Invited Review Paper

On the Wave Theory in Heat

M . N . Ozisik
Department of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering,
North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC 27695
D. Y. Tzou
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, NM 87131
Mem. ASME
Conduction
This work contains three major components: a thorough review on the research
emphasizing engineering applications of the thermal wave theory, special features
in thermal wave propagation, and the thermal wave model in relation to the mi-
croscopic two-step model. For the sake of convenience, the research works are
classified according to their individual emphases. Special features in thermal wave
propagation include the sharp wavefront and rate effects, the thermal shock phe-
nomenon, the thermal resonance phenomenon, and reflections and refractions of
thermal waves across a material interface. By employing the dual-phase-lag concept,
we show that the energy equation may be reduced to that governing the heat transport
through the metal lattice in the microscopic two-step model. The dual-phase-lag
concept can thus capture the microscopic mechanisms in some limiting cases.

Introduction
An equilibrium state in thermodynamic transition, in reality,
needs time to establish. For a physical process occurring in a
much shorter time interval than that required for attaining
equilibrium, the equilibrium concept becomes an approximate
description of the physical process. It is intriguing for sim-
plifying the analysis but may not yield satisfactory results.
Fourier's law in heat conduction is an example in hand. When
applied to the problem involving reflectivity change resulting
from short-pulse laser heating on gold films (Qiu and Tien,
1992), the diffusion theory, assuming an instantaneous re-
sponse and a quasi-equilibrium thermodynamic transition, pre-
dicts a reversed trend for the surface reflectivity when compared
to the experimental data. The response time in the type of
problem is on the order of picoseconds, comparable to the
phonon-electron thermal relaxation time. The metal lattice and
the hot electron gas simply cannot reach thermodynamic equi-
librium in such a short period of time, which is the main cause
for the failure of the diffusion theory. The diffusion theory
leads to ambiguous results even for simple problems like heat
propagation in a semi-infinite, one-dimensional solid. As shown
by Baumeister and Hamill (1969, 1971), the heat flux at the
driving end needs to be infinitely large to maintain a diffusion
behavior in the solid. Although Fourier's law may still be
sufficiently accurate for engineering problems under regular
conditions, the fundamental assumptions behind the model
need to be carefully examined when extended to problems
involving high-rate change of temperature.
A nonequilibrium description for the thermodynamic tran-
sition is the most important issue to be resolved in high-rate
heat transfer. Since heat flux is a natural consequence for a
nonequilibrium state, it has been accommodated in the fun-
damental state variables defining the irreversibility in ther-
modynamic transition (Jou et al., 1988; Tzou, 1993a). The
entropy (s) in a material volume for example, is a function of
internal energy (e), specific volume (v) (tranditional state vari-
ables for quasi-equilibrium), and heat flux (q). Mathemati-
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
HEAT TRANSFER. Manuscript received by the Heat Transfer Division October
1993; revision received March 1994. Keywords: Conduction, Reviews, Transient
and Unsteady Heat Transfer. Associate Technical Editor: Y. Bayazitoglu.
cally, s = s(e, v, q). Then the resulting entropy production
rate has the following form:
VT /3rq
E = q- (1)
with (3r being a positive constant (ds/dq = - vf$T<{/T) and T
measured in an absolute scale. To guarantee a positive-definite
value for E, a restriction to be followed for any physically
admissible process, a sufficient (but not necessary) condition
is
VT ,8 r q
(2)
'A'
with A being positive. The entropy production rate, conse-
quently, is simply lql 2 A4, which is positive definite. Alter-
nately, Eq. (2) can be re-arranged to give
q + r q = -kvT, with ^ = 7^2 an
d ?" = — - . (3)
The nonequilibrium effect lies in the coefficient of (3r- In the
case of fiT = 0 (ds/dq = 0), heat flux is dropped from the
state variables and Eq. (3) is reduced to Fourier's law of heat
conduction. Entropy degenerates into a function of internal
energy and specific volume alone and Eq. (1) for the entropy
production rate is reduced to the equilibrium version. Note
that the 1/T 2 behavior of thermal conductivity, and hence the
1/Tbehavior of the relaxation timeshown in Eq. (3), are special
cases resulting from the sufficient but not necessary condition,
Eq. (2). Should a more complicated functional relationship be
selected in Eq. (2) that also guarantees the positive-definiteness
of the entropy production rate, a more complicated functional
dependency of the thermal conductivity or the relaxation time
on temperature may result. The special result for thermal con-
ductivity derived in Eq. (3), however, corresponds to that for
pure metals (Eckert and Drake, 1972).
Accounting for the lagging response in time between the
heat flux vector and the temperature gradient, alternatively,
Tzou (1992a) provided a macroscopic formulation to describe
the nonequilibrium thermodynamic transition. Mathemati-
cally, this can be expressed by
q(r,t + T)=-kVT(r, t), (4)

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 with T being the phase-lag in time, an intrinsic thermal property moreover, Chester (1963) related the ratio o f r / a to the thermal
of the medium. Equation (4) shows that the temperature gra- wave speed
dient established at time t results in a heat flux vector at a later
time t + r due to insufficient time of response. In combining Cl (9)
with the energy equation,
A finite value for the thermal wave speed, therefore, is a direct
- V • q(r, 0 + S(r, f) = Cp ^ ~ , (5) consequence of the lagging response, which is a characteristic
in nonequilibrium in thermodynamic transition. Several in-
the physical quantities involved in Eq. (4) must be at the same vestigators, including Nettleton (1960), Chester (1963), Maurer
instant of time. For this purpose, Taylor's series expansion is (1969), and Francis (1972), made attempts to estimate the mag-
applied to Eq. (4) with respect to T, which gives nitude of the relaxation parameter r for engineering materials.
It appears that the magnitude of r ranges from 10" 10 s for
3q(r, 0 M
q(r, ?+r) = q(r, t) + T • l
- + o(T )=-kVT(r,t). (6) gases at standard conditions to 10~ s for metals, with values
dt of T for liquids and insulators falling in between. The thermal
5
Assuming that the phase-lag in time (T) is so small that the wave speed in metals, consequently, is on the order of 10 m/
second and higher order terms can be neglected, Eq. (6) is s from a sole material point of view. This is the threshold value
approximated by of the Fermi velocity.
In addition to the apparent heat source terrti in Eq. (8), the
q(r,/) + r ^ - ^ s - * V 7 X r , 0 (7) time-derivative of the real heat source due to the effect of finite
speed of heat propagation (Frankel, 1985), another special
which is identical to Eq. (3) derived from the nonequilibrium feature in the modified heat flux law (Eq. (7)) is better envi-
entropy production rate. The phase-lag in time is thus an al- sioned by a direct integration:
ternative view for the functional dependence of a physical state
on the heat flux vector in nonequilibrium thermodynamic tran-
sition.
Eliminating q from Eqs. (5) and (7), we obtain
q ( r , / ) = - ( - exp
01
exp VT(r,n)dn. (10)

According to this equation, the heat flux q at a certain time t

dS(r, t) depends on the entire history of the temperature gradient es-
V-kVT(r, 0 + S(r, t) + r tablished from 0 to t. The thermal wave theory, therefore,
dt presents a strong path dependency (Tzou, 1992a) of the tem-
8T(r, t) d2T(r, t) perature gradient rather than the point value (V Tat /) depicted
= C„ +T (8«) by Fourier's law.
dt dt2
For constant thermal conductivity, Eq. (8a) is further reduced
to An Overview of the Research
1 dS(T, t) Like other constitutive models in engineering, modifications
V 2 7(r, 0 + - S(r, t) + r on Fourier's law are motivated by its deficiencies in advanced
dt
applications. Especially in interdisciplinary research areas
1 f dT{t,t) 82T(t, t) where not only the temperature but also its gradient and time-
=— + T — rdt^1— • (8o) rate change are needed as an entirety, a slight ambiguity in
a dt heat conduction may result in significant deviations in the
where a is the thermal diffusivity. In absence of body heating coupled field response.
(S = 0). Eq. (8b) is the energy equation postulated by Maxwell Maxwell's research on the kinetic theory of gases (1867) has
(1867), Cattaneo (1958), Morse and Feshbach (1953), and Ver- had great influence on the development of the thermal wave
notte (1958, 1961). Equation (8£>) when compared to the dif- theory. Morse and Feshbach (1953) hypothesized, and Cat-
fusion equation, includes a wave term represented by (j/a) taneo (1958) and Vernotte (1958, 1961) argued for, the in-
d2T/dt2. Approaching from the collision theory of molecules, stantaneous propagation of thermal signals in solids. A finite

Nomenclature •

T = relaxation time, s
A = positive constant, WK/m r = distance away from the mov- fi = oscillating frequency of heat
C = thermal wave speed, m/s ing heat source or crack tip, source, 1/s
-'e, I, p = volumetric heat capacity, m co = modal frequency, 1/s
kJ/m 3 K T = temperature, K V = gradient operator
G = coupling factor of phonon- t = physical time, s
electron interactions, W / S = volumetric heat generation Subscripts and Superscripts
m3K rate, W/m 3 0 = initial value or room temper
f critical frequency = CVa s = entropy, kJ/kg K ature
h Planck's constant, Js v = speed, m/s • a = atoms
k thermal conductivity, a = thermal diffusivity, mVs D = Debye temperature
W/mK (3 = dimensionless time = C V 2 a e = electrons
K Boltzmann constant, J/K 5 = dimensional distance = I = metal lattice
M thermal Mach number = Cx/2a M = thermal Mach angle
v/C 6 = dimensionless temperature q = heat flux
n number density, 1/m3 = (T-T0y(Tw-T0) s = sound
3
q heat flux vector, W/m 2 p = mass density, kg/m T = temperature
Q volumetric laser heat source, E = entropy production rate, k J / 0
= d/dt = rate change in time
W/m 3 kgKs II = media I and II

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 wave speed was suggested on a more physical ground. Since
then, the deficiencies in the diffusion model for heat conduc-
tion and the need for a wave model accounting for the finite
speed of heat propagation have been examined from various
physical points of view. They are summarized in the following
categories.
1 Molecular Collision Models Established on the Basis of
Quantum Mechanical and Statistical Mechanics. Typical re-
search in this category is that by Klemens (1958), Grad (1958),
Ziman (1960), Chester (1963), Prohofsky and Krumhansl
(1964), Maurer (1969), Bubnov (1976), Berkovsky and Bash-
tovoi (1977), and Cheng (1989). In this approach, the kinetic
Boltzmann transport equation is used to extract macroscopic
quantities such as temperature from the distribution of mol-
ecules. It characterizes the macrosocpic properties such as ther-
mal diffusivity and thermal wave speed through the velocity
and frequency of molecular collisions.
2 The Irreversible and Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics.
As expected, the thermodynamic consideration for the wave
behavior in heat conduction is a major branch of research.
Advances being made include the extensions based on classical
Onsager thermodynamics (Nettleton, 1960; Kaliski, 1965; Lui-
kov and Berkovsky, 1974), examinations on the inequality of
the nonequilibrium entropy flow (Miiller, 1967a; Meixner,
1970; Green and Laws, 1972; Coleman et al., 1982; Lebon et
al., 1982), the evolution and stability of thermodynamic equi-
librium (Lebon and Casas-Vazquez, 1976; Bhattacharya, 1983;
Coleman et al., 1986) and introductions of additional state
variables for describing irreversible, thermodynamic transi-
tions (Miiller, 1967b; Lambermont and Lebon, 1973; Gyar-
mati, 1977; Casas-Vazquez et al., 1984; Jou et al., 1988; Ferrer
and Jou, 1991, Tzou, 1993a). The special feature of fading
memory in the history of thermal wave propagation was in-
tensively discussed by Coleman (1964), Gurtin and Pipkin
(1968), Nunziato (1971), andrecently by Tzou (1989a, b, 1992a,
1993a) for a more rigorous engineering assessment.
3 Causality Restrictions by the Special Theory of Relativ-
ity. The fact that any speed of a moving object, including
the thermal wave, must be less than the speed of light was
examined by Kelly (1968) for diffusion. By using the covariant
form of the Boltzmann transport equation, he showed that a
finite value of the thermal diffusivity cannot co-exist with an
infinite value of the thermal wave speed based on the same
velocity of molecular collisions. A similar argument on the
finiteness of the thermal wave speed was made by Van Kampen
(1970). Within the mainframe of the relativistic general for-
mulation for heat conduction, the energy equation is far more
complicated than the linear theory initiated by Vernotte, Cat-
taneo, and Morse and Feshbach. Addition of a wave term in
the classical diffusion only appears as a special case.
4 Analogy to the Random Walk Process for Discontinuous
Diffusion. Goldstein (1951) proposed the random walk model
with correlation for diffusion. Treating the diffusion problem
in the formalism of the random walk process, Weymann (1967)
showed that the infinite propagation velocity in heat conduc-
tion results from neglecting the atomistic struture of matters.
The modified form of the heat equation accounting for such
an effect gives the same hyperbolic equation for temperature
waves. Taitel's work (1972) extended the random walk concept
and proposed a discrete formulation for incorporating the wave
effect. The main purpose is to remove the overshooting phe-
nomenon of temperature upon impingement by the thermal
wavefront.
5 Implications From Microscale Heat Transfer. When
the characteristic dimension of a medium shrinks to the thresh-
old of the mean free path of phonons, as indicated by Flik
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and Tien (1990) and Flik et al. (1991), the microscopic behavior
of phonon scattering significantly influences the thermal be-
havior in heat conduction. Majumdar (1993), based on the
Boltzmann transport theory, developed an equation of phonon
radiative transfer (EPRT), which happens to be of the same
form as the equation of radiative transfer (ERT) for partici-
pating media. Hence, well-documented mathematical tech-
niques such those of Ozisik, (1973) and Siegel and Howell
(1982) can be used for their solutions. It is also shown that
the hyperbolic heat conduction equation can be derived from
EPRT only in the acoustically thick limit. Application of the
hyperbolic heat conduction equation to thin-film supercon-
ductors was made by Bai and Lavine (1991). Also, as sum-
marized later in this paper, interrelations between the
microscopic two-step model (Qiu and Tien, 1992) and the mac-
roscopic thermal wave model with a nonlocal response (Tzou
and Ozisik, 1992) and a dual-phase-lag (Tzou and Li, 1993a)
have been established. For metals, in addition to the macro-
scopic properties such as thermal conductivity and heat ca-
pacity, the thermal wave speed also depends on the microscopic
quantities such as the number densities of free electrons and
atoms in metal lattice.
6 Thermal Wave Propagation. Since the relaxation be-
havior is a special response in time, its physical essence has
been extensively explored by considering one-dimensional
problems in space. Baumeister and Hamill (1969, 1971) studied
the temperature wave in a semi-infinite solid subjected to a
suddenly applied temperature at the wall. Fauske (1973) and
Kazimi and Erdman (1975) investigated the interface temper-
ature for two suddenly contacting media. Maurer and Thomp-
son (1973) emphasized the importance of the wave effect in
response to a high heat flux irradiation. Chen (1969), Amos
and Chen (1970), and Bogy and Naghdi (1970) studied the rate-
dependent response in temperature waves. The effect of time-
rate change of the thermal wave speed was incorporated in the
model by Luikov et al. (1976). The temperature wave across
thin-film media was studied by Letcher (1969) and Kao (1977).
Wiggert (1977) studied the characteristic lines in thermal wave
propagation and Carey and Tsai (1982) made an attempt for
the finite difference formulation. Lindsay and Straughan (1976,
1978) considered the same problem as Chen's (1969) but re-
trieved the nonlinearity omitted in the linearized formulation.
Cylindrical waves were considered by Wilhelm and Choi (1975)
in metals. The finite signal speed in heat propagation was
shown admissible within the general E} invariant constitutive
equation for energy flux by DeFacio (1975). Joseph and Pre-
ziosi (1989, 1990) introduced notions of an effective thermal
conductivity and an effective heat capacity to interpret the
relaxation behavior of heat and energy. The research by Ozisik
and his colleagues (Vick and Ozisik, 1983; Ozisik, and Vick,
1984) predicts the growth and decay of a thermal pulse in one-
dimensional solid. The temperature ripple propagating with a
finite speed has finite height and width, which is similar to
that observed experimentally by Bertman and Sandiford (1970).
Penetration and reflection of thermal waves by interfaces in
composite media were studied (Frankel et al., 1986, 1987).
Also, Frankel et al. (1985) demonstrated that the flux-for-
mulation in the thermal wave theory is more convenient to use
for problems involving flux-special boundary conditions. The
effect of temperature-dependent thermal conductivity on the
propagation of thermal waves was studied for a semi-infinite
region 0<x<oo under different boundary conditions at x =
0 as well as for a pulsed energy source by Glass et al. (1986).
The propagation of thermal waves in an absorbing and emitting
medium was also studied (Glass et al., 1987b). The non-Fourier
response of a solid subjected to an oscillatory surface flux
corresponds to the practical situation of irradiation of a solid
by a pulse laser. Results show that non-Fourier effect is quite
significant (Human, 1986; Glass et al., 1987c) and furthermore
Transactions of the ASME
 the non-Fourier conduction effect can be important even at a
"long time" after the initial transient if the thermal disturbance T = To
is oscillatory with the period of oscillation of the same order
of magnitude as the thermal relaxation time (Yuen and Lee,
at t = 0
1989). The Stefan problem with a moving boundary and in
Tt = To
thermal wave formulation was analyzed by Sadd and Didlake
(1977), DeSocio and Gualtieri (1983), Showalter and Walk-
ington (1987), and Glass et al. (1987a, 1990). A two-dimen-
sional hyperbolic heat conduction due to axisymmetric
continous or pulsed surface heat sources was studied by Kim
et al. (1990). The thermal .wave characteristics in multidimen- -es=-
sional media were initiated by Tzou. The thermal shock for-
mation around a fast-moving heat source (Tzou, 1989a, b, X
1990c, 1991a) and a rapidly propagating crack tip (Tzou, 1990a,
b) provides similar situations to those in the high-speed aero-
dynamics. Subsonic, transonic, and supersonic temperature
waves exist in transition of the thermal Mach number. For the
dynamic crack propagation, several salient features in the tran-
sonic and supersonic waves have been observed in a recent
x= 0 A. —• J_/
experiment by Zehnder and Rosakis (1991). The thermal res-
onance phenomenon under frequency excitations (Tzou, 1991b, 1.6 i ' 1 ' I

c, 1992d, e) simply cannot be depicted by the diffusion behavior

in heat conduction. 1.4 ; /I
3.0// \ . ;
7 Constitutive Equations for the Thermal Wave Behav- 1.2
ior. Constitutions between the heat flux vector and the tem-
perature gradient are another major effort made in the 1.0 < 1.0
development of the thermal wave theory. Including the rate — ' . . • • ' '

form of the Jeffreys type and the Guyer and Krumhansl model <x> 0.8
for second sound propagation in dielectric materials, the ar- Go = 0 . 0 "•••..
ticles by Joseph and Preziosi (1989, 1990) provide a thorough 0.6
review for the broad research made in this direction.
0.4
8 The Coupling Behavior. Coupling of the thermal re- • i
laxation behavior with the mass and momentum transfer in 0.2
fluidlike structures has been studied. Typical examples are the (a) ;
works by Choi and Wilhelm (1976) for fully ionized electron- 0.0.
ion in plasma. Lindsay and Straughan (1978) for perfect fluids, 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
and Sieniutycz (1977,1979,1981) and Roetman (1975) for mass
transport. For deformation in one-dimensional solids, the ther-
s
moelastic formulation coupled with the thermal wave effect
inlcude the works by Ward and Wilks (1952), Lord and Shul- 1.5
man (1967), Popov (1967), Achenbach (1968), Norwood and 8 = 0.5
Warren (1969), Nayfeh and Nemat-Nasser (1971, 1972a, b),
Adnan and Nayfeh (1972), Atkins et al. (1975), Kao (1976),
Nayfeh (1977), and Ignaczak (1978). Two-dimensional prob-
lems with emphasis on the effects of thermal shock waves were 1.0
advanced by Tzou (1989c, d, 1992a, b) and Tzou and Li (1993b,
c).

Special Features in Thermal Wave Propagation

A general criterion for the dominance of wave behavior over
diffusion was proposed by Tzou (1989a, b, 1992a):
dT ToC2 cV
dt »
2a e x p ( -
(ii)
with T0 being the reference temperature. This criterion includes
the combined effect of thermal properties (a and Q , the ther-
mal loading and response conditions (dT/dt and T0) and the
transient time (0 in the physical process. For heat transfer
occurring in an extremely short period of time (small value of
t) or that with an extremely high rate of temperature increase
(large value of dT/dt), the wave behavior may become pro-
nounced regardless of the value of T0. In this section we sum-
marize the existing solutions to distinguish the nonequilibrium
(predicted by the wave theory) from the equilibrium (predicted
by the diffusion model) temperatures. The differences between
the two models, indeed, reveal the physical phenomena to be
expected should the temperature rate continue to increase in
real applications.
0.5 -
(b)
0.0.
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Fig. 1 Thermal waves propagating in a one-dimensional solid bounded
by x = 0 and L:(a) effect of initial temperature rate on the thermal wave
patterns at /3 = 0.4; (fa) temperature response at the middle point of the
solid ((5 = 0.5) for 0</3<3. Dimensionless variables: 5 = Cxl2a, ff =
Ct 2/2«, 6 = (T - T0)I(T„ - T0), and 0O = 2at0IC2(T„ - T0).
(a) Sharp Wavefront and Rate Effect. A sharp wavefront
is a special feature in thermal wave propagation. Figure 1
illustrates this behavior by considering a one-dimensional me-
dium carrying two thermal waves emanating from the bound-
aries at x = 0 and L. The sharp wavefront is located at x =

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 10
A5 = 0.02 :
A8 = 0.01
10 p = o.s r-l
0 = 1.3
P = 1.7

<X> 1

-
(c)
0.1.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 '0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
8

10
AS = 0.02 ;

P = 0.3 P = 0.7

03 1

(b)
0.10.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
5 8
Fig. 2 Propagation ol wave packets resulting from an energy pulse with a finite width: (a) case with A6
0.01 at fi = 0.5. Transmitted and reflected patterns at (Z>) 0 = 0.3 and 0.7, (c) 0 = 1.3 and 1.7, and (d) 0
2.3 and 2.7. AS = C(Ad)/2« with Ad being the width of the energy pulse.

Ct or 5 = j8. For £ = 0.4, a representative instant of time, the heat source are shown by Figs. 3(Z?) (for diffusion with
the two wavefronts are located at 5 = 0.4 (emanating from C— oo and M—0) to 3(e) for M = 2. The heat source is located
the left wall) and 5 = 0.6 (from the right wall). The dotted at (0, 0), origin of the material coordinates (Xu X2). While
curve with a zero initial rate of temperature (60) is Taitel's temperature contours in the subsonic region (M = 0.5 in Fig.
solution (1972). When the temperature rate increases, the tem- 3(c)) bear some resemblance to those in diffusion (Fig. 3(b)),
perature level increases and may exceed the wall temperature normal and oblique shock waves, respectively, exist at the
as exemplified by the curve with 60 = 3 as shown in Fig. 1(«). transonic (M = 1, Fig. 3(d)) and in the supersonic (M = 2,
The two wavefronts meet at the middle point at 5 = /3 = 0.5. Fig. 3(e)) region. For M > 1, the shock surface is located at
Impingement of two wavefronts induces a high temperature at angle of du = sin - ' (1/M) measuring from the trailing edge
rate 6 of approximately 42. Owing to such high-rate heating, of the heat source. For M = 2, for example, the thermal shock
temperature (6) at the middle point shoots up to 1.2 at /3 = angle is 30 deg. When the shock surface is approached from
0.5 as shown by Fig. 1(b). Since then the two wavefronts travel the heat affected zone, as shown by Fig. 3(d) for M = 1, and
back and forth in the solid and meet subsequently at /3 = 1.5, dM = 90 deg and 3(e) for M = 2 and 6M - 30 deg, the isotherms
2.5, etc. The temperature rate changes sign at /3 = 1.5 to collapse together, which induces a large temperature gradient
negative (cooling) and switches to heating again at /3 = 2.5. in the neighborhood of the thermal shock waves. This moti-
The overall shooting behavior to temperature argued by Taitel, vates the research on the thermoelastic failure around an in-
indeed, results from the effect of temperature rate, which is tensified fast-moving energy source (Tzou, 1989d, 1992b).
admissible within the framework of the thermal wave model. Thermal shock formation around a rapidly propagating crack
Such a rate effect is pertinent to the wave theory because the tip has a similar structure (Tzou, 1990a, b). The thermal shock
diffusion model cannot allow a specification on the time rate angle, for example, is sin -1 (1/M) measuring from the trailing
change of temperature. edge of the crack tip. In transition from the heat-affected zone
Wave packets resulting from a finite-width pulse were stud- to the thermally undisturbed zone across the shock surface,
ied by Vick and Ozisik (1983). The finite width of a pulse however, a finite jump of temperature of 4(T)0 results. At the
induces a more localized temperature with a large gradient in transonic and in the supersonic regions with M > 1, moreover,
the neighborhood of the thermal wavefront, as shown by Fig. singularity of the temperature gradient (Tzou, 1991d-f) van-
2(a) for A5 = 0.01. This localized phenomenon in heat prop- ishes at the crack tip. Comparisons of transonic and supersonic
agation was observed in the experiment by Peshkov (1944), temperatures waves with experimental observations were sum-
which cannot be pictured by diffusion. For a wider energy marized in a series of recent papers by Tzou (1992c, f, g).
pulse with A5 = 0.02 (Ozisik and Vick, 1984), Figs. 2(b) to
2(d) show the continuous patterns of transmitting and reflected
thermal waves between the two boundaries at 8 = 0 and 1. (c) Thermal Resonance. Similar to displacement waves
The arrows represent the directions of wave propagation at in mechanical vibrations, the wave amplitude of temperature
may display a resonance phenomenon under proper conditions.
different instants of time. Intensity of the thermal wave decays
due to the effect of diffusion. For a one-dimensional solid subjected to the excitation of an
externally applied heat source oscillating at a frequency Q, this
(b) Thermal Shock Formation. The thermal energy tends spacial behavior has been analytically demonstrated by Tzou
to accumulate in a preferential direction around a rapidly mov- (1991b, c, 1992d, e). The resonance frequency of temperature
ing heat source (Tzou, 1989a, b). Characterizing by the thermal depends on the wave mode being excited. For the wave mode
Mach number M (=v/Q, temperature contours surrounding with modal frequency of « = 5/, 1(f), and 10/, exemplified

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 (b) M=0
material coordinates
convecting with
the heat source
X2 A
XO.o

Xi
-D>
M = v/C
(a)

(c) M=0.5 (d) M=l (e)M=2

XO.o
X °°

3 8
J ! » .
.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0
x>
Fig. 3 (a) The material coordinates (X,, X2) convecting with the heat source. X, = i>^l2a and X2 = v|2/2«
with (£,, £2) being the material coordinates with dimensions. Temperature contour pattern around a moving
heat source for (b) M = 0 (diffusion theory), (c) M = 0.5 (subsonic), (d) M = 1 (transonic), and (e) M = 2
(supersonic). The heat source is located at (0, 0).

i Q t a modal frequency larger than the critical value of 0.64359/

Q«e can be excited to resonate. The wave modes lower than this
critical mode consume all the externally supplied energy by
diffusion and no resonance could occur. Should the resonance
phenomenon be produced in the laboratory and the resonance
frequency be measured experimentally, most importantly, the
thermal wave speed can be calculated analytically. Since such
a frequency approach does not rely on the fast response of
thermal devices recording arrival of the thermal wavefront, it
1.2 could be used as an alternative in determining the thermal wave
speed for engineering materials.
modal frequency (d) Reflection, Refraction and Transmission of Thermal
G>* = 10 Waves. Wave behavior may disappear when transmitting
across an interface between dissimilar materials (Tzou, 1993b).
For a thermal shock wave emanating from a rapidly moving
heat source in medium II, as shown in Fig. 5, the wave behavior
can be retained only in the shaded area where M(I1)2 - M(,)2 < 1.
M(I) and M(II) here, respectively, refer to the thermal Mach
number in medium I and medium II. Mathematically, M<0 =
v/Cm for i = 1,11. This condition implies that C(1) (the thermal
wave speed in medium (I)) must be greater than C(II) (the
thermal wave speed in medium (II)) to maintain the wave
behavior after refraction. The thermal energy transmitted to
the interface from medium II, in other words, must be carried
away at a faster rate in medium I otherwise diffusion would
take place as a result of energy accumulation.
5 10 15 20
Interrelations With the Microscopic Two-Step Model
exciting frequency Q>* When the response time becomes extremely short, say com-
Fig. 4 Thermal resonance in a one-dimensional solid subject to the
parable to the phonon-electron relaxation time, heat transfer
excitation of an oscillatory body heat source. The resonance curves for through the microstructures must be taken into account. The
u* = 5, 7, and 10. [</, SI*] = [u, il]lf with f = C 2/<*. microscopic two-step model (Anisimov et al., 1974; Fujimoto
et al., 1984; Brorson et al., 1987, 1990; Elsayed-Ali et al.,
1987; Elsayed-Ali, 1991; Qiu and Tien, 1992), for example,
respectively in Fig. 4, the amplitudes of temperature waves considers the excitation of electron gas and the metal-lattice
reach maximum values at particular values of 0. Unlike the heating by phonon-electron interactions as a two-step process.
other waves, however, the temperature wave is highly disper- The two processes are coupled through the phonon-electron
sive due to the effect of diffusion. Only the wave mode with coupling factor. Mathematically, they are described by

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 erties such as the number densities of free electrons and atoms
in the metal lattice. In addition to a wave term, clearly, the
medium (I) phonon-electron interaction introduces a mixed-derivative
term, which dominates over the wave behavior and diffusion.
medium (II) Equation (15) is derived on a microscopic basis, which may
be somewhat difficult for practical engineers to follow. An
sin- 1 (1/M<">) immediate question thus arises: Does a macroscopic descrip-
tion exist that correlates to the microscopic effect of phonon-
electron interactions? Bearing in mind the wave term in Eq.
M<"> > 1 (15), a possible way is to introduce the dual-phase-lag concept
in the generalized thermal wave theory (Tzou and Li, 1993a):
q(r, t + Tq)= - 4 v r ( r , t + rT). (17)
Expanding Eq. (17) with respect to t and retaining only the
first-order terms i n w ' , we have
dq(r, 0
q(r, 0 + T, ~-k VT{v,t) + TT- VT(r,/) (18)
dt at
It is the corresponding expression to Eq. (7) employing a single
phase-lag (rq). When combined with Eq. (5) (the energy equa-
tion) and eliminating the heat-flux vector q, a single equation
results:

(19)
dty ' a dt dt12
a ><
With T representing the macroscopic lattice temperature, a
direct comparison of Eqs. (15) and (19) yields
r
C, <
1 J_' ]_ - '
TT = and T„ = (20)
G Ce C)
In the absence of body heating and assuming constant thermal
properties, therefore, the microscopic two-step model lies
within the framework of the generalized thermal wave theory
Fig. 5 Penetration of thermal shock waves through a material interface employing the dual-phase-lag concept. More rigorous ap-
and retainment of the wave behavior after refraction (the shaded area proaches are currently ongoing to establish a general corre-
in the state space of M(1) and M(ll)) lation between the two models. The wave theory employing
the concept of nonlocality (Ozisik and Tzou, 1992; Tzou and
Li, 1993a), for example, is another possibility.
37}
= V-(kVTe)-G(Te~T,) (12)
dt The Experimental Evidence for the Wave Behavior
C,'~=G(Te-Tl). A rigorous, direct experimental evidence for the thermal
(13)
at wave behavior at room or elevated temperature is not available
yet. In detecting the rise time of the surface reflectivity at the
Note that diffusion is assumed for heat conduction in the
back surface of a gold thin film subjected to the irradiation
electron gas. The coupling factor G, within the limit of Wied-
of a short-pulse laser from the front surface, however, the
ljemann-Frenz's approximations, is given by (Qiu and Tien,
pump-and-probe experimental technique has shown that the
1992)
average heat-transport velocity of the electron gas in pure
metals in on the order of 106 m/s (Figs. 2 and 3 in the work
G= k with „, = — (6*\rmTD. (14) of Brorson et al., 1987). Since the temperature of the metal
lattice remains undisturbed in this time frame of picoseconds,
In Eq. (15), vs is the speed of sound and h is Planck's constant. the thermal wave speed for heat transport through the metal
Since temperature of the metal lattice is of primary concern lattice seems to be lower than the threshold value of 106 m/s.
to practical engineers, we may eliminate the temperature of A precise value for such a macroscopic thermal wave speed
the electron gas (7C) from Eqs. (12) and (13). Assuming con- among the metal lattice, unfortunately, is impossible at this
stant thermal properties, 1 this results in (Tzou and Li, 1993a) stage due to insufficient information in the existing experi-
v2T+^l(v2T)_idT[+±d^T[ mental results emphasizing the two-step process of heat trans-
VT,+ (15) port. It is informative, however, that the impurities existing
c?dt(vTt)-a dt+(? dt"
among the metal lattices would further slow down the thermal
where wave speed.
, Short-pulse laser processing on thin-film structures reveals
kG another possibility for the activation of the thermal wave be-
and C= (16)
Ce + C, CeCi havior under regular conditions. For a protecting layer coated
are the equivalent thermal diffusivity (a) and thermal wave onto the surface of a silicon steel sheet (Li, 1992; Li et al.,
1993) subject to the irradiation of a laser beam with pulse
speed ( Q . They are expressed in terms of microscopic prop-
duration of 100 ns, for example, the early surface burn-out
and the one-third-of-thickness thermal penetration depth are
'Heat capacity of the electron gas increases with temperature in reality. A two special features observed in their experiment. According
constant value is assumed here for establishing the interrelations with the gen- to the diffusion theory, however, the surface temperature is
eralized thermal wave theory in the simplest case. far lower than the melting temperature of the coating layer,

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 while the thermal penetration depth predicted by diffusion is
approximately 0.7 percent of the thickness. These results sig-
nificantly contradict those observed experimentally. Employ-
ing the thermal wave theory, on the other hand, the surface
temperature is on the order of 102 to 103°C for the transient
response in microseconds, which explains the observed phe-
nomenon of early surface burn-out. The qualitative, one-di-
mensional analysis (Li et al., 1993) also showed that the
reflection and transmission of thermal waves across the inter-
face between the coating layer and the silicon steel substrate
is the main cause for the.much deeper penetration depth.
Conclusion
Transition from diffusion to wave behavior in heat con-
duction involves more than a simple switch from a parabolic
to a hyperbolic equation. The nonequilibrium temperature re-
sulting from the phase-lag effect (thermal relaxation behavior)
has many salient features that the diffusion model assuming
equilibrium cannot describe. The sharp wavefront in thermal
wave propagation, the thermal shock formation, and the tem-
perature resonance under frequency excitations, for example,
are pertinent to the wave theory. The traditional thermal wave
model is believed to be suitable for capturing small-scale re-
sponse in time. Through the correlation to the microscopic
two-step model, Eqs. (15), (16), (19), and (20), we see that the
dual-phase-lag concept in Eq. (17) or (18) might capture some
small-scale response in space as well. While high-rate heating
gradually becomes a major concern in modern industries, this
finding is fairly encouraging for the continuous development
of such a generalized phase-lag concept. At this point, unfor-
tunately, there exists no precise criterion dictating which model
should be intrigued under what time rate of temperature in-
crease. Roughly speaking in the time frame, it seems that
diffusion behavior comes first, the wave behavior follows and
then the phonon-electron interaction comes into the picture
should the response time continuously decrease. In the absence
of a quantitative criterion, various research emphasizing dif-
ferent aspects of the thermal wave behavior is to reveal the
physical phenomena to be expected should the heating-rate
continue to increase.
Within the framework of the thermal wave theory, full ex-
pansions into the nonlinear regimes of r (refer to Eqs. (7) and
(18)) are possible. However, it is our opinion that finding the
engineering environment in which the thermal wave behavior
is illuminative by the linear theory and searching for more
experimental evidences for the wave behavior in heat conduc-
tion are the two most important challenges to the researchers
in the field. A significant breakthrough, for example, would
be the establishment of an engineering table for the thermal
wave speed in engineering materials. The resonance frequency
in relation to the thermal wave speed and the thermal shock
angle in relation to the permanent damage induced in solids
reflect this attempt well.
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