight & Leroueil 2003).

Effective stress (kPa)

1 10 100 1000
0

-0.05

-0.1

-0.15
Strain

-0.2

-0.25

-0.3

-0.35

-0.4
CRSC Oedometer

Figure 5 Comparison of CRSC and IL oedometer test data on Ballina clay

In the event that special efforts are made to obtain a set of higher level quality undisturbed samples, a series of
laboratory shear tests comprised of triaxial, simple shear, and consolidation modes can be considered. The triaxial tests
can be of the isotropically-consolidated triaxial compression type (CIUC) with porewater pressure measurements. These
have the advantage of providing a certain mode reference of undrained shear strength (suCIUC), yet more importantly,
supply a reference value on the effective stress friction angle (φ') of the soil. The direct simple shear (DSS) has shown
usefulness in providing a representative value of su near the average of compression, simple shear, and extension modes
(Ladd & DeGroot, 2003). A range of suitable confining stresses should be employed to define the in-situ values in the
lightly OC range, as well as higher stresses that may correspond to critical state values.

4 IN-SITU TESTING
Conventional approach

A typical in-situ test programme comprises electronic piezocone (CPTu) soundings with readings of cone tip resistance
(qt), sleeve friction (fs), and penetration porewater pressures at the shoulder (u2) taken at 50m to 100m vertical intervals.
During project development the main aim of the tests focuses on geostratigraphic profiling to detail the layers, strata,
lenses, groundwater table, and soil types within the exploratory depth of interest. Engineering parameters become more
important during detailed design and additional site investigations often occur.

Geostratigraphic profiling is often performed using a 100MPa capacity piezocone. Older equipment from electric CPT
systems included a sub-standard12-bit analog-digital conversion in the resolution in the data acquisition unit. This CPT
system also had a penetrometer exhibiting a low net area ratio (anet = 0.57) for tip correction, as well as a necessary
correction for sleeve (bnet = 0.014). This CPT system was adequate for geostratigraphic profiling, yet marginal for direct
use in mapping soil properties of very soft clays because of coarseness in data storage sampling and high corrections of
measured data. Modern electronic CPTu systems for soundings have anet > 0.80 and bnet = 0 as well as 24-bit data
acquisition systems and result in higher accuracy of readings in these soft clays.

The quality of the CPTu data for use in geostratigraphic profiling is adequate in delineation of subsurface strata,
changes in soil type, and consistency. Figure 6 shows a summary from sounding P605 that gives excellent stratigraphic
detailing. All three readings from the piezocone give nice profiling capabilities regarding the layering, soil types, and
interfaces.

Tip Resistance, qt (kPa) Sleeve Friction, fst (kPa) Porewater Pressure, u2 (kPa)
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 0 0

2 u2 (shoulder)
2 2

4 4 4 uo (hydrostatic)

6 6 6

8 8 8
Depth (meters)

10 10 10

12 12 12

14 14 14

16 16 16

18 18 18

20 20 20

22 22 22

24 24 24

26 26 26

28 28 28

Figure 6. Representative piezocone showing geostratigraphy to 34 meters at Ballina Pass

When the digital data are enlarged, the results in the very soft Holocene clay are marginal for the interpretation of soil
parameters because the data sampling from the 12-bit analog-digital converter are too coarse. This particular CPT
system uses a penetrometer with a high correction factor, thus the measured tip resistance is much less than the total
resistance. The correction relies on the calibration equation:

qt = qc + (1-anet)·u2

where anet is determined by a pressurized triaxial cell. This is required by ASTM, European (CEN), and International
(ISO) standards for conduct of CPTu. It is particular paramount in soft to firm to stiff clays and silts that exhibit
significant porewater pressure generation.

There is also a correction for the sleeve friction element that requires measurement of penetration porewater pressures
before the sleeve (u2) and after the sleeve (u3). For instance, Jamiolkowski, et al. (1985) and Lunne, Robertson &
Powell (1997) give details on this. It is best to have equal end areas on the friction sleeve in order to minimize the
correction. The particular brand of CPT system used here only provides u2 data, so the correction it uses to transform
measured fs to total sleeve friction (fst) makes an assumption between u2 and u3, likely valid for the Scandinavian soils
in which it was trial tested. Another unfortunate design is the use of a sleeve with unequal end areas, such that changes
in porewater pressures cause readings in the measured sleeve channel. An approximate correction can be made (Mayne
2007):

fst ≈ fs - bnet·u2
Figure 7 shows the enlarged section of the CPTu data with corrected and uncorrected tip and sleeve data. The tip
corrections can be seen to be on the order of 33% increase or more over measured values. In contrast, the corrected
sleeve averages 15% less than the measured value. The coarseness in the data acquisition 12-bit resolution is also
apparent here and results in undue scatter and variability in the plots, where none actually exists.

Tip Resistance, qt (kPa) Sleeve Friction, ft (kPa)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 5 10 15 20
0 0
Corrected qt Corrected ft
1 1
Measured qc Measured fs
2 2

3 3
Depth (meters)

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

Figure 7. Blow-up scale of CPTu sounding P605 showing corrected and uncorrected readings.

The modern CPTu equipment provide greater accuracy, enhanced data acquisition systems, and more reliable results.
However, there is a tendency to use high capacity piezocones to assess engineering parameters of soft clay which is
likely to cause inaccurate measurements. Typical strain gauges operate over ranges of 1500 to 2000 microstrain. A
100MPa piezocone generates about 0.5 microstrain per MPa whereas a 10MPa piezocone generates about 5 microstrain
per MPa. The 100MPa piezocone operates at the low end of its capability and is prone to a lack of sensitivity. In
addition, if the difference between initial and final zero readings is 1/1000 of full scale this means an offset of 0.1MPa
for the 100MPa cone and a 0.01MPa offset for the 10MPa cone. Given that qc readings in soft clay can be in the order
of 0.2MPa, such offsets can be a significant proportion of the measured capacity.

Piezo-dissipation test data are shown in Figure 8. These data indicate a dilatory response of measured porewater
pressures with time (delay in reaching peak). Normally in soft clays, a monotonic response is observed whereby the
measured porewater pressures are largest magnitude during penetration and once halted, the porewater pressures decay
to hydrostatic conditions with time. Dilatory response is more or less associated with heavily overconsolidated
geomaterials (e.g., Lunne, et al. 1997; Mayne, 2001).

A more in depth look at piezo-dissipation test data shows a significant drop in measured pore water pressure at the onset
of dissipation, compared to the penetration value of shoulder porewater pressures (u2). The penetration values are
shown on Figure 8. This could be due in part to four possible reasons: (a) release of the applied hydraulic pressure and
pushing forces during CPT; (b) incomplete saturation of the element and cone prior to testing; (c) desaturation of the
element and/or cone during advancement; and/or (d) smearing and/or destructuration of the soil immediately adjacent to
the penetrometer (thin 1 mm to 10 mm ring).

Research on soft clays in western Canada (Campanella & Robertson, 1988) showed negligible difference for piezo-
dissipation tests at the shoulder filter location (i.e., u2 reading) for rods maintained with and without pushing forces.
Results in Australian soils may be different however, but could easily be researched by conducting two side-by-side
soundings, one with maintaining rod pressure and one without.

When the u2 penetration pore water pressures are not fully developed incomplete saturation and/or desaturation may
have occurred. In sounding P605, full development of u2 porewater pressures is evident from the start. Thus, the reason
for the lag (and associated drop) during dissipation tests is not explained by the saturation issues. Smearing or clogging
may be a possible explanation.

Diss 8.3 m Ballina PiezoDissipation

Diss 5.8 m Diss 3.9 m
300
CPTu z=8.3m CPTu z=5.8 m CPTu z=3.9m
250
Measured u 2 (kPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (minutes)

Figure 8. Piezo-dissipation tests measured at stops during CPTu P605.

A trial of two paired side-by-side soundings, one where the hydraulic pushing force is maintained during the pore water
dissipations, the other without pushing force, can be performed in order to investigate whether the dilatory nature is
caused by this operation.

The proper saturation of filter elements using either glycerine or silicone fluid is paramount for obtaining necessary
pore water pressures. As the correction of measured tip reading (qc) to the corrected total tip resistance (qt) requires the
shoulder pore water pressures (u2), then nothing can substitute (Campanella & Robertson, 1988; Lunne, et al. 1997). A
high value vacuum pump (> 95% atmospheric) is required to obtain full saturation. Alternatively, pre-saturated
elements are available for the Vertek and Hogentogler systems. In the field, proper saturation of the cone assembly is
also required. This is best handled with a penetrometer having a male connection on the tip during assembly as a
positive displacement of fluid (water, glycerine, or silicone) is maintained. If the penetrometer has a female plug, the
entire penetrometer should be totally immersed under fluid bath during assembly to ensure proper saturation.

If a desiccated zone exists in the subsoil profile that causes desaturation of elements, the following may be considered:
(a) a two-part sounding, or (b) special greased-filled slot in lieu of filter. In the two-part sounding, the first part begins
with a saturated 15-cm2 piezocone penetrometer advanced to the water table and removed. The hole is filled with water
and the sounding is continued using a 10-cm2 piezocone to the final test depth. In the alternative (available with the
Envi AB memocone), a thin 0.3-mm slot is filled with a viscous grease that allows porewater pressures during
penetration to be registered with the transducer diaphragm.
The use of piezocone testing can be quite valuable in assessing soil engineering parameters. Yet, in very soft clays a
special level of effort must be made to invoke an exacting truth. That is, these CPTu soundings must: (1) utilize the best
available high-end equipment, (2) detailed calibration of load cells and transducers; (3) proper saturation procedures for
filters and penetrometer assembly, and (4) collection of baseline readings before & after the sounding. A preferable
CPTu system should have a minimum 16-bit data acquisition system (or higher, such as 24-bit) and penetrometers with
2 MPa full range on the tip readings and the following net area ratios (anet > 0.80 and bnet = 0) to obtain the best possible
results. A 2MPa full range can be obtained by amplifying the signal from a 10MPa cone.

Geophysical Methods

For a linear project such as road or rail construction, the majority of site investigation locations are proposed to assess
geostratigraphy and a minority are used to assess engineering parameters of soft soil in detail. An alternative approach
to site investigation would be to perform geophysics to assess stratigraphy in lieu of the majority of the penetrometer
tests and concentrate a fewer numbers of boreholes with high quality sampling and fewer numbers of in-situ tests with
high specification equipment at critical locations such as river crossings. A few boreholes and in-situ tests would still
occur in parallel with the geophysics to help calibrate the stratigraphic model. This alternative approach would provide
superior information to the conventional approach at similar cost.

An example of geophysics using MASW (multi-channel analysis of surface waves) to detect palaeochannels at Ballina
is shown in Figure 9. The palaeochannel found in the upper part of Figure 9 had been detected by a conventional in-situ
testing programme. The palaeochannel in the lower part of Figure 9 had not been detected and was found using
geophysics. MASW also provides information about the small strain shear modulus of the soil which can be used for
detailed design. Other forms of geophysics such as electrical resistance imaging (ERI) and electromagnetic
conductivity (EM) can also be used. If access tracks are available, geophysics can be deployed rapidly and cover large
distances in short periods of time.

Figure 9. Palaeochannels detected using MASW geophysics

Modern best practice adopting a practical approach in routine site characterisations use seismic piezocone tests (SCPTu)
or seismic flat dilatometer tests (SDMT), as up to 5 separate measurements of soil behavior are captured during a single
sounding. The shear wave velocity (Vs) provides the fundamental stiffness of the soil in terms of the small-strain shear
modulus (Gmax = G0 = ρt Vs2), where ρt is the total mass density. Also, the Vs profile can be used to give an independent
assessment on the profile of preconsolidation stress and corresponding OCR at the site (Mayne, Robertson, & Lunne,
1988). A refined method for varied soil types has also been developed (Mayne, 2005). Flat dilatometer testing (SDMT)
offers an independent assessment of the soil properties. While not as fast as SCPTu, the use of SDMTs at select critical
areas would provide confirmatory (or disputed) evaluations of the material properties.

In addition to the SCPTu and SDMT, other valuable probes for site characterization include the pressuremeter (PMT)
and its derivatives, especially the self-boring pressuremeter (SBPMT) that attempts to minimize soil disturbance during
insertion, and the cone pressuremeter (CPMT) where a hybrid of penetrometer and inflation probing obtain multiple
readings to quantify different aspects of soil behaviour. A new and practical approach to very soft soils includes full-
flow penetrometers (FFP), including the T-bar, ball-penetrometer, and plate-type probes, especially for offshore
investigations but also find suit in very soft terrestrial deposits and mine tailings (Randolph 2004; Yafrate et al. 2007).
These full-flow probes are in essence cone penetrometers with larger heads (usually 100-cm2) in place of the standard
conical tips of 60º apex and 10-cm2 cross-sectional areas. The cone tip is replaced with a new larger front end (either
sphere, plate, and/or horizontal rod) that offer threefold advantages over CPTs in very soft soils: (a) increased resolution
of the electronic load cell, (b) much less significance on the correction of penetration porewater effects on the unequal
end areas, and (c) direct use of the measured resistance (in contrast to the net resistance: qt - σvo used in standard CPT
interpretations) because the soil flows around the head, thus avoiding the uncertainty in calculation of total overburden
stress (σvo). In addition to FFP measurements during the push downward, additional readings are taken during periodic
depths with up-down cycles to look at strength degradation, as well as resistances during extraction of the probes to
investigate and quantify the degree of soil remoulding and sensitivity. The theoretical upper and lower bounds for full
flow penetrometers are closer than for the CPTu, however interpretations for undrained shear strength and pre-
consolidation pressure still require the use of empirical correlation factors.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10. Penetrometers, including: (a) 10-cm2 and 15-cm2 cones; (b) full-flow T-bar, and (c) ball-penetrometers for
in-situ testing of very soft soils

To evaluate the actual conditions of drainage and quantify the effects of strain rate, variable rate penetration tests,
termed twitch tests, have been proposed (Randolph 2004; Chung et al. 2006; DeJong et al. 2012). Twitch testing can be
conducted using the conventional cone, piezocone, or vane, as well as by the full-flow penetrometers such as the ball
and T-bar. The piezocone offers the opportunity to look at both cone tip resistance and porewater pressure effects as the
rate of penetration is slowed by orders of magnitude; i.e., stepped rates of 20 mm/s to 10 mm/s to 5 mm/s to 2 mm/s to
0.2 mm/s, and so forth. This can be accomplished using a variable electric motor, although some new hydraulic systems
can provide this level of control. Results from twitch testing can be used for two major purposes: (a) investigate site-
specific viscosity effects during undrained penetration, and thus quantify the strain-rate behaviour on soil strength; and
(b) discern the criteria to delineate “drained” from “partially drained" from "undrained” region. The data are presented
in terms of a normalized velocity, V* = v·d/cv, where v = actual velocity, d = probe diameter, and cv = coefficient of
consolidation. If V* < 0.3, then fully-drained conditions prevail, while undrained behaviour is found when V* > 30.
This offers value in projects requiring staged construction of embankments as well as guidance in selection of total
stress analyses versus effective stress analysis, else the less known region of partly undrained and partially drained
response.

7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Deficiencies in current practice have been identified in the conventional run-of-the-mill sampling, laboratory methods,
and in-situ testing operations. Improved sample quality can be achieved through the use of equipment like the Japanese
Piston Sampler that is comparable in size to the standard 75-mm diameter Shelby tube. Improved laboratory data
quality on simple index testing can be achieved through not drying samples, using an electrolyte with a similar ionic
strength to the natural pore water and preventing oxidation of the samples during testing. Improved in-situ data quality
can be achieved by use of modern electronic probes that replace older electric systems with poor A-D resolutions and
mechanical aspects. The utilization of geophysics for areal mapping followed by geostratigraphic profiling with
routine SCPTu and/or SDMT soundings offer a quick, expedient, and economical means to acquire a full range of
geoengineering parameters for analysis. In cases involving very soft soils, mine tailings, and offshore sediments, a new
generation of full flow penetrometers, variable rate twitch tests, and associated testing techniques offer significantly
better detailing and reliability of data. All of these changes to conventional practice require a small capital investment
in equipment which can then be deployed at similar cost to current site investigations. The improved data quality will
reduce risk during construction and result in cost and time savings, as well as help the geoengineer of 2013 select a
more optimal solution towards solving problems of ground modification, piling, and site development.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for support by all contributing partners to the ARC Centre of Excellence in Geotechnical
Science and Engineering at the University of Newcastle, Australia. These partners include Advanced Geomechanics,
Coffey Geotechnics and Douglas Partners. The first author also acknowledges funding provided by the NSW Science
Leveraging Fund.

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