The Life of the Mind and a Life of Meaning: Reflections on "Fahrenheit 451"

Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury

Review by: Rodney A. Smolla
Michigan Law Review, Vol. 107, No. 6, 2009 Survey of Books Related to the Law (Apr., 2009),
pp. 895-912
Published by: The Michigan Law Review Association
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 THE LIFE OF THE MIND AND A LIFE OF
MEANING: REFLECTIONS ON
FAHRENHEIT 451

RodneyA. Smolla*

Fahrenheit 451. By Ray Bradbury.1953. New York:Del Rey Books. 2003

ed. Pp. 190. $6.99.

I. The Future Is Not What It Used to Be

The futureis not what it used to be. Ray Bradbury'sclassic novel,

Fahrenheit451, publishedin 1953, is a culturaltimemarker,helpingus to
locate thepast,evaluatethepresent,and imaginethefuture.Fahrenheit451
stillvexes our conscienceand consciousness,just as otherimaginativetime
markersdo- GeorgeOrwell's novel 1984,] or StanleyKubrick'sfilm2001:
A Space Odyssey,2 or thelyricsfromPrince's1982 funkclassic 7999:
gota bomb,
Yeah,everybody's
Wecouldall dieanyday
I letthathappen
Butbefore
FU dancemylifeaway

likeit's1999[.]3
Fm gonnaparty
So tonight
When filmmakerMichael Moore chose the title for his muckraking
movie,Fahrenheit9/11,3.scathingattackon PresidentGeorgeW. Bush and
the war on terrorism,he deliberatelyconjureda play on the titleof Ray
Bradbury'sclassic novel and evoked the novel's statusas a culturaltime
marker.4 The temperature451 degreesFahrenheitis, forBradbury, thetem-
for
peratureat whichbooks burn; Moore, according to his movie tagline,it
where
is "[t]hetemperature freedom burns."5

* Dean and Roy L. Steinheimer, and Lee University

Jr.Professorof Law, Washington
SchoolofLaw.
1. George Orwell, 1984(1949).
2. 2001: A Space Odyssey(Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
1968).
3. Prince, 7999,on 1999 (WarnerBros. 1982).
4. Fahrenheit 9/11 (Dog Eat Dog Films2004).
5. Ray Bradbury didnotfindtheallusionflattering.
Bradburystrongly Moorefor
criticized
his novel's title.See LawrenceVan Gelder,ArtsBriefing:Michael Moore vs. Ray
appropriating
N.Y. Times,June22, 2004,at E2.
Bradbury,

895

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896 Michigan Law Review [Vol. 107:895

Fahrenheit451 stillspeakstous,vibrantly stillhaunts

andpassionately,
andvexesanddisturbs. Thenovelhas soldmillions ofcopies,was resetfor
a fiftieth
anniversary andcontinues
printing, tobe assignedreadingin mid-
dle school,highschool,andcollegecourses.6 Thatpowerto endureis well
worthcontemplation, bothforwhatit saysaboutRay Bradbury's literary
imagination,and,morepowerfully, forwhatit teachesus aboutourrecent
past,ourpresent,andourownimagined future.FirstAmendment jurispru-
dencehastakengiantleapssinceFahrenheit 451 waswritten,andAmerican
societyhas managedto avoidtheworstofthecensorship horrorsthenovel
described.
Yet we havenotbeen so fortunate in overcomingmanyof the
otherdemonsof modernity thatBradbury revealed.Overwhelmed by the
frenetic and
speed hypnotic of
appeal digital and virtual we
realities, neglect
genuinehumanrelationships; we rushpastthepreciousphysicaland sen-
sorymoments thatbringsubstance to ourbeing;we struggle to findthe
for
quietude genuine reflection,
peace,and a lifeofthemind.

A. A TaleofApocalypse
andRedemption

Thenovelis presented through thepointofviewofitscentral character,

GuyMontag,whoseoccupation is "fireman."Thoughwe arenevertoldthe
preciseyearinwhichtheactiontakesplace,Bradbury hintsthatitis thelate
twentieth orearlytwenty-first century. Themenaceofwarandnuclearcon-
flagration permeates thenovel."We'vestarted and wontwoatomicwars
since1990"(p. 73), thenarrator explains.Nowthebombers areintheairat
all times(p. 73).
Butwhilethebombers arealwaysin theair,andthefiremen arealways
on alert,thefiremen ofFahrenheit 451 do notputoutfires.Instead, theyset
them.Homeshaveall beenfireproofed; theonlyfiresnowaretheonesthe
firemen ignite(p. 34). Theystart themtoburnbooks,whichhavebeenban-
ishedfromsociety.Booksarenowcontraband, likemarijuana, cocaine,or
counterfeit currency; whenthefiredepartment is alertedthatsomebook-
lovingcriminal is secretly
holdinga volumeor twoor twenty, thefiremen
aredispatched to incineratetheoffending material.As Montagdescribes it:
"It'sfinework.MondayburnMillay,Wednesday Whitman, FridayFaulkner,
burn'emtoashes,thenburntheashes.That'sourofficial slogan"(p. 8).
Manyadvancesintechnology aid thefiremen intheirtask.Surveillance
andmonitoring devicesblanket thecity.The MechanicalHound,a robotic
beastwithprodigious powersofdetection, speed,anddestruction, sniffsout
offenders fortheburning. TheMechanical Houndis ruthless andinsentient,
all wiresandcircuits andelectricity,
butitstillseemstohaveacquiredcon-
sciousnessof some kind - a malevolent will thatis morethanmerely
mechanical - andis seemingly invincible(pp.24-26).
Commercial advertisingand politicalpropaganda are as ubiquitous as
thescreeching bombers. Roadsidebillboards aretwohundred feetlongbe-
causethecarsracebyso fasttheyhadtobe stretched outtobe read(p. 9).

6. A Conversation
withRayBradbury,
pp. 180-84.

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 897

Montagbeginsthe novel ostensiblyproudof his professionand settled

in life,butwe soon findthatthereis disquietbeneaththesurface.His mar-
riage to Mildredis less thanideal, notablybecause she spendsmostof her
timemesmerizedby the "televisors" - large flat-screen televisionsthatoc-
cupy entirewalls of thehouse,creatingmassivewhole-roomentertainment
centers(pp. 20-22). The Montags have managed to purchasethese wall
screensforthreeof theirfourrooms,apparentlygoing intoa bit too much
consumer debt to satisfyMildred's need for this electronic stimula-
tion.Millie and her girlfriends regularlygatherfor evening martinisto
watchtheirfavoriteshows, which appearto be formsof realityTV (pp. 93-
94). But the conversationbetween Millie and her friendshas no snap,
crackle,or sex appeal. Millie is no Sarah JessicaParker,and the martini
hourat the Montagsis no Sex and the City.Montag is exasperatedat the
vacuous qualityof thelifethatMillie and herfriendslive. Bradbury'sbril-
liantportrait of a societygone plasticseems even to anticipatebotox: "The
comfortablepeople want only wax moon faces, poreless,hairless,expres-
sionless"(p. 83).
Millie also uses an abundanceof happypills,withtheapparentblessing
of society,and one nightMontagcomes homefromworkto findhernearly
dead froman overdose(pp. 11-14). He calls thehigh-techparamedics.The
poisons are pumpedout and the restorative medicinespumpedin (pp. 14-
16). The nextmorningMillie awakes cheerilyreadyforanotherday of chat-
tytelevisorfun(pp. 18-20).
Millie's brushwithdeathcauses Montagpangsof doubtand uncertainty
about life's meaning.Millie and Montagdon't talk much anymore,nor do
theyseem to touchor connect.Even thememoriesof theirsharedlifehave
faded- Montagcan't rememberwheretheymet.At thesame time,Montag
feels an incipientcreepingof doubt about his job. He is startingto have
questionsof curiosityand conscience.
A younggirlwhomMontagmeetson his way homefromworkone eve-
ning, Clarisse McClellan, also spurs much of this self-doubt.She is
ebullient,irreverent, alive,and deliriouslysubversive.Montagis so anesthe-
tizedto life'ssensationsthathe barelyrecognizeswhatwe readerssee pretty
quickly.He developsan instantcrushon Clarisse;thereare stirrings of love,
of
of humanconnection, talking, and above all, listening."Nobodylistens
of
any more,"Montag complains. "I can't talk to the walls because they're
yellinga[t] me. I can't talkto my wife: she listens to thewalls" (p. 82).
Clarisseis a bitfresh about Montag's life as a fireman. "I heardonce that
a long timeago houses used to burn by accident and they needed firemen to
stoptheflames," she chides the
(p. 8). Clarisse,bucking culture, is turnedon
bythestimulations of natureandthejoys of thesenses.She tantalizesMontag
withthesmelland feeland colorof a dandelion(pp. 21-22). She revealshow
old leaves smelllikecinnamon(p. 29). She lovesto walkin therainand savor
itsflavor."Rain eventastesgood,"she tellsMontag(p. 21). Clarissewonders
whytheartifacts of cultureseem so disconnectedfromthe senses,fromhu-
man sensibility, fromhuman stories.The art in museumsis all abstract,

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898 Michigan Law Review [Vol. 107:895

Clarisselaments. She has beentoldthatoncetheyactually"saidthingsor

evenshowedpeople"(p. 31).
Montag'sgathering crisisofconscience, however, is notfedonlybydis-
illusionment with his emptymarriageor enchantment with Clarisse:
Montag'sjob is getting to him.Matters becomeespeciallyroughwhenhis
assignments cause himto go fromburning booksto burning people.The
triggering incident is a calltooneparticularly nefarious bookcollector, who
has pilesofvolumessecreted awayin an attic.The firemen burnthebooks
withkerosene, thenburnthehouse,andthenburntheoccupant. As thismar-
tyrto literature prepares to die,she criesoutthat"we shallthisdaylight
sucha candle"(p. 36).As Montaglaterlearns,sheis referencing a statement
madebythe"Oxford Martyrs"7 as theywerebeingburnt aliveforheresy in
sixteenth-century Oxford:"Weshallthisdaylighta candle,byGod'sgrace,
inEngland, as I trust shallneverbe putout"(p. 40).
Withhisworldinchaos,Montagstarts committing theultimate offense.
Whencalledtobook-burning scenes,Montagbeginstoclandestinely rescue
booksinsteadof burning them,secreting awaythepurloined volumesand
hidingtheminhishome.
Montag'slifecrisisdoesnotgo undetected. His wifeis disturbed. So is
hisboss- thenovel'svillain - FireChiefBeatty. Beattysenseswhatis go-
ingon; he's seenithappenbefore, tootherfiremen. Beattyseekstomentor
Montag,"Where'syourcommonsense?"Beattychides."None of these
booksagreewitheachother. You'vebeenlockedup hereforyearswitha
regular damned TowerofBabel"(p. 38).
ButMontagis curiousabouthowthebookburning began,andBeatty
cautiously seeksto satiatethatcuriosity. It did notbeginwiththegovern-
ment,he explainscheerily. It beganwiththepeople:"It didn'tcomefrom
theGovernment down.Therewas no dictum, no declaration, no censorship,
to startwith,no! Technology, massexploitation, andminority pressure car-
riedthetrick, thankGod"(p. 58). Beattymakesmuchoftheroleoffactions
andminorities, andtheneedtoavoidinciting themwiththeprovocative and
offensive ideasthatappearinbooks."Youmustunderstand thatourciviliza-
tionis so vastthatwe can'thaveourminorities upsetandstirred" (p. 59).
Beattyis candidin explaining howit all happened, firstwithphotography,
thenmotionpictures, radio,and television. "Thingsbeganto havemass"
(p. 54). Books originally appealed to a few people.But thentherewere
manymoreeyes and ears. "Filmsand radios,magazines,booksleveled
downto a sortofpastepudding norm,do youfollowme?"(p. 54). Every-
thingbecamecondensed, withclassicscutto fifteen minutes, thento two
(p. 54). Beattyelaborates ontheunremitting assaultoffast-paced electronic
images.Moviesmovetoo fast:"Click,Pic, Look,Eye,Now,Flick,Here,
There,Swift, Pace, Up,Down,In, Out,Why, How,Who,What,Where, Eh?
Uh! Bang! Smack!Wallop,Bing,Bong,Boom!"(p. 55). Beattyalso warns
Montagofthefutility ofresistance, reminding himthat"[a]nyman'sinsane
whothinks hecanfoolthegovernment andus" (p. 33).

7. D.M. Loades, The Oxford Martyrs (Stein& Day 1970).

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 899

DespiteBeatty'swarnings, Montagis determined to resistandto break

out.He strikes up a dangerous friendship withan old mannamedFaber,
another of thenovel'sheroes,a retired Englishprofessor whowas thrown
outofworkwhenthelastliberal-arts collegediedfromlackofstudents and
patronage (p. 75). Faberis thenovel'swisesage.He laments thedisappear-
anceofnewspapers, whichheremembered "dyinglikehugemoths"(p. 89).
He laments evenmorethedeclinein thequalityofinformation, theloss of
leisuretimetodigestit,andthelossoftheright to "carry outactionsbased
onwhatwe learnfrom theintersection ofthefirst two"(pp.84-85).
WhenMontagchallenges Faber,arguing thatpeopledo havea lotoffree
timetopursuethegoodlife,Faberdistinguishes between freetimeandqual-
itytime.Wehaveplenty oftimeoff,he asserts, butnotenoughtimetothink
(p. 84). Fabersayswe need"leisure," explaining howelectronic masscul-
tureis destroying thelifeofthemind,andaltering lifeitself, causingus to
confuse electronic reality (orvirtual realitytous) andreality reality:
Off-hours, yes.Buttimetothink? Ifyou're notdriving a hundred milesan
hour, ata clipwhere youcan'tthink ofanything elsebutthedanger, then
you're playing somegameorsitting insomeroomwhere youcan'targue
with thefour-wall televisor.Why? Thetelevisor is "real." Itis immediate,
ithasdimension. Ittellsyouwhat tothink andblasts itin.Itmust beright.
Itseemsso right. Itrushes youonso quickly toitsownconclusions your
mind hasn'ttime toprotest, (p.84)
Montag, enlisting Faberas hisally,decidestorebel,taking tothestreets
as a kindof guerrilla freedom-fighter. Beatty, with storm troopers andthe
Mechanical Houndas support, arrives atMontag'shometo arrest andanni-
hilatehim.But Montag,nowturned rebel-action-hero, is able to turnthe
tableon hispursuers. In a dramatic showdown, Montaghas Beattyat gun
point, but time is running out,as the Hound and the othertroopers closein.
Montag must either kill Beatty or be killed. his
Montagpoints incinerating
weapon athischief.Facinghisdeath,Beattydefiantly recitesShakespeare:
" There is no Cassius, in threats,for I am arm'dso strong in
terror, your "
that
honesty theypass me as an idle wind, which I respect not!' (p. 119). It
is a curiousspeechforthecensor-in-chief, and one sensesthata partof
Beattyactually wantsto die- as ifthehonesty withwhichhe is "arm'd"is
thehonesty ofconfession andremorse.
Montagmanagesto avoidcaptureandescapethecity,floating downa
rivertothecountryside. He washesashore,exhausted andinjured, andfinds
a campfullofotherfreedom- andbook-loving exiles,livinglikegypsiesoff
theland.Manyof themenat thecampare former university professors,
writers in theirownright(p. 150).To savecivilization, each memorizes a
a
book, philosopher,writer,a or "bits and of
pieces history and literature
andinternational law" (p. 152).Aristophanes, Einstein, Confucius, Darwin,
Schopenhauer, Gandhi,Buddha, Jefferson, Lincoln, even Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John (p. 151). Montag draws The Book of Ecclesiastes, an as-
signment he shares with a man in Youngstown (p. 150-51). Montagis
comforted by the men, their their
friendship, righteous cause,theirstrong

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900 Michigan Law Review [Vol.107:895

coffee, theirfood,thesmelloftheforest, thewarmth ofthefire.The sensa-

tionsarephysical, liketheywerewithClarisse.Theconversation is genuine.
He learnsthatthegovernment hadlargely lefttheintellectual vagabonds
alone,dismissing themas a fewcrackpots withversesin theirbrains."So
longas thevastpopulation doesn'twanderaboutquotingtheMagnaCarta
andtheConstitution, it'sall right"(p. 154).
Andthensuddenly, apocalypse. Within hoursof Montag'sescape and
hisbefriending ofthemeninthecamp,a greatwarbegins(p. 158).Nuclear
bombsfallon thecities.Montag'sspinning mindis in freeassociation. Re-
membering his wife Millie, he now recalls where they met - it was in
a
Chicago, long time ago (p. 160).
The menareblownto thegroundbytheforceoftheatomicwinds.In
thedistance theysee thecitydestroyed, lifted intothesky,"erected atlastin
grouts of shattered concrete and sparkles of torn metal intoa mural hung
likea reversed avalanche, a millioncolors,a millionoddities," andthenthe
soundofitsdeath(p. 160).
Yetthenoveldoesnotendinapocalypse ordespair.
In homagetothepersistence ofthehumanspirit, oneofthementhrows
baconintothefrying pan on a wood fire, and as itbeginstoflutter andsput-
teranddancein thepan,theairis filledwithitsaroma.The leaderof the
grouptalksof thelegendof Phoenix,pre-dating Christ, and suggeststhat
manmustbe a cousinofthebird,who"everytimehe burnt himself up he
sprang out of the he
ashes, got himself born all over again"(p. 163).
Bradbury leavesus withthepromise ofhumanredemption. Granger ex-
presses the conviction that one the
day cycle of war will and
stop, that itwill
be thebooksandhistory thatwillfinally stopit.Oncewe knowwhatwe've
donefora thousand years"we'll stopmakingthegoddamnfuneral pyres
andjumpingin themiddleof them"(p. 163). Someday, Granger predicts,
humanswillbuild"thebiggestgoddamn steamshovel inhistory anddigthe
biggest grave of all time and shove war in and cover itup"(p. 164).
Butfirst theexilesmustgetto thecity,wheretheywillburythedead,
tendtothesick,comfort theafflicted, andstart thetaskofbringing backthe
books; and and
history; ideas,insight, and wisdom. As Montag walks with
his comrades, following a trailby the riverside, words begin to simmer to
thesurfaceofhis mind.Montagis remembering hisEcclesiastes:"Andon
eithersideoftheriverwas therea treeoflife,whichbaretwelvemanner of
fruits,andyieldedherfruiteverymonth; Andtheleavesofthetreewerefor
thehealingofthenations"(p. 165).

B. TheBook'sPastandOurOwnFuture
Fahrenheit
451,a bookheavilyaboutcensorship, an in-
hasexperienced
sidiousand piecemealcensorshipof its own. Over the yearsthe book
becameparticularly
popularas assignedreadingin schools.Thiswas the
good news.The bad newswas thatovertheyears,editorsat Ballantine

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 901

Booksrepeatedly cutlittlepiecesout.8The "damnsandhells"wereparticu-

larlyripefortheplucking.9 In Bradbury's own colorfulaccount,"some
cubby-hole editors atBallantine Books,fearful ofcontaminating theyoung,
had,bitbybit,censoredsome75 separatesectionsfromthenovel."10 Hap-
pily,underthe enlightened editorship of Judy-Lynn Del Rey, a new
Ballantineeditor, thebookwas completely resetandrepublished, restoring
theoriginaltext.11
Bradbury wouldhimself turnthenovelintoa playand an opera,and
whenhe did,he addedsomeadditional linesanddepthtoFireChiefBeatty,
hisvillain.ButwhileBradbury wasofteninvited toupdatehisbook,expand
it,andelaborate on hischaracters, he neverdid,perhapssensingtheimpor-
tanceoffidelity tohisownoriginal text.
Anditis thistruetextthathelpsinform ourpast,ourpresent, andourfu-
ture.As futurism, Fahrenheit 451 is fascinating,bothforwhatcametrueand
whatdid not.Takingstockof thebookas futurism, however, is an empty
exerciseifitis merely assigning prognostication grades.Thedeeperexercise
is to tryto determine whysomethingscametrueand othersdid not,and
whatthatmeans,forbetter orforworse.
Hereis a working hypothesis: we havemanaged tobeatbackthehounds
ofcensorship, largelythrough theevolution ofenlightenedFirstAmendment
doctrines.Yet in a curiousirony, in slayingthehoundsof censorship we
haveunleashed andemboldened otherhounds.Enlightened free-speechdoc-
trinesdo notguarantee us enlightened lives.As Fahrenheit 451 and our
present condition bothteach,thisrequiresa deeperhumaneffort. To find
meaning in life,we mustslowdownandmaketime - forthemind,forthe
senses,andforrelationships grounded ingenuine connectionandrespect for
ourcommon dignity.
II. The Anatomyof Censorship

It is all tooeasy,all tooglib,to dismisscensorsas tyrants. Yetcensors

knowno politicalright orpoliticalleft,no religion, Thecen-
no generation.
soralwaysbelievesin themoralrighteousness of hisor hercause.Indeed,
thecensormaybe- darewe say it?- "right," at leastin somesense.His-
tory's fair-minded and objective assessment maywell be thata particular
censorat a particular timeand place was motivated to vindicatevalues
widely shared in the of
societyby people reasonably sound judgment and
good will.
Evenso, Bradbury's taleis one ofinexorable woe to thosewhocensor,
evenoutof altruism. Bradbury seems to be insistingthatwhileit maybe
possible to a
incinerate book, killingthebook will notkillitsideas.Thelife
ofthemindendures.

8. Coda, p. 177.
9. Id.
10. Id.
11. Id.

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902 LawReview
Michigan [Vol.107:895

Censorship, Fahrenheit 451 suggests, is ofteninitiated by thepopulace

firstandthenembraced bythegovernment; itis thenthatcensorship is atits
mosteffective. Censorship is in manyrespectsa natural humaninstinct, a
reflexive impulse. To toleratethespeechwe loathis counterintuitive. Thisis
thecoreof thefamousdissenting opinionof Justice Holmesin Ābramsv.
UnitedStates!2"Persecution fortheexpression of opinionsseemsto me
perfectly logical.Ifyouhaveno doubtofyourpremises oryourpowerand
wanta certain resultwithall yourheartyounaturally expressyourwishesin
lawandsweepawayall opposition."13
One oftheextraordinary features ofthisextraordinary paragraphis that
Holmesis claiming, exactlyas thenarrative ofFahrenheit 451 dramatically
demonstrates, thatpersecution fortheexpression of opinionis perfectly
logical.Whenconfronted byspeechwe loath,ournatural impulse,individu-
ally,socially,andultimately legally,is torepress it.
It is thustellingthatthe extremeregimeof censorship depictedin
Fahrenheit 451 doesnotcomefrom thetopbutfrom thebottom. Thepeople
instigate it.The government justgoes withtheflow.The phrase"political
correctness" hadnotentered ourcultural lexiconwhenFahrenheit 451 was
written, butthatis thesortofphenomenon Bradbury was writingabout.At
thetimeBradbury wrotehis novel,FirstAmendment jurisprudence could
haveallowedhis dystopian visionto becomereality. Fortunately,theSu-
premeCourthas sinceinterpreted theFirstAmendment to prohibitsuch
censorship, evenwhendesigned tocurtailhatespeechorto facilitate politi-
cal correctness.

A. Censorship
ofHateSpeechintheEarly1950's
One maysee inBeatty'supbeatjustifications (in whichhe claimsthatit
is importantnotto upsetminorities) thepremonitions oftheAmerican de-
bateoverhatespeechandtheongoingdiscourseat American colleges and
universities
overthepropriety andlegality ofhate-speech codes.The hate-
speechillustrationis worthexploring in some detailhere,forBradbury
makesitclear,bothin thenovelitselfandin hissubsequent commentaries
aboutit,thatthepublicdesiretoquellhatespeechis,as he imagines it,one
ofthemostpowerful drivers ofcensorship.
Beatty,
justifyingtheburning ofbooks,saysthat"we can'thaveourmi-
norities
upsetandstirred" (p. 59). Whatthepeoplewant,Beattyargues,is
safespeech,nothatespeech;theywant"pleasure"and"titillation" (p. 59).
Booksshouldbe burned becausetheymakeus think aboutunpleasantthings
likeracialstereotypes,prejudice, and repression.Beattymakesthepoint
"Coloredpeopledon'tlikeLittleBlackSambo.Burnit.Whitepeo-
bluntly:
ple don'tfeelgood aboutUncleTom'sCabin.Burnit" (p. 59). Bradbury
reinforces
hisindictment inhisCoda toFahrenheit 451:

12. 250 U.S. 616 (1919).

13. Id. at 630 (Holmes,J.,dissenting).

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 903

Thepointis obvious.Thereis morethanonewaytoburna book.And

theworldis fullofpeoplerunning aboutwithlitmatches.Everyminority,
Irish/ Italian/ Octogenarian
be it Baptist/ Unitarian, / Zen Buddhist,
Zionist/ Seventh-day Women'sLib /Republican,
Adventist, Mattachine/
FourSquareGospelfeelsithasthewill,theright,thedutytodousetheke-
rosene,lightthefuse.Everydimwit editorwhosees himself as thesource
of all drearyblanc-mangeplainporridge unleavened lickshis
literature,
guillotineand eyestheneckof anyauthorwho daresto speakabovea
whisper orwriteabovea nurseryrhyme.14
When BradburywroteFahrenheit451, our formalconstitutional law
doctrineslargelyencouragedand reinforcedthe censorshipBradburyde-
scribes.He wrotethebook in theearly 1950s. This was "prehistory" in the
timelineof modernFirstAmendment doctrine.Two decisions,Chaplinskyv.
New Hampshire?5decidedin 1942, and Beauharnaisv. Illinois?*decidedin
1952,frametheperiodwell.
Chaplinskyis famousforits succinctexpressionof thenotionthatfree-
dom of speech does not include those classes of speech thatdo littleto
advancetheexpositionof ideas and muchto injureorderand morality:
Therearecertain well-definedandnarrowly limitedclassesof speech,the
preventionand punishment of which have been
never thought to raiseany
Constitutionalproblem. Theseincludethelewdandobscene,theprofane,
thelibelous,andtheinsulting words
or "fighting" - thosewhichbytheir
very utteranceinflict
injuryor tendto an
incite immediate breachof the
peace.It has beenwell observedthatsuch are
utterances no essentialpart
ofanyexposition ofideas,andareofsuchslightsocialvalueas a stepto
truththatanybenefit thatmaybe derived fromthemis clearlyoutweighed
bythe social in
interest and
order morality.17
Chaplinksywas followeda decade laterby Beauharnais,the Supreme
Court's firsthate-speechdecision. In the gap between 1942 and 1952,
AdolphHitler'shate-filled diatribesagainstJewshad led to mass genocide.
It makesperfecthistoricsense thattheCourt,withthehorrorsof theHolo-
caustfreshin thememoryof humankind, wouldborrowfromthetheoriesof
Chaplinsky to upholdan Illinoislaw banninghatespeech.The Illinoisstatute
in contestmade it a crimeto portray"depravity, or
unchastity,
criminality,
lack of virtueof a class of citizens,of anyrace,color,creedor religion"that
exposed them"to contempt, derision,or obloquyor whichis productiveof
breachof thepeace or riots."18 The defendant,Beauharnais,was president of a
racistChicago organization, the WhiteCircle League. Beauharnaisand his
"
grouppassed out leafletscallingon Chicago's Mayorand CityCouncil 'to
haltthefurther encroachment, harassment and invasionof whitepeople,their

14. Coda,pp. 176-77.

15. 315 U.S. 568 (1942).
16. 343 U.S. 250 (1952).
17. 3 15 U.S. at 571-72 (footnotes
Chaplinsky, omitted).
18. Beauharnais,343 U.S. at 251 (quoting Rev. Stat. c.38,div.1,§ 471 (1949)).
III.

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904 MichiganLaw Review [Vol.107:895
"19
property, neighborhoodsand persons,by the Negro.' The WhiteCircle
"
League's racistdiatribeexhorted '[o]ne millionselfrespectingwhitepeo-
" "
ple in Chicago to unite,' proclaiming, 'If persuasionand the need to
preventthe whiterace frombecomingmongrelizedby the Negro will not
uniteus, thenthe aggressions. . . rapes,robberies,knives,guns and mari-
"20
juana of thenegro,surelywill.'
JusticeFrankfurter wrotetheopinionof theCourt,whichupheldtheIl-
linois law, affirmedthe conviction of Beauharnais, and rejected the
argumentthatBeauharnaiscould not be convictedunless the prosecution
provedthathis speechposed a clear and presentdangerof violence.Justice
Frankfurter's opinionmade an oblique but unmistakablereferenceto Nazi
Germanyin his opinion,notingthatIllinoisdid notneed to "awaitthetragic
experienceof the last threedecades" to conclude thatlaws againstracial
attackswere necessaryto preservethepeace and orderof thecommunity.21
Illinois could thus rightlyconclude thatpurveyorsof racial and religious
hate "promotestrifeand tendpowerfullyto obstructthe manifoldadjust-
ments required for free, ordered life in a metropolitan,polyglot
community."22
Ray Bradbury'snovel argues againstthe thinkingof Beauharnais and
Chaplinsky.The complex lesson embeddedin Fahrenheit451 is thathu-
mankindwouldbe betteroffconsideringthecounterintuitive possibilitythat
a resolveto notcensorhatespeechmay actuallyleave us moresafe and se-
cure, more racially tolerant,more bound togetheras a cohesive moral
community.
As JusticeHolmes's wordssuggest,thisis a terribly difficultargument
to acceptat theintuitivelevel- buthistorydemonstrates its truth.Fromthe
SpanishInquisitionto thehorrorsof theThirdReich,theburningof books
was a graphicprecursorto mass hysteria,mindcontrol,and paranoia.As
JusticeBrandeis put it, "Men feared witches and burntwomen."23Yet
Brandeis,like Bradbury,pivotedon thisobservation,arguingthatthe best
way to combatthefearthatled mento burnwomenis to give speechabout
witchesand witch-hunting a freeand uncensoredventing.24

B. CensorshipofHate Speech Today

It is not at all clear thatthe views of Brandeis,Bradbury,and Holmes

have won the day in the popular vote. But theyhave carriedthe super-
delegates.Theirviews are now thelaw of theland. In a seriesof interlock-
ing and mutuallyreinforcing decisions, the Supreme Court rejectedthe

19. Id. at 252.

20. Id. (secondalteration
inoriginal).
21. Id. at 258-59.
22. Id. at 259.
23. v. California,
Whitney 274 U.S. 357,376 (1927) (Brandeis,J.,concurring).
24. Id.

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 905

theoryand holdingof Beauharnaisand Chaplinksy.In Brandenburg v. Ohio,

the Court overturnedthe convictionof a Ku Klux Klan leader for hate
speecheverybit as vicious as thatin Beauharnais,holdingthatconvictions
forincitement to violencecould onlybe sustainedunderthe FirstAmend-
ment if demandingstandardsof intent,immediacy,and likelihoodwere
In RA.V. v. CityofSt. Paul, theCourtstruckdowna hate-speech
satisfied.25
ordinancein a cross-burning case because the ordinancewas infectedwith
viewpointdiscrimination.26 And in Virginiav. Black, theCourtreversedthe
convictionof anotherKlan leaderforviolatinga Virginiaanti-cross-burning
The law made it a crimeto burna cross to intimidateany person
statute.27
and containedan additionalprovisionprovidingthattheburningof a cross
was in itselfprimafacie evidenceof an intentto intimidate.28 The plurality
opinion,writtenby JusticeO'Connor, held that the prima facie evidence
provisionrenderedthe law an unconstitutional "shortcut" thatviolated the
FirstAmendment.29 Three concurring Justices went beyond the plurality,
findingthelaw defectiveforessentiallythe same reasonstheCourthad ar-
ticulatedin RA.V™
So too,lower-court decisionshave consistently struckdownhate-speech
codes at Americanpublicuniversities. An illustrativedecisionstriking down
a campus hate-speechcode is Doe v. University of Michigan.31 The Michi-
gan policy establisheda nuanced systemof regulationunder which the
degree of regulationdependedon the location or settingof the speech.32
Publicationssuch as theMichiganDaily and theMichiganReviewwerenot
subjectto regulation.33In contrast,a sweepingprohibition appliedto speech
in the University'seducationaland academic centers,such as classroom
buildings,libraries,researchlaboratories,recreation,and studycenters.34
Whatkilledthe Michigancode was not so muchthepolicy as written, but
the policy as interpreted. The UniversityOffice of Affirmative Action

25. Brandenburg v. Ohio,395 U.S. 444, 447 (1969) ("[T]he constitutional

guaranteesoffree
speechand freepressdo notpermita Stateto forbidor proscribe advocacyof theuse of forceor of
law violationexceptwheresuch advocacyis directedto incitingor producingimminent lawless
actionandis likelyto inciteorproducesuchaction").
26. 505 U.S. 377 (1992).
ofdisclosure,
27. 538 U.S. 343 (2003). As a matter theoral
I was lead counselandpresented
argument v.Black.
in Virginia
28. Id. at 364.
29. Id. at 366-67 ("The primafacieprovisionmakesno effort amongthese
to distinguish
typesof crossburnings.
different ... It allowsa juryto treata crossburning on theproperty of an-
otherwiththe owner'sacquiescencein the same manneras a cross burningon the property of
anotherwithouttheowner'spermission. . . . The FirstAmendment does notpermitsuch a short-
cut.").
30. Id. at 380-81 (Souter,J.,concurring in thejudgmentinpartanddissentingin part,joined
byKennedy& Ginsburg, JJ.).
31. 721 F. Supp.852 (E.D. Mich. 1989).
32. Id. at 856.
33. Id.
34. Id.

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906 MichiganLaw Review [Vol.107:895

publishedan interpretive guide to the policy to help studentsunderstand

whatit meant.35 That guide includedas examplesof impermissible conduct
such thingsas statingin class thatwomen are not as good on the athletic
fieldas men,tellinga joke aboutgays and lesbians,or laughingat a stutter-
In striking
ing student.36 thepolicydown,thecourtheld thattheUniversity
could not "establishan anti-discrimination policy whichhad the effectof
prohibitingcertainspeech because it disagreed with ideas or messages
soughtto be conveyed."37 Othercourtshave reachedsimilarconclusions.38
The hate-speechnarrative is powerful.The societalconsensusapproving
the regulationof hate speech thatBradburydescribedhas largelybeen de-
railed in modern American experience because the evolution of
constitutionallaw derailed it. Our modern First Amendmentjurispru-
dence- withits uniquelybold commitment to the marketplaceof ideas, to
toleratingeven thespeechwe loatheand believe to be fraught withdeath-
is a testamentto thepowerof the legal ideas advancedby JusticesHolmes
and Brandeis,as well as to thepowerfulculturalinfluenceof authorssuch
as Ray Bradbury, who throughworkssuch as Fahrenheit451 influencethe
"constitutionalunconscious"and remindus of theanatomyof censorship.

III. The Life of the Mind and a Life of Meaning

We can reflecton Fahrenheit451 as futurism and as an explorationof

theanatomyof censorship,butin theend forme thereal geniusof thebook
is moreuniversal.Fahrenheit451 is a greatworkof literature - too greatto
be pigeonholed as mere muckraking,futuristicscience fictionor as a
manifestoagainstbook burningand censorship.Muckraking, futurism,and
manifestosagainst censorship are all worthy literaryendeavors, but
Fahrenheit 451 is greaterthanall of them.
Fahrenheit451 retainsa presentresonancethatexceeds anotherclassic
withwhichit is oftencompared,Orwell's 1984.39For unlike1984, whichis
an exercisein politicalcommentary railingagainstUtopiantyranny and Big
Brother, Fahrenheit 451 is less overtlypolitical,less overtlyaboutfreedom
alone, and more deeply about the essence of humanity, about thatwhich
makeslifeworthliving.At bottom,thecharacters, theplot,and theinsights
of Fahrenheit451 are, above all else, aboutthelifeof themindand thees-
sentiallinkbetweena lifeof themindand a lifeof meaning.

35. Id. at 857.

36. Id. at 858.
37. Id. at 863.
38. See, e.g.,Iota Xi Chapterof SigmaChi Fraternity v. GeorgeMason Univ.,993 F.2d 386
(4thCir. 1993) (strikingdowndisciplinary penaltiesarisingfroman allegedhate-speechincident);
Coll. Republicansat S.F. StateUniv.v. Reed, 523 F. Supp. 2d 1005 (N.D. Cal. 2007) (enjoining
enforcement of a collegecivilityrule);UWM Post,Inc. v. Bd. of Regentsof theUniv.ofWis. Sys.,
774 F. Supp. 1163 (E.D. Wis. 1991) (striking
downa hate-speech code).
39. Orwell, supranote1.

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 907

Bradburyidentifies manyforcesthatinterfere witha lifeof themindand

diminishthepossibilityof a lifeof meaning.They includeseparationfrom
the writtenword; separationfromthe simple senses of taste,smell, sight,
and touch;and separationfromthevirtuesof leisure,respite,and reflection.
For all thefireof Fahrenheit
451, forall thebook burningand citybombing,
thenovel is largelyaboutthehumanneed forpeace- forpeace amongna-
tions,forpeace of mindand soul. And whilewe mayhave avertedthebook
burningthatBradburypredictedforus, we have not yet foundour peace,
literallyor figuratively.

A. The VastWasteland?

In 1961, NewtonMinow,thechairmanof the Federal Communications

Commission,would make a speech before the National Association of
Broadcastersdescribingtelevisionas a "vast wasteland."40 Bradburysaw it
thesame way.
Bradbury'sindictment of whathe regardedas themind-numbing quali-
tiesof televisionmaythusbe extendedmoregenerallyto thehypnoticeffect
of fast-pacedvisual expressionand the carpetbombingof the marketplace
withadvertising and propaganda.As a futurist, Bradburymostlygotit right,
anticipating flat-screenvideo, realitytelevision,bombardments of mass ad-
vertising and mass culture, and filmsthat move faster than the eye can
register. Commenting years after he wrote thenovel, Bradbury used thefilm
MoulinRouge41to makehis pointabouttherapidpace of modernfilmedit-
ing and his claim thatthisdegradesthinking.42 By Bradbury'scountthefilm
had 4500 half-secondclips in it.43"The cameraneverstopsand holds still."44
The upshotof thisvisual need forspeed is thatwe overwhelmpeople with
"sensation,"and sensationbecomesa "substitute" forthought.45
However apt Bradley's indictmentof televisionand electronicmedia
may have been in 1961, the world has now changedprofoundly. It is no
longer fairto characterize television,and certainly not all of electronic me-
dia, as a wasteland or to treatit,as Bradbury did, as the sworn enemy of all
intellectand reflection.The proliferation of cable and satellitebroadcasting
channelsand,exponentially moretransforming, theexplosionof theinternet
have fundamentally alteredmass cultureand communication. This muchis
obvious. What is not so obvious is the impactof this rapidlyexpanding,
worldwideelectronicnetworkon the maintenanceof a healthylife of the
mindand thediscoveryof pathsto a meaningful life.

40. NewtonN. Minow,Chairman, FCC, Addressto theNationalAssociationof Broadcast-

ers: Television and the Public Interest(May 9, 1961) (transcriptavailable at http://
www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/newtonminow.htm).
41. Moulin Rouge (RomulusFilms1952).
42. A Conversation withRayBradbury,p. 184.
43. Id.
44. Id.
45. Id.

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908 Michigan Law Review [Vol. 107:895

The internet is notsomethingBradburyimaginedin Fahrenheit 451. The

internethas reinforcedthe FirstAmendmentassault on the regulationof
speech,creatinga wide-openelectronicmarketplace so vast and robustthat
legal regulatorsare oftenpowerlessto stopeven thosemessages thatformal
FirstAmendmentlaw would permitthemto block. Yet at the same time,
much as the wondersof electroniccommunication depictedin Fahrenheit
451, thewonderof theinternet alone does notguaranteea meaningful lifeof
themind,nordoes it ensurepeace, eitheramong nations or within individu-
als.
To be sure,as a societywe have made a profoundstatement againstcen-
sorshipon theinternet, and one mustsuppose that the Bradburywho wrote
Fahrenheit451 mustapprove.If anything, there is more freedomon the
internet thanin physicalspace, in partbecause of immunities Congresshas
createdin federallaws, and in partbecause of the sheer technologicaldiffi-
culty of piercingveils of anonymityor containing the proliferation of
internet - as
speech even speechproperlyadjudicated illegal beyond or First
Amendment protection.
For its part,Congressdeliberatelysubsidizedthe internetwhen it cre-
ated broad legal immunityfor internetservice providersfor the content
generatedby others.In doing so, it placed a higherpremiumon freedom
thanon accountability, morality,or order.The mostsignificant such federal
law is section230 of Title XVII, createdby the Communications Decency
Act of 1996.46The law statesin pertinent partthat"[n]o provideror userof
an interactive computerserviceshall be treatedas thepublisheror speaker
of anyinformation providedby anotherinformation contentprovider."47 This
meansthatifthevictimof defamationor invasionof privacycan determine
who postedthe offending materialon line, the victimmay sue thatposter.
But the victimmay not sue Yahoo! or Google or Facebook or MySpace
merelyfor providingthe electronicforumfor such "user-generated con-
tent."48
A somewhatdifferent balance has been struckforcopyrightinfringe-
mentunderthe so-called "safe harbor"provisionsof section512 of Title
XVII, createdby the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct. This law immu-
nizes internetservice providersfrom liability for hosting copyrighted
materialprovidedtheyhave a "takedown" mechanismin place thatpermits
therightful ownerof thecopyrighted materialto issue a "takedown"notice,
whichthentriggers theremovalof thematerial.49

46. Communications DecencyActof 1996§ 509,Pub.L. No. 104-104,110 Stat.56 (codified

at47 U.S.C. §230(2000)).
47. 47 U.S.C. §230(c)(l).
48. See, e.g., UniversalCommc'nSys., Inc. v. Lycos,Inc., 478 F.3d 413 (1st Cir. 2007)
(holdingmessageboardownerimmuneundersection230 fordefamatory comments postedon a
messageboard).
49. DigitalMillenniumCopyright Act §202, Pub. L. No. 105-304,112 Stat.2860 (1998)
(codifiedat 17 U.S.C. §512).

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 909

The mechanismsof section230 and section512 are different - thereis

strongerlegal protectionwrittenintofederallaw forpropertythanforhu-
man personality- and courtshave carved some modestinroads on these
immunities.The immunity of section230 maybe lost,forexample,whenan
internetserviceprovideris also itselfresponsibleforshapingthecontentof
thematerialgeneratedby others.50 Yet theoverriding realityis thattheinter-
netis remarkably censorshipfree,giventhevastamountof expressivetraffic
thatflowsacrosscyberspaceeach day.51
The internet,
whichhas openedup a vastworldof person-to-person dis-
course, is naturallycensorshipresilient.Indeed, more than that, it is
naturallylaw resilient.Whiletheinternet is nota lawless space, it is a space
in whichlaw is always severalstepsbehindinvention.Electronsand entre-
preneurialingenuityare fasterthanlegislaturesand courts.These features
diminishthe very physical and technicalpossibilityof censorship,even
wherethereis a publicwillingto censor.

B. Civilization,Senses,and a LifeoftheMind

While we live in a relativelycensorship-freeera, particularly

compared
to thatof Fahrenheit451, we have notyetmanagedto escape manyof the
demonsthatvexed Bradbury'scharacters.Intellectual,meaningfullives re-
quire more than a censorship-free environment. And this is where the
challenges and sufferingsfacing the charactersin Fahrenheit451 remain
remarkably constant with the challenges and sufferings of today.This is
whereFahrenheit 451 retainsitsgreatestuniversality.
While Bradburyindictsthepace of modernity as an assaultof sensation
thatpushes out thought, thisshouldnotbe confusedwithan indictment of
sensationitself.To thecontrary, Fahrenheit451 warnsus thata lifewithout
the senses is a life withoutmemory,withoutmeaning,withoutsensibility.
Clarissehelpsto save Montagby helpinghimto smelland see and tasteand
touch.Bradburylinksthequalityof humanlifetophysicality.
Our world today is increasinglya world of diminishedsensation.We
tradephysicalrealityforvirtualreality.We are all too rushedto smell the
rose,savorthesunset,tastetherain,feel thecool of thegrass.So too,there
is somethingperniciousin the loss of the very physicalityof books, of
libraries,of newspapersand magazines,of the solidityof theprintedword,
of thetouchand feel and textureof bindingsand pages, of themuskysmell
of the librarystacks,of the sound of crinklingnewsprintfolded over the

50. See FairHous. Councilof San FernandoValleyv. Roommates.com, 521 F.3d 1157 (9th
Cir.2008) (en bane) (holdingroommate internet
serviceprovidernotimmuneundersection230 for
liabilityunderFairHousingActwhenithelpedshaperesponsesofusersandthusbecamea content-
serviceprovider).
creatorin additionto an internet
5 1. See, e.g., Greenv.AmericaOnline,3 18 F.3d465 (3d Cir.2003) (holdingAmericaOnline
immuneforderogatory commentsand malicioussoftwaretransmitted by otherdefendants); Ben
Ezra, Weinstein& Co. v. AmericaOnlineInc., 206 F.3d 980 (10thCir. 2000) (holdingAmerica
Onlineimmuneforrelaying inaccurate Zeranv. AmericaOnline,Inc., 129
stockpriceinformation);
F.3d 327 (4thCir. 1997) (holdingAmericaOnlineimmunefordefamatory and harassingmessage
boardpostings).

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9 10 Michigan Law Review [Vol.107:895

morning coffee.Thereis something moreprimalin thisthanclichésabout

"curlingupwitha book"insteadofa laptop.
Bradburylinkstheburning ofbookstotheignoring oftaste,smell,sight,
sound,andtouch,andhe linkstheloss ofbothreadingandsensation to a
declinein ourhumanity. The linkbetweenthesensesandbooksis a link
betweensenseandthought, betweensenseandthetakingof timeto think.
One of theprofound insightsof Fahrenheit 451 is thatwe declinein our
humanity whenwe mistake timeforleisureand stimulation fora genuine
lifeofthemindandsoul.
Pausingto smell,see,feel,listen,andtouchis theprecondition
topaus-
ingto reflect,
critique,brood,andinvent. Pausingto readto a childis the
preconditiontopausingtopassonthetraditions ofcivilizedhumanity.

C. PrivacyandPrivatePeace

Beyondlosingoursenses,we liveina worldofdiminished physicalpri-

vatespace.WhenGuyMontagis on therunfromtheMechanicalHound,
withthehelicopters and surveillance cameraschasinghim,thereaderis
fearful thatMontagcannotescapebecausetheauthorities willbe able to
detecthiseverymovement. WhatBradbury imagined in 1953 we experience
as reality today.With cellphones, GPS systems, Blackberries,recordings of
creditcardand bankcardtransactions, security swipecards, surveillance
cameras,tracingof emailand internet messages,recording of telephone
calls,andthemyriad otherwaysinwhichoureverytransaction, movement,
andhiccuparewatchedandcatalogued andstoredbysomeonesomewhere,
to recapture anygenuinezone of privacy one mustalmostpulla Montag,
strip to the bone, and floatdown theriver intothewilderness. Eventhen,
one mightnotescapethesatellite photographs. It is no wonder thatto find
private space humans to
migrate cyberspace, seeking to carveout zones of
and
anonymity autonomy there!
Yet thehaunting warning of Fahrenheit 451 is thatan overlyvirtual
worldwill ultimately becomesensorially deprived, thought depleted, and
We
meaningimpoverished. may rearing be an entire of
generation young
peoplewhorarely experience thejoysoftrueleisure, intheplayful physical
senseexemplified byClarisse,andwho,as Faberwarned, willrarelyknow
truereflection.
In Fahrenheit 451,thebreakneck pace oflifeis captured in partbythe
imagery of fastcars.We've slowed down on the -
highwaysBradbury did
notpredict theenergy crisisandautosafety-consciousness oftoday.On the
otherhand,we stillmanageto killtoo manypeoplein cars;whatwe lose
fromspeedthesedayswe makeup forwithcell phones.Andcell phones,
likeemail,arenewinventions thatspeeduplifeandcrowdoutrepose.
All ofus,acrossgenerations, increasingly suffer ridiculouslyoversched-
uledlives.Everyminute fromwakingto sleepingis accounted for.It starts
all too early,withhoursblockedforschool,sports, musiclessons,camps,
clubs,church, whatever.The fewmoments of releaseare electronic, with
iPods, text messages, video games, chatrooms - again, whatever.There is

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 2009]
April LifeoftheMind 9 11

precioustoo littleplay- play of the heart,play of the spirit,play of the

mind.Thereis preciouslittleloafing.We struggleto pencil in qualitytime.
I'll have myavatarcontactyouravatar,and we'll do a meeting.
This mightbe dismissedas romanceand nostalgia,butI thinknot.Isaac
Newtonpostulatedtheruleof physicsthatforeveryactionthereis an equal
and oppositereaction.This correspondsto a principleof cultureand civili-
zation. For every forwardmovementin science and technologythat
improvesthephysicalqualityof humanlife,thereis a potentialbackward
movementin the spiritualqualityof humanlife. I use theword "spiritual"
herenot in an overtlyreligioussense but in the broadersense of the quest
fora lifeof meaning.And I use theword"potential"to underscorethatwe
can counteracttheseforcesof repressionand regression.Medical technol-
ogy allows us to sustainhumanlifemuchlongerby artificial means,butfor
manythis comes at the price of a life's end withoutqualityand a death
withoutdignity.Cell phones and Blackberrieskeep us in constantcontact,
allowinginstantcommunication, butthiscomes at thepriceof a declinein
contemplation and a loss of takingthetimeto thinkand considerand exer-
cise temperatejudgment.A moderndirectormay presenta movie with
thousandsof cuts and scenes,like Bradbury'sexampleof MoulinRouge,or
Oliver Stone's filmJFK,52and watchingthesefilmsmay be a thrilling es-
cape, but theylose their capacityto challengeus to look more deeply inside
ourselves.
It is not hopeless. If we are self-aware,we can have our technological
advancesand stillfightto maintainour humanity. But we mustbe purpose-
fuland contemplative to do so.
Fahrenheit451 timelesslyconjuresthesetensions.The bombersare al-
ways in the air.Humanbeingsmay splitthe atom and unleashthepositive
energyof nuclearpower,yetthatpowermay be impressedintothe service
of weaponsof mass destruction, unleashingArmageddon.
The linkof speech to peace forBradbury, however,goes beyondpeace
as the absence of war.At theindividualhumanlevel,Bradburylinksbooks
and reading and conversationand discourse to inner peace, to self-
discovery,to foodforthoughtand thought'snourishment of thesoul. All of
the charactersin Fahrenheit451 on the side of repressionare ultimately
miserable,and theyperish.Beattycannot findpeace in his book pyres.
Howeverbravelyhe mighthaverecitedShakespeareas he wentdown,itwas
a recitationin protestof too much. The captain somewheredeep inside
knows he is doing evil, knows thathis burningof books is linkedto the
burningof innocentpeople, and knowsthatthe torchthatigniteshis body
mayalso be sendinghis soul to theflamesof hell.
So too,poor lostMillie and hersmilingfriendsare familiarto us- still,
charactersdesperatelytrappedin a cycle of botox,smile-frozen faces,and
mood drugs.Millie nearlydies beforeour eyes, a victimof too muchphar-
maceuticalattention, and she is saved onlyby the miraclemedicineof the
high-tech stomach pump.Yet if Millie lives on in body,to drinkand pop

52. Bros.Pictures1991).
JFK(Warner

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9 12 Michigan Law Review [Vol.107:895

anotherday,itis plainthatinmindandspirit sheis deadalready.

It wasnot
thecontentofherstomach thatkilledher,buttheabsenceofcontent inher
mindandsoul.
In contrast,
thereis peacein theheartsofClarisse,Faber,andMontag.
We don'tknowforsurewhathappensto Clarisseor Faber,whether they
werekilledbytheMechanicalHoundortheatombombthatvaporized the
And
city. Montag ends thenovel but
alive, we cannotbe what
certain hap-
pensnext.ButClarisse,Faber,andMontagleaveus witha senseofpeaceful
a senseoftheirrepressible
immortality, humanmindandhumanspiritthat
cannotdie,willnotdie- muchas RayBradbury teachesus thatideasand
bookscannotandwillnotdie,andthatthisis thepromiseandhopeofhu-
manity.

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