University of Idaho

Algae:

An overview of the properties, habits and modern applications of the photosynthetic protist

Gillian Glivar (Editor)

Kaylee Carr

Ailis Grieshaber

Edited by:

Kally Arnzen, Audrey Duncan, and Jenai Archer

Honors Chemistry 111

Doc Bitterwolf

30 November 2018
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Algae are all eukaryotic, and mostly unicellular and photosynthetic; however, some

scientists classify photosynthetic prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, as algae as well. The ability to

photosynthesize is what differentiates algae from other eukaryotes (though some have lost this

trait) and the lack of true roots, leaves, and vascular tissue marks them as different from plants.

The term alga includes both unicellular green algae, such as diatoms, as well as multicellular

brown algae like kelp. Alga do not refer to a monophyletic group (organisms descended from a

common ancestor), but rather a category of protists. Because algae are such a broad category, the

differences between the phyla can cause them to have drastically different effects on the world

around them. The lineages can mostly be differentiated by whether they are photosynthetic,

multicellular, and the method by which they gained chloroplasts, either through primary or

secondary endosymbiosis (1).

Figure 1: Primary and Secondary Endosymbiosis

Both primary and secondary endosymbiosis result in the ability to photosynthesize and

are differentiated by where the algae gained their trait, either from cyanobacteria or other algae.

In primary endosymbiosis, a non-photosynthetic alga engulfs a photosynthetic bacterium,

generally a cyanobacterium. Instead of breaking down the bacterium for nutrients, the alga and

the bacterium work together in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship in which the alga acquires
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sugars created through photosynthesis and the bacterium receives protection from the

environment. Secondary endosymbiosis works through a very similar process, with the only

difference being that the engulfed cell is another alga instead of a bacterium. Figure 1 above

shows examples of where, in different lineages of algae, photosynthesis was acquired through

secondary or primary endosymbiosis. The two forms of endosymbiosis can be differentiated

through the number of plasma membranes encasing the chloroplasts. In the case of primary

endosymbiosis, there will be two membranes around the chloroplasts, one from the original

bacterium and one from the alga that encased it. Secondary endosymbiosis will have four

membranes: the membrane of the original bacterium, the membrane of the alga that engulfed the

primary, the membrane from the primary alga, and the membrane from the alga that engulfed the

secondary (2).

Figure 2: Phylogenetic Tree of Algae

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The first phylum of algae, as shown in Figure 2 above, is the Excavata, of which the only

photosynthetic lineage is euglenoids. While within euglenoids, many have lost the ability to

photosynthesize, those that can gained their chloroplasts from the secondary endosymbiosis of

green algae. They all reproduce asexually and use flagella to move themselves through their

aquatic environments. The euglenoids that do not photosynthesize are largely parasitic (1).

Next, Alveolata within the phylum Chromalveolata contain two main phyla of algae--

dinoflagellates and apicomplexa (Figure 2). Dinoflagellates gained their photosynthetic abilities

from secondary endosymbiosis of unicellular red algae. They also form a potentially harmful part

of algal blooms. They secrete toxins called saxitoxins, which are then picked up by shellfish

when they feed. With many dinoflagellates in the water, as in an algal bloom, the toxins can

build up to a harmful concentration in the shellfish, which when eaten by humans can cause

paralytic shellfish syndrome (1). The other phylum, Apicomplexa, has largely lost their ability to

photosynthesize, although the original photosynthetic ancestors do exist. Without the ability to

create energy through photosynthesis, they rely on hosts and exist as parasites (2).

The other phylum under Chromalveolata to which the Alveolata belong are Stramenopila

(Figure 2). Contained within this phylum are the diatoms and brown algae. Both gained their

photosynthetic abilities from secondary endosymbiosis of unicellular red algae (2). Diatoms are

primarily unicellular, while brown algae can be some of the largest, most complex structures in

the ocean. Diatoms are free floating within their aquatic environments, while brown algae are

stationary, held to the ocean floor by a steadfast. Both diatoms and brown algae are important in

their ecosystems: diatoms are the number one primary producers in aquatic environments and

large groupings of brown algae create kelp forests, which provide shelter and food for many

different organisms (1).

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Another phylum, Rhizaria, contains both foramiferans and chlorarachniophytes as shown

in Figure 2 above. The photosynthetic ability in chlorarachniophytes comes from the secondary

endosymbiosis of chlorophyte algae from within the Archaeplastida phylum. Foramiferans

usually gained their chloroplasts through the secondary endosymbiosis of dinoflagellates (2).

Figure 3: Alternation of Generations

The last phylum, Archaeplastida, is made up of green algae, red algae, and Glaucophyte

algae, although the Glaucophyte algae is not shown in the phylogenetic tree above (Figure 2).

Glaucophyte algae are the most ancestral member of Archaeplastida and have chloroplasts with a

double membrane layer, suggesting primary endosymbiosis. Red algae get their distinctive

reddish coloring from high levels of phycoerythrin, but others with slightly lower amounts of

phycoerythrin are bluish green, and others are black due to high cell density (2). They are one of

the most complex phyla of algae, with some being multicellular. Those that are multicellular,

such as seaweeds, undergo alternation of generations where they spend part of their life cycle as

haploid gametophytes, and part as diploid sporophytes as shown in Figure 3 above. Chlorophytes

and charophytes are broadly categorized as green algae, with charophytes being the closest
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ancestor to all land plants. Chlorophytes can be multicellular, but are not as complex as red

algae. Chlorophytes’ cells have no differentiation and are rather a repetition of the same cell plan

again and again, making them less complex. Although chlorophytes are not complex, they tend

to form mutualistic relationships with fungi to form lichen (2).

Algae can have a diverse effect on the environment around them. Some act as primary

producers for their ecosystem, providing energy for all other organisms. Others have a less

positive influence on the life around them. For example, some forms of algae can cause different

types of algal blooms, which occur when there is rapid growth and a build-up of phytoplankton

in either fresh or salt water. Algal blooms are often caused by increased water temperature due to

sunlight, high nutrient levels, calm waters, and a limited number of predators. In recent years,

scientists have observed an increasing number of algal blooms. In fact, it is now believed that

humans are the main cause of the increased number of algal blooms. This is due to the run-off of

nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich fertilizers used for farming, water waste from septic systems and

sewage plants, and pollution being dumped in oceans (3). The increased number of algal blooms

is alarming because, while not all algal blooms are harmful, many are. Harmful algal blooms

(HABs) occur when colonies of algae grow uncontrollably and produce toxic or harmful effects

on people, fish, marine mammals, and birds. There are two different kinds of HABs: nontoxic

blooms and toxic blooms.

Nontoxic algal blooms cause harm to the environment in several different ways. For

example, the high biomass that nontoxic algal blooms can achieve causes severe problems for

the flora and the fauna that reside in the bloom. When a large biomass begins to decay, it

consumes large amounts of oxygen which leads to the death of all the organisms in the area

containing the bloom, also known as a “dead zone.” Additionally, the large biomass of the bloom
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prevents sunlight from penetrating into the depths of the water, which results in a decreased

density of the submerged aquatic vegetation (4). This results in the loss of an important

ecosystem for commercially important fish.

However, nontoxic blooms are not the only blooms that cause problems; toxic algal

blooms also wreak havoc on the environment. Toxic HAB species employ opportunistic growth

strategies to achieve high densities. One strategy that toxic algal blooms use is the synthesis of

biotoxins. These toxins are filtered from the algae into the water where they are taken up by fish,

which can later be consumed by humans. This occurs because the toxins are carried through the

food chain from small, herbivorous fish to larger, carnivorous, commercially sold fish. These

biotoxins can cause many health problems such as: deficiencies in learning and memory, skin

lesions, and respiratory and eye irritations. Furthermore, many biotoxins, in large enough doses,

are lethal to humans and marine organisms.

Two examples of toxic HABs are blue-green algal blooms and red tides (4). Blue-green

algal blooms are often referred to as pond scum and are made up of cyanobacteria, which grow

in fresh water habitats such as lakes, ponds, and rivers (5). Cyanobacteria are made up of

bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) instead of algal cells (eukaryotic cells). These blooms produce

toxins known as cyanotoxins. These toxins can cause skin irritations such as blisters and hives,

and, if inhaled or swallowed, can cause serious kidney, liver and/or neurological problems in

humans (3). Red tides are another form of HAB and they can range in color from dark red to pink

to orange to brown to yellow. Red tides are commonly made up of Karenia brevia, Alexandrium

fundyense, and Alexandrium catenella, which prefer to grow in salt water habitats such as

oceans, gulfs, and bays (5). These algae release toxins that result in not only the death of marine

life, but also the death of land mammals that eat the contaminated marine life (6).
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In recent years, algal blooms have become a significant problem across the entire world.

Algal blooms have been occurring more frequently and, thereby, causing more problems. There

are three common ways that algal blooms cause damage to an environment: (1) algal blooms

contain such a high multitude of cells, often millions of cells per milliliter, that they can clog or

irritate fish gills, causing suffocation; (2) when the concentrated algal cells in the bloom die, the

decay process depletes the supply of oxygen in the water, creating hypoxic “dead zones,” which

kill oxygen-dependent marine creatures; (3) many algal species produce deadly toxins that can

kill fish, mammals, and humans when ingested or inhaled (7). Figure 4 shows a variety of

common phytoplankton that are toxic to humans. Humans normally acquire these toxins by

eating infected sea life, such as fish and different varieties of shellfish (8).

Figure 4: Examples of Marine Bio Toxins (8)

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In addition to causing significant harm to the environment, HAB outbreaks cause fiscal

repercussions for countries annually. Researchers estimate that the United States must pay fifty

million dollars per year for economic damage that algae cause, as shown in figure 5 below (9).

This damage includes: the deaths of aquatic species, the closure of harvestable shellfish and fish

stocks, reductions in seafood sales, costs of conducting and monitoring programs to detect and

quarantine toxic seafood, impacts of tourism when areas close due to an algal bloom, and

medical treatment needed for individuals exposed to the harmful toxins (10). Fortunately, the use

of satellite imagery has greatly reduced the costs associated with algal blooms.

Figure 5: Estimated Annual Economic Impacts from HABs in the United States (9)

In 1987, aboard the NOAA satellite, thermal sensors were first used to track a bloom of

Karenia brevis, better known as a red tide, off the coast of Northern California. Ever since, the

satellite-borne remote sensors have been used to track algal blooms through chlorophyll

concentrations. This can be shown in figure 6 below; the concentrations of chlorophyll are

measured and can be used to track a bloom from space for many years (11). Figure 6 shows an

algal bloom, from the years 2002 to 2011, changing based on the chlorophyll concentrations

present in the water, which corresponds to the concentration of algae present. When high

concentrations of chlorophyll are observed, high concentrations of algae are also observed. This

allows scientists to track “hot spots” where there is a chlorophyll anomaly (extremely high

amounts of chlorophyll present in water) and then combine this information with other data such
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as wind speed and water current to identify the size, location, and trajectory of the harmful algal

bloom (12). This data is extremely important for public health because it can show where algal

blooms are occurring, thereby allowing governments to take quick action against the bloom,

which saves money. Unfortunately, the data collected via satellite tracking is limited by the

current technology being used. The satellites are not yet equipped with sensors that can detect

cyanotoxins—toxins produced by blue-green algae that poison marine organisms and humans

(13).

Figure 6: Satellite Images of Algal Blooms through Concentrations of Chlorophyll (11)

While satellite tracking has helped reduce the loss of money associated with algal

blooms, more needs to be done to help prevent HABs. Throughout the world, expanding

populations have resulted in the growing disposal of sewage, increased use of chemical fertilizers

in agriculture, and increased fossil fuel combustion. Legislative or policy changes need to be
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implemented around the world to help prevent and control sewage and waste discharges, which

often lead to HAB outbreaks (14). The United States has made a mass effort to decrease the

amount of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, from flowing into their waters. The United

States has accomplished this through the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI). GLRI has

made it a priority to reduce the runoff of phosphorus into the watersheds of Indiana, Michigan,

Ohio, and Wisconsin (15).

Figure 7: EPA Efforts to Coordinate Freshwater HAB-Related Activities

However, that is not the only effort taking place in the United States to control HAB

outbreaks. As shown in figure 7 above, many organizations are coordinating with the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to protect humans, wildlife, and marine ecosystems

from algal blooms (16). These organizations are using three mechanisms to help control HAB

outbreaks: mechanical, biological, and chemical.

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Mechanical controls can be used to remove HAB cells from water. By dispersing large

amounts of clay over the surface of the infected area, the clay particles will then aggregate with

each other and with the HAB cells (14). Then the clay will drag the algal cells to the bottom of the

ocean or lake where the cells will be removed through sedimentation. This process effectively

kills and removes algae cells, ending an HAB outbreak, without causing severe harm to the

environment.

Biological methods of controlling HABs can include the use of viruses or the release of

algae predators into a bloom. Studies show that viruses can cause the death of many algal

blooms. Scientists predict that viruses attack the algae after the algal bloom runs out of nutrients

and then the viruses destroy the algae cells from the inside out. However, studies are still being

conducted and little is truly known about how viruses attack algal blooms (17). Thus, using this

method to fight HAB outbreaks is far from commercial use. Releasing predators of algae into

blooms produces similar issues. While the hypothetical release of more predators, such as

zooplankton, into an algal bloom could help decrease the bloom, the predators could become an

invasive species, causing even more harm than the initial HAB outbreak. Thus, biological

methods are not currently realistic or safe enough to be used to fight algal blooms.

The final method that can be utilized to combat an algal bloom or HAB outbreak is a

chemical control. For example, in 1957, Florida sprayed the chemical copper sulfate over a red

tide algal bloom from crop dusting planes (14). This chemical killed the algae cells within the

bloom, helping break apart the bloom and end the HAB outbreak. Therefore, the use of

chemicals, such as copper sulfate, can effectively kill an algal bloom.

While there are many mechanisms that can help control HAB outbreaks, the most

effective, currently, is the mechanical mechanism. However, spraying clay over large infected
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areas of water is extremely expensive and only used in countries, such as Korea, where the

economy depends on fish markets (14). Unfortunately, technology is currently limited and more

research is needed to develop more effective ways to fight HAB outbreaks in the future.

While algal blooms can cause many problems for humans, marine life, and the environment,

algal blooms also have a multitude of benefits and uses.

Algae are versatile protists. They can be utilized in a wide variety of ways, including as

food, beauty products, medicine, pollution control, fertilizer, and as an alternative energy to

fossil fuels (18). The United Nations Climate Change Annual Report announced that a 1.5 degree

Celsius raise in temperature is inevitable, and that the world only has twelve years to prevent that

increase from becoming any higher (19). In order to accomplish this, the entire world would need

to switch from fossil fuels to alternate forms of clean energy immediately. It is pertinent that the

world views algae as a possible front runner in clean energy sources. Algae could be a significant

part of the solution to the clean energy crisis because they can be employed in a multitude of

ways: from cleaning polluted waters, to generating energy in solar panels, to becoming a

biodiesel (20).

Biodiesel is a viable way to cut down on the extreme amounts of fossil fuels currently

being consumed each day. Instead of turning petroleum into a fuel, biodiesel utilizers esters.

Esters are organic compounds that are formed by replacing the hydrogen of an acid with an alkyl

or other organic element group. Many of these esters are found in naturally occurring fats and

essential oils (21). These include crops such as oil palm, coconuts, rapeseed (canola), sunflowers,

mustard and soybeans, and non-crops such as animal fats and used frying oil. Anything that has

esters in it can be turned into a biodiesel. The process for creating biofuels is fairly simple. In

order to get to the esters in these bio-products, the glycerin that resides in vegetable oils must be
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removed. Glycerin is a thick liquid that is used in everything from soap to explosives. The

glycerin can be separated in a simple process by adding alcohol (typically methanol) and a

catalyst. This process “cracks” the oil molecules, producing three biodiesel molecules and a

glycerin molecule as shown in figure 8 (21). During the “cracking” process, the triacylglycerines

(TAG) in the plant or animal fat go through three phases of splitting off acids. This forms

diacylglycerin, monoacylglycerin, and then finally a single glycerin molecule. The three acids

that are split off become the biodiesel (22). The biodiesel must then go through a purification

process using water washes in order to remove any impurities or remaining glycerol (22). Water

washes help purify because water is a polar molecule, and as it moves through the biodiesel, it

latches onto impurities such as leftover glycerin, dirt, and soap bubbles.

Figure 8: Chemical reaction of Biodiesel

Biodiesel has a multitude of benefits over peterodiesel (conventional diesel). On the

environmental side, it causes significantly less emissions from exhaust and, according to the

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, produces 78 percent less carbon emissions during its

life cycle than peterodiesel, when accounting for all significant carbon emissions due to farming

and transportation (21). Biodiesel also provides significant health and safety benefits. It is ten
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times less toxic than table salt and has a higher flash point temperature (the point at which the

vapor can be made to ignite in air) than petrodiesel. This makes it significantly safer to store and

handle. It also degrades four times faster than regular diesel due to the fact that it is made

entirely from bio-materials, which will be consumed by microorganisms (22). This makes

biodiesel safer to use in sensitive areas such as near rivers and other waterways where it is best to

avoid spills. Additionally, biodiesel is more efficient while in use in vehicles. Although biodiesel

has a slightly lower energy content than petrodiesel, it makes up for this with its better ignition

and lubricant properties, capacity to burn more efficiently, and the fact that less maintenance on

car engines is required due to its self-cleaning properties.

Biodiesel’s biggest detriment is that it is more expensive than petrodiesel. This is due to

the cost of feed stocks (which biodiesel is currently made from) being more expensive than

petroleum. The prices of food products also vary and fluctuate constantly which makes for an

unpredictable fuel source (21). Another significant drawback is the fact that there is simply not

enough room to sustain the number of biofuels that would be needed in order to switch over to

biodiesel 100 percent. A study found that the theoretical maximum yield of biofuels in the

United States is close to 96 billion gallons per year. However, the United States uses about 140

billion gallons of gasoline, 40 billion gallons of diesel and 20 billion gallons of jet fuel per year

(23). This makes it clear that biofuels will never be able to satisfy the needs of consumers. This

means that the world would need to continue using petroleum as well as biofuels. Additionally,

biodiesel has a lower crystallization temperature, which results in the need for a superior heating

system in biodiesel engines. Otherwise, the biodiesel will simply freeze and no long work

effectively.
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Algae are important for biofuels because they could solve the majority of the problems

that arise from other types of biodiesel. Biodiesel, made from algae, has a high lipid content and

a high per-acre productivity (23). Thus, farming algae to use for biofuels would provide more

energy in a smaller space than is required by traditional biofuels. It also can be produced in

places that are not typically utilized for agriculture and grown in different types of water such as

fresh, brackish, saline, and wastewater because of its diversified climate range (23). Additionally,

algae are not a major food source, therefore using them to form biodiesel will not interfere with

food production as other biofuels would. The only issues with an algae-based biodiesel are the

costs compared to petrodiesel and the fact that biofuels will freeze at approximately 32 degrees

Fahrenheit (23).

There has been a debate over the merits of using macroalgae verses microalgae for

biofuels. Most scientific research concurs that microalgae are much more efficient than their

macroalgae counterpart. Macroalgae, which grow in open water, either fresh or marine, consist

mainly of seaweeds (23). The Aquatic Species Program conducted research on macroalgae that

was ultimately dropped because of the significant challenges encountered, including harvesting

crops and fuel conversion. Alternatively, microalgae are unicellular photosynthetic

microorganisms, and can be found living in every part of the world (23). Microalgae can be

divided into two different types: eukaryotic algae and prokaryotic algae. Prokaryotic algae,

however, lack a necessary part of the biofuel process: triacylglycerols (TAGs). Without TAGs,

there can be no reaction process to form biodiesel (23).

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Figure 9: Percent Yields of Lipid Content from Different Algal Types

Of the various types of eukaryotic algae, green algae have been the most promising. They

are one of the most oleaginous, oil-rich, microalgae and can have up to 60 percent of their dry

weight transfer into oils. Green microalgae’s oils also have a high percentage of lipids which are

what can actually be turned into biofuels. As shown above in figure 9, green microalgae have a

higher percentage yield of lipid content from dry weight than other types of microalgae (23). This

is significant because a higher percentage yield equates to more fuel from a smaller amount of

algae.

A conservative, theoretical prediction estimates that using algae could produce 57 billion

gallons of biofuels per year. This is comparable to the total amount of biofuels that could be

produced by all other types of sources. Algae’s potential to produce biofuels could be improved

upon if there are new agricultural techniques utilized (23). Currently, there are two cultivation

models in use: open ponds and closed photobioreactors. Open ponds are simply open containers

filled with water. They provide the cheapest possible solution to harvesting algae; however, they

provide no protection against predators, weather, and pathogens. The simple design also limits
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water flow and causes some algae to get stuck in the shade (23). Closed photobioreactors, on the

other hand, are enclosed transparent shapes that either hang or lie on the ground. They protect

against outside forces, reduce water loss due to evaporation, and, because they have higher

surface to volume ratios, do not have the same self-shading problems that are caused by the open

ponds. However, closed photobioreactors have their own drawbacks. They are much more

expensive and have issues with heat and oxygen build up. This leads most algae farmers to

continue utilizing open ponds (23).

Even with all the benefits of algae, there are still some uncertainties that would need to be

accounted for before microalgal biodiesel can hope to compete with petrodiesel on a large scale.

First, the cultivation of the microalgae is difficult because, in order for it to be efficient, there

must be a larger quantity. This problem can be solved by centrifugation; however, this process is

considered too expensive and energy-intensive to be practical. Therefore, other methods such as

flocculation, using inorganic ions to make cells clump together, and dissolved-air flotation have

been used instead (23). Once the algae are cultivated, they must go through a process of extracting

the lipids before the biodiesel reaction can take place. This process of complicated steps,

illustrated in figure 10 below, would need to be streamlined in order to make the use of

microalgal biofuels practical. In order to create an economy that relies on algal biodiesels, the

extraction process would need to be made more cost-effective by streamlining the current

extraction methods. Current analyses predict the cost of algal biofuels to be between $1 per

gallon to $40 per gallon, depending on how optimistic or conservative the analysis was (23).

However, this cost would never be able to compete with the relative cheapness of petrodiesel.
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Figure 10: Full Cycle of Algal Biofuels

There is a wide variety of alga that affects the environment based on how the alga

evolved. The different alga can come together to form algal blooms. Algal blooms, which form

by increased water temperature due to sunlight, high nutrient levels, calm waters, and a limited

number of predators, can either be toxic or nontoxic. Toxic algal blooms, which are more

destructive than nontoxic algal blooms, secrete toxins and are therefore known as HABs.

Currently, there are three common methods of fighting HABs: biological, mechanical, and

chemical. However, the mechanical method is the safest and is currently being used by countries

dependent on fish markets, such as Korea. While algal blooms can cause severe damage to

the environment, they can also be used as a biofuel. Algal biofuels could be an important

solution to the current energy crisis because they provide a fuel source that doesn’t cause

pollution and doesn’t interfere with our current food processes. Microalgae in particular would

be useful because its small size allows for a large quantity to be grown in a smaller area than

conventional biofuels. In conclusion, the uses that alga provide for humans, such as biofuels,

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outweigh any of its negative effects, such as algal blooms. The world would not be able to

survive without this microscopic protist. 

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