Journal of Rural Medicine : JRM

Japanese Association of Rural Medicine

Analysis of Trends of the Types of Pesticide Used, Residues and Related Factors among Farmers in the
Largest Vegetable Producing Area in the Philippines

Jinky Leilanie Lu

Additional article information

Abstract

The objective of study is to provide an analysis of data trends on the type of pesticide used, exposure
factors, and the pesticide-related concerns among the farmers from 2005 to 2010 in one of the largest
vegetable producing areas in the Philippines. This is to determine and analyze changes that have
occurred for the last five years in order to provide necessary basis in promoting safe usage of pesticides.
It is shown in the studies that the most commonly used type of pesticide was Tamaron
(methamidophos) which is an organophosphate. The top five pesticide-related symptoms confirm
findings in other studies. The risk factors to pesticide exposure were also identified in the reviewed
studies such as improper mixing and loading of pesticides, and re-entering previously sprayed area.
Pesticide residues were also found in vegetables, soil and water samples. This points to environmental
contamination due to pesticide. It is suggested that government agencies implement programs on
monitoring, surveillance, information dissemination, and training on proper use of pesticides, and seek
alternative farming such as organically grown vegetables, or use of integrated pest management as well
as good agricultural practices.

Keywords: pesticides, pesticide residues, vegetable farmers, occupational health

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the primary contributors to the Philippine’s (GDP) gross domestic product. It is a
source of income and subsistence among many Filipinos. In agriculture, competition is high on the
quality and number of food production. Likewise, there is an increasing demand for food production for
the increasing number of population in the country. As such, farmers tend to rely on extensive use of
pesticides to increase yield. Consequently, health of most of the agricultural workers is being
compromised. There are many studies documenting the relationship between pesticide use and its
effect on the farmer’s health. Chronic effects of pesticide exposure include cancer in adults and children,
adverse reproductive outcomes, delayed neuropathy and neurobehavioral effects1). People who are
directly exposed to pesticides are the handlers who mix, load and apply pesticides, and workers
cultivating and harvesting crops. They are at risk of developing acute poisoning or even death from
extensive exposures1).

In 2009, the Gross National Product (GNP) of the country grew about 4.01% from the previous year. In
the same year, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased by 1.06% and the Gross Value Added (GVA)
in agriculture and fishery expanded by 0.03%. The agricultural and fishery sector accounted for 18% of
the GDP in 2009. Of the total labor force employed at 35.06 million persons, 12.04 million persons were
employed in agricultural sector, and contributed 34% to the national employment2).

The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) supplies most of the commercial vegetable and other
agricultural crops in the Philippines3). Benguet is one of the provinces in this region.

Benguet province has a land area of about 2,599.4 km2 and a population of 372,533. The agricultural
land in Benguet covers about 30 thousand hectares with 27.5 thousand farms. Benguet primarily
cultivates crops such as tubers, roots, bulbs, and leafy vegetables, stems, and flowers that makes it
popularly known as the “salad bowl” of the country. Moreover, Benguet province is the country’s top
cabbage producer. This region contributed 77.0 percent to the country’s production of cabbage in the
first 3 months of 20102).

The objective of the study is to provide trends regarding the type of pesticide used by the Benguet
farmers according to types, risk factors to pesticide exposure, work practices, and pesticide residues in
environmental samples.

Methods and Materials

The data for this study were gathered from research studies about agricultural practices and pesticide
use in Benguet. Researches of Lu3,4,5,6) primarily discussed pesticide use and exposure of the farmers,
as well as pesticide residues found in vegetables, water and soil, and occupational health-related risk
factors in Benguet province.
Data from other agencies were reviewed, compared and analysed. These data came from the Bureau of
Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Research, Department of Health, the
Department of Science and Technology, Univeristy of the Philippines Manila, University of the
Philippines Los Banos, and Benguet State University.

Results

The study focused on creating data trends of the types of pesticides used, and pesticide-related risk
factors associated with pesticide exposure from 2005 to 2010. The respondents were the farmers of
Benguet interviewed from the year 2005 to 2010.

There are three major types of pesticides being used by Benguet farmers according to chemical
composition. These are pyrethroids, organophosphates, and carbamates. Pyrethroids are synthetic
(human-made) forms of pyrethrins. Pyrethrins are insecticides that are derived from the extract of
chrysanthemum flowers. The plant extract, called pyrethrum contains pyrethrin that is widely used for
control of various insect pests. Examples of pyrethroids used by the farmers in the study area were
cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, cyphenothrin, fenvalerate, and fluvalinate. Organophosphates
are chemical substances originally produced by the reaction of alcohols and phosphoric acid. They
function as cholinesterase inhibitors, thereby affecting neuromuscular transmission7). Examples of
organophosphates found to be commonly used by the farmers were malathion, parathion, diazinon,
fenthion, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, and ethion8).

Figure 1 shows the trend of the pesticides used by their brand names. Tamaron (methamidophos) was
the most prevalent type of pesticide used by the Benguet farmers. This type of pesticide is an
organophosphate pesticides. Dithane (mancozeb) which is a dithiocarbamate was the second most
prevalent type of pesticide used. This was followed by Sumicidine (fenvalerate) which is a pyrethroid.

Figure 1

Figure 1

Percentage distribution of types of pesticide (brand name and corresponding active ingredient), 2005-
20103,4,5,6).
Pyrethroid, however, was the most common type of pesticides that caused acute pesticide poisoning in
the year 2009 to 2010 as documented by the National Poison Control and Management Center
(NPCMC). See Figure 2. This was followed by carbamates and then organophosphates.

Figure 2

Figure 2

Percentage distribution of types of pesticides8).

Health related complaints due to pesticides

Health complaints of the farmers are related to their working behavior and farming practices3). Muscle
pain was the most frequently experienced health symptoms of the farmers. This was statistically
associated with the use of damaged backpack sprayer, incorrect design of backpack sprayer, and
spraying against the wind. Farmers who used damaged backpack sprayer were 2.48 times more likely to
experience muscle pain. Also, those who sprayed against the wind were 3.14 times more likely to
experience muscle pain than those who correctly sprayed.

The pesticide-related symptoms experienced by the farmers were muscle pain, fatigability, weakness
and eye irritation4, 5) which are similar to those reported by other researchers12, 14, 18).

Risk factors to pesticide exposure

Figure 3 shows the risk factors when using pesticides. The most common risk factors were wiping sweat
with a residue- contaminated piece of fabric, entering recently sprayed area, and spraying against the
wind. These three factors were associated with greater pesticide exposure in 20103).

Figure 3

Figure 3

Percentage distribution of risk factors and work practices that maybe associated with pesticide
exposure3,4,5,6).

Pesticide residue in soils

In a study in farming areas in Benguet conducted by Lu6), positive results of pesticide residues were
obtained in soil samples. Of the 78 soil samples, 34 were found to be positive for pesticide residues. The
specific residue types were endosulfan sulfate, profenofos, chlorothalonil, T endosulfan, chlorpyrifos,
cypermerthrin, and cyhalothrin. Chlorothalonil with a concentration of 0.13% in the soil samples at a
0.002 mg/kg, is a chloronitrile. It is a broad-spectrum OC fungicide and is degraded more rapidly at
higher temperatures and when soil moisture is increased. Chlorpyrifos, which is an organophosphate,
was found in 27.4% of soil samples at 0.01 mg/kg concentration.

Pesticide residues in water

In the study of Lu (2009)6), one water sample was found positive with pesticide residue of chlorpyrifos
with a concentration of 0.7 μg/L. This value exceeded the ambient water concentration set by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set for freshwater in both acute (0.083 μg/L ), and chronic
situations (0.041 μg/L). Thus, this value may indicate that the level of pesticide in the creek is toxic to
aquatic life forms.

Pesticide residues in crops

Figure 4 shows the prevalence of pesticide residues in soil, fruits, vegetables and widely used grains. In
one study of Lu3), pesticide residues such as chlropyrifos and profenofos were present in soil samples.
This is also a risk to the children since their breathing zone is nearer to the ground and they maybe in
direct contact with the soil when playing. Lu also reported that soil contamination with organochlorine
pesticides such as endosulfan has aroused worldwide concerns considering their high toxicities and long-
term persistence. Another study of Lu reported that vegetables, primarily those that are from Benguet
were detected for the presence of pesticide residues10). Pesticide residue in the vegetable samples was
found in 16.67% of the total samples submitted. Chlorpyrifos was the most common pesticide residue
found.

Figure 4

Figure 4

Concentration of pesticide residues (mg/kg × 0.01) in soils, vegetables, fruits, and widely used
grains10,11,12).
Saldivar also studied pesticide residues found in vegetables, widely used grains, and fruits11). She noted
that farmers still continue to use banned pesticides such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, endosulfan,
methyl parathion, azinphos ethyl, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and restricted chemicals like
monocrotophos in their crop protection measures11). Among the crops receiving frequent spraying of
insecticide and fungicide treatments were cabbage, tomatoes, baguio beans, pechay, string beans,
ampalaya, bell pepper and rice. Residues of metamidophos and malathion way above Allowable Daily
Intake (ADI) were detected in some samples of tomato, ampalaya, eggplant, bell pepper and baguio
beans. Rola reported carbofuran and 3-OH residues in rice plant and its grains12). Moreover,
cypermethrin residue was found in string beans, and fenvalerate residues in peanuts and soybeans.

Discussion

In the Philippines, pesticides are widely used by farmers. The three most common types of insecticides
are organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethoids. The three most important crops that use pesticides
are vegetables, banana and rice. At present, the country has implemented the Integrated Pesticide
Management to regulate the use of pesticides in the country13).

Types of pesticide used

Based on the results above, Tamaron (methamidophos) had been the most frequently used pesticides in
the years 2004 to 2009. Tamaron is an organophosphate type of pesticides. Organophosphate has been
the causative chemical agent of many of the reported pesticide related illnesses in the US14). In
countries such as India and Nicaragua, organophosphates are easily accessible and, therefore, source of
both intentional and unintentional poisonings15). In China, it was found that the milled rice from the
local market had pesticide residue of organophosphates16). Next to Tamaron, Dithane (mancozeb)
which is a dithiocarbamate was also commonly used by Benguet farmers.

Tamaron is a category I pesticide containing the organophosphate methamidophos and diethylene

glycol. Tamaron, as an organophosphate pesticide can function as cholinesterase inhibitor. It affects
neuromuscular transmission15). Dithane which is a category IV dithiocarbamate pesticide contains
mancozeb as its active ingredient. Its toxicity manifests in tearing of the eyes, blurred vision, and
irritation of throat and nose15).

Pesticide- related health complaints

In comparing the studies of Penagos et al. in 200417) among the banana farmers and the studies of Lu6,
3), the pesticides chlorothalonil and chlorpyrifos were both used by the Benguet farmers and the Latin
American farmers. It was documented in the study of Penagos et,al that the farmers experienced
dermatoses due to chlorpyrifos. Likewise, Benguet farmers reported skin itchiness due to this pesticide.
Furthermore, Nagami in 2010 noted that farm-work related diseases were dermal and allergic in nature
among the Japanese15). Other pesticides such as mancozeb and chlorothalonil that were used by the
Benguet farmers were also found to be ubiquitous pesticides in Costa Rica18).

The studies of Lu3,4,5) documented the risk factors associated with pesticide exposure. These were re-
entering recently sprayed area, spraying against the wind, use of damaged backpack sprayer, spills on
the back, spills while mixing pesticides, and wiping sweat on face with residue-contaminated piece of
fabric. Benguet farmers as well as the farmers from India use backpack sprayer due to its easy
availability and suitability for their crops in spraying19).

Improper work practices were found similar in Benguet and Nicaragua as reported by Lu3) and Blanco et
al.20). These work practices involve the spraying against the wind, no labeling of the pesticide container,
and spilling of pesticides while spraying.

In the study among Benguet farmers, the back was spilled with pesticide due to leaks from the backpack
sprayer. In the study of Aragon et al. in 2006 among Nicaraguan farmers, the hands were the most
frequently contaminated, and the back had the highest body segment score due to leaking backpack
sprayers. This calls for a redesign of the backpack sprayer, and preventive mechanisms for leaks in
backpacks.

Pesticide residues

The study of Lu showed pesticide residues in crops, soil and water samples in Benguet3, 10). Similarly,
the study of Rola showed that farmer’s practice with respect to frequency of insecticide application on
their crops was somewhat alarming12). Researchers observed that the farmers sprayed more frequently
at the peak of harvesting, such that farmers would spray their pole sitao almost every other day. They
also witnessed how farmers dipped their harvested vegetables such as sitao and okra in formalin so that
these would be greener and crispier. In Benguet, some vegetables analyzed were found with different
kinds of pesticide residues, some of which are already restricted such as endosulfan.
This study of Rola also showed that the pesticides detected in cabbage were diazinon, lindane,
endosulfan, methyl parathion, heptachlor and dieldren12). The last three pesticides mentioned are
banned for use in vegetables. These pesticides are to be for termite use only. Furthermore, the Codex
MRL of 0.2 mg/kg for methyl parathion was exceeded in 22% of tomato samples.

Despite being one of the banned pesticides by the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority, DDT was still used
and detected in vegetables such as string beans, eggplants, onions, carrots, sweet peas, pepper, celery,
and mustard. Other restricted pesticides such as pesticides aldrin, dieldren, chlordane and heptachlor
were also found in Benguet grown vegetables10). In Manila, the use of endrin in string beans and other
vegetables, the use of DDT in tomatoes, and the use of non-registered pesticides in some crops were
detected11). Antazo (1986) noted that there is an increasing occurrence of DDT, endrin, and methyl
parathion residues in vegetables inspite of an existing FPA ban on their use12).

Conclusion

The various studies conducted in Benguet province which is the largest vegetable producer in northern
Philippines have shown data and trends on use of pesticides by the farmers in the area as documented
over the years. The various studies showed the risk factors associated with pesticide exposure, health
complaints commonly found among farmers and pesticide applicators, and work practices that
predispose farmers to pesticide exposure. The studies also showed the presence of pesticide residues in
the environment and agricultural crops. The trending of pesticide residues in this study should be used
by the local and national government to monitor regulation on the use of banned and restricted
pesticides in the province of Benguet.

The trending done in this study gives way to promote awareness to the community and government
agencies regarding overuse of pesticides, or use of banned and restricted types, as well as the adverse
effects of pesticides on humans and the environment. It is suggested that the Fertilizer and Pesticide
Authority in the Philippines be more effective in implementing restrictions in the use of banned and
restricted pesticides. It is also recommended that massive information campaign be conducted among
the farmers concerned on correct use of pesticides, and the deleterious effects of overuse and misuse of
pesticides on humans and the environment. Safer and alternative methods of growing healthy and safe
crops should also be encouraged and promoted.
Article information

J Rural Med. 2010; 5(2): 184–189.

Published online 2010 Dec 13. doi: [10.2185/jrm.5.184]

PMCID: PMC4309357

PMID: 25649105

Jinky Leilanie Lu

National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines

Correspondence to: Jinky Leilanie Lu, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila,
NIH Bldg, P. Gil Street, Ermita, Manila, Philippines 1100. E-mail: moc.oohay@ul_yknij

Copyright ©2010 The Japanese Association of Rural Medicine

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-
Commercial No Derivatives (by-nc-nd) License.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.

Articles from Journal of Rural Medicine : JRM are provided here courtesy of Japanese Association of
Rural Medicine

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