68

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The performance of a photovoltaic array can be improved in a

number of ways. One option is to employ concentrating optics, which gathers
and focuses sunlight with lenses and thereby increasing the intensity of
sunlight striking the photovoltaic cell. The primary reason for using
concentration is to reduce the area of solar cell. A concentrator relatively uses
inexpensive materials to capture a large area of solar energy and focusing
onto a small area, where the solar cell is fixed. Besides increasing the power
and reducing the size or number of cells used, concentrators have the
additional advantage of increased cell efficiency increases under concentrated
sun light. The efficiency increase depends largely on the cell design and the
cell material used. Another advantage of the concentrator is that it can use
small individual cells which has high efficiency and are much easier to
produce when compared to a large cell area with similar efficiencies

On the other hand, there are several drawbacks to use

concentrators. The concentrating optics is significantly more expensive than
the simple covers needed for flat-plate modules, and most concentrators must
track the sun throughout the day and year to be effective. Thus higher
concentration ratios require not only expensive tracking mechanisms but also
precise controls than flat-plate systems with stationary structures.
 69

High concentration ratios are a particular problem because the

operating temperature of cells increases when excess radiation is concentrated
and this creates heat. Cell efficiencies decrease as temperatures increase, and
higher temperatures threaten the long-term stability of PV cells. Therefore,
PV cells must be cooled. Thermal management of the PV cells plays a part in
maintaining the overall efficiency of a system. The reduction in the
requirement of available roof area is a major advantage by using
concentrating PV system especially in a densely populated area country like
India.

The aim henceforth is to analyze the energy situation in the state of

Tamil Nadu to find the permissible limits of the installable photovoltaic
systems in the domestic side based on optimization methodology under
various constraints. The methodology helps to identify the levels up to which
PV power is installable in the overall energy mix of the state. The modeling is
done based on a regional energy planning model based on optimization
technique. In this study the Photovoltaic system is assumed to be tied to the
grid in the low voltage side for the reason that a representation of the
electricity grid considering the demand side management and resource
availability portrays a close to real situation by which the maximum
permissible PV systems could fulfill the growing electricity demands. An
optimization procedure by considering all these factors based on the Energy
Flow Optimization Model (EFOM) bottom up model is thus helpful in
estimating the limits till which PV systems can be a part of the energy system.
Having known the installable limits, a reference Combined Heat and Power
Systems (CHAPS) unit based on the Solar Photovoltaic Linear Concentrators
(SPVLC) also referred as Concentrating Photovoltaic systems (CPV) is
considered for the techno economic study.
 70

The techno economic study is based on sensitivity studies and

energy value ratios are used to determine the market feasible capital cost of
the system. A Life cycle analysis (LCA) is conducted for the reference
CHAPS unit based on SPVLC to determine the actual cost of the system
based on market estimates. This study is helpful in identifying the various
cost components during the product life cycle. The price reduction potential
of the major cost components are estimated by considering the fall in prices of
the components .The capital cost of the system is thus comparable to the
market feasible cost and suitable measures of incentives and subsidies are
suggested by which the high capital cost of the CHAPS unit can be mitigated.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

Figure 3.1 shows the methodology undertaken in this work. It is a

three pronged approach to check the economic viability and acceptance of the
Concentrator photovoltaic based CHAPS unit. The first approach is to predict
the maximum number of PV installations by fixing the state as the region of
study thus adhering to the tenets of regional energy planning methodology.
An Energy planning model based on the energy flow optimization model
(EFOM) is used to predict the maximum number of PV installations in the
state and considering the alternative photovoltaic technologies along with the
concentrator Photovoltaic systems. A real time operational grid for the region
can thus bring in a lot of parameters like existing energy generation units,
increasing demand, availability of resources, realization of energy
conservational opportunities for the study and optimizing such a grid yields
futuristic additional installations that are required for demand satisfaction.
 71

Energy
Planning
(Scenarios)

PV
Installations

Comparison Simulation of PV and Financial Favourable

Reference Thermal Analysis cost
(SIEMENS/CPV)
CHAPS system output

Life Cycle
Analysis

Real time cost of

CHAPS
Experimental Market
studies Survey

Role of Incentives,
Subsidies and
credits

Conclusions

Figure 3.1 Methodology

The model takes into account the data pertaining to the year 2005
and predicts additional installations that were needed for the year till 2013.
Various scenarios considering the emission reduction limits are derived and
each predicts the amount of conventional and non conventional installations
in the demand side satisfaction. Energy modeling in this case avoids
exhaustive surveys and data that are required for predicting these futuristic
energy needs as it takes into account the demand and supply side of the
energy grid of the state. The study is limited to the Tamil Nadu state only as it
requires extensive data collection. The maximum cap of permissible PV
installation can thus be a ground for analyzing the possible options by
considering various photovoltaic modules. Conserving silicon as it is already
a precious commodity in the semi conductor industry is justified by
implementing the concentrating photovoltaic modules for the permissible PV
 72

installations in the state. Energy generation by the different options if it were

to be used in the PV installations and the energy payback time can be
attempted.

The second approach is to justify the feasibility of reference CPV

system that can generate both photovoltaic and thermal energy. The analysis
involves a new methodology in quantifying the PV and thermal energy in
terms of Energy value ratios and the economic parameters like payback and
net present value, Benefit to cost ratio analysis are used for estimating the
acceptable cost that favors the customer which yields better benefit over the
cost. However a life cycle analysis is needed to determine the real time cost
that mimics the real scenario in the cost estimation. The bridge between the
acceptable cost and the real time cost as a result of life cycle analysis is
reduced by considering the financing mechanisms that are available. The
consideration of earnable carbon credits also helps in capital cost mitigation.
The life cycle cost also helps to identify the major cost component in the
overall cost mix thereby helping in identification of avenues for cost
reduction in the global market. A market survey in the urban city like Chennai
and also across various parts of the state is helpful in identifying the opinion
about renewable energy systems, photovoltaics in particular and the way how
the general public accepts a new and innovative product like CPV based
CHAPS unit.

3.2.1 The Tamil Nadu Electrical Energy System

The state of Tamil Nadu is one of the key players of the SREB.
The TNEB (Tamil Nadu Electricity Board) is a statutory body formed on
01.07.1957 under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948 as a successor to the
erstwhile Electricity Department of the Government of Madras.8, manages
and controls the power generation, power purchase, transmission and
distribution of electricity to the customers of the Tamil Nadu state.
 73

Tamil Nadu is located in the southern most end of the Indian

peninsular mainland adjacent to neighbouring states of Kerala, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. The state has a land area of about 130,058 Km 2 and a
population of 62,405,679. Being an agrarian state it has a total cultivated area
of 6,032,718 hectares and has a long coastline of 1,076 km.

Table 3.1 Installed electric generation capacities at the reference year

Installed
Generation options
capacity (MW)
Coal fuelled thermal power plants 4,965.00
Lignite fuelled thermal power plants 1,177.00
Diesel Power plants 496.00
Combined cycle power plants 468.89
Cogeneration plants 390.10
Hydro and Micro Hydro power plants 2,137.00
Biomass based power generation 40.35
Nuclear power plants 495.00
Wind turbine generators 2,987.00
Total 13,156.34

Table.3.1 shows the total electricity generation capacity installed in

Tamil Nadu which sums up to 13,156 MW including independent power
projects, state owned plants and central government owned plants which are
serving the state. The electricity demand was 43,795 GWh during the period
from April 2005 to March 2006. The main share of electricity consumption is
related to the industrial sector followed by agriculture, domestic and
commercial sectors. The state has its own thermal and hydro based
installations which exclusively serves the state. Besides this the state
purchases power from central generating stations (thermal and nuclear). The
 74

generating stations coming under this category does not exclusively serve the
state but also the nearby states that are connected to the grid. It is worthwhile
to note that some of these central generating stations are physically present in
the state.

Table 3.2 Length of power lines, number of substations and distribution

transformers

Item Unit Achievement

Length of HHV and HV Lines 230,110,66,33,22,11 kV 149,113 km

Length of LV Lines Less than 11 kV 487,466 km
Distribution Transformers 11,22 kV 167,120 Nos
HHV Substations 230,110,66 kV 672 Nos
HV Substations 33 kV 438 Nos

Table 3.2 shows the length of the Extra high voltage (HHV), High
Voltage (HV) and Low voltage (LV) lines available in the state and also
shows the number of HHV and HV substations and distribution transformers

Table 3.3 Energy Demand in 2005

Consumption
Category (GWhe )

Residential and services 12,649

Industries and Transport 16,253

Agricultural 9,926

Commercial 3,997
Total 42,825
 75

Table 3.3 explains the demand of various sectors in the reference

year. The sectors are grouped as residential and services, industries and
transport, agriculture and commercial. The transport sector which consumes
electricity is the Railways through dedicated electrified line.

Table 3.4 Electric Energy Grid Balance in 2005

Components Electrical energy

(GWh)

Gross Production 56,439.29

Unscheduled
interchange 766
Auxiliary Services 2,223.94
Network losses 11,186.34

End use consumption 43,795.00

Table 3.4 show the grid balance scheme of the state in 2005. The
unscheduled interchange is the energy flow to the state from the grid. Table
3.5 shows the consumption of various fuels in ktoe in 2005. Tables 3.1 – 3.4
are based on the Tamil Nadu Electricity statistics report (2005-06).

Table 3.5 Fuels consumed for energy production in the reference year

Fuels consumed in the ktoe

reference year
10,551.49
Solid Fuels
312.13
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels 751.04
Renewables 43.83
Renewables (non fuel type) 1,113.00
 76

The balance of primary energy sources is reported in Table 3.5.

They are classified as solid fuels (coal, lignite, nuclear), liquid fuels (fuel oil,
diesel), gaseous fuels (natural gas, industrial effluent gas), renewables
(municipal wastes, biomass) and non fuel type renewables (wind, solar,
hydro, micro hydro systems).

The Power sector in Tamil Nadu has undergone diversification by

means of increasing number of private power producers especially in the area
of captive power generation (in which the unit generates power for the
exclusive use for the industry), cogeneration units and a majority of wind
power generation. In particular wind power amounts to 2,878 MW private
sector installations and 19 MW demonstration generator units of the TNEB.
Nuclear power plants of 2 GW capacities are under construction in
Koodankulam region of Tamil Nadu and further nuclear capacity additions to
the Koodankulam plant are planned in future to satisfy the energy needs of TN.
In order to overcome the power shortage Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB)
has proposed to increase the electricity generation capacity to 7808 MW and
also to expand the transmission and distribution system during the eleventh
plan period. Further capacity additions to the north Chennai thermal power
station and Mettur thermal power station and the state government’s interest in
investing in the cogeneration sector will solve the problem of impending
energy shortage. (TN Government Energy department policy note, 2008).

There is also an increasing awareness regarding the applications of

energy efficient technologies and in particular in efficient home appliances. A
huge energy potential of solar photovoltaics is available and can be a major
source of power production at domestic levels whose demand is currently met
by low voltage networks. Besides this the state has 41 potential sites in 8
districts for harnessing wind energy and the total estimate of the state’s gross
wind energy potential is 5500 MW. The Tamil Nadu Energy Development
Agency (TEDA) had indicated that the installed capacity of renewables is
more than 25% of the total installed capacity during the 10 th planning period
 77

which is well ahead of the target set by the Central government. The agency
further aims to identify potential renewable resources, to enhance the
contribution of renewable energy in the overall energy mix of the state grid
for the abatement of green house gas emissions and to develop and implement
energy independence in small villages (TEDA Policy note, 2008-09).

3.2.2 Energy modeling for Tamil Nadu State

The diffusion of DG technologies and energy efficiency

measures in an environmentally constrained situation was analyzed earlier
(Dicorato et al 2007) by means of model based on EFOM modular structure
and it was suggested that the environmental impacts of electricity generation
can be reduced by adopting DG and hydro electric technologies but it
involves higher energy system costs .An earlier attempt was made to study the
policies for promoting the use of renewable energy technologies for reducing
the environmental impacts. It was ultimately aimed at determining the
optimum energy mix for the energy system in the Apulia region of Southern
Italy (Cormio et al 2003).

In this work, a study approach is developed on the basis of model

illustrated earlier to suggest an optimum mix of energy generation
technologies which takes into account the contribution by renewables, energy
efficiency technologies and by considering the dynamics of the energy system
costs (Dicorato et al 2007 and Cormio et al 2003). The Energy system of
Tamil Nadu state can be compared to the Apulia Region of Italy with the
resemblance being in the aspects of increased private sector participation and
the considerable influence of renewable energy technologies. A major portion
of power for the Apulia region and Tamil Nadu state comes from Coal based
thermal power generation, whereas in Tamil Nadu state there is a considerable
presence of nuclear power generation. Nuclear based power generation is
included in the energy mix by taking into account the externalities in the
 78

system costs involved. DG facilities like micro hydro electric, waste to

energy, biomass energy, hybrid (Wind-Diesel) energy systems and energy
efficiency measures are suggested in this work. The system and operational
costs of the energy generation options are modified based on the Indian
perspectives. The Energy saving potentials of the suggested measures are
estimated based on Indian conditions.

3.3 THE SYSTEM OUTLINE

The proposed energy planning methodology gives an optimal mix

of energy systems subject to various constraints over a span of fixed planning
period. The various sectors involved in the energy planning procedure starts
from the primary energy supply sector, intermediate conversion of primary
energy and the end use sector

Regional Grid

HHV
Electricity
Primary Generation
Energy Options HV Heavy Ind
Sources Including
DG
LV
Industries
Agriculture
Domestic
Commercial
Energy
Savings

Environmental

Figure 3.2 The Energy system flow diagram

 79

Figure 3.2 shows the structure of the energy system in Tamil nadu
connecting various voltage levels, energy supply and end users.

3.3.1 Primary energy supply sector

It includes a wide range of fuels starting from fossil fuels like coal,
lignite, natural gas and including nuclear fuels. Apart from this various
alternative sources of energy in the combustible forms like biomass,
municipal waste and non fuel types like solar, wind, hydro are also exploited.
All the primary energy inputs are quantified in terms of tones of oil equivalent
(TOE). When compared to the earlier model the production and consumption
of electricity alone from various large scale and small scale technologies are
considered in this study. Hybrid energy systems based on wind-diesel
integration are suggested in this model and their potentials comes within the
gross wind energy potentials of the state.

3.3.2 Intermediate conversion of primary Energy

Tamil Nadu is connected to the southern grid which also includes

three neighbouring states namely Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
Power is generated by state owned generation plants and the state imports
power from the southern grid which is served by other central owned
generating units. Apart from this, the state is served by various private owned
independent power projects, captive power plants, biomass based power
generation and a significant amount of wind power. Cogeneration represents
an important generation option in the recent years because of the
encouragement rendered to the private sector participation. Cogeneration is
achieved by steam turbine (ST) based cogeneration in a major way especially
in the paper and pulp industry and sugar industry. A small contribution of
cogeneration based power also comes from gas turbine (GT) based
cogeneration using naphtha as a fuel.
 80

3.3.3 End use Sector

The End use subsystem has the energy demand in the form of
electricity. The whole purposes can be divided into 4 sub sectors namely
Industrial, Agricultural, Domestic and Commercial purposes. Demand in the 4
sub sectors are expected to grow linearly up to 59%, 58% 18% and 53%
respectively at the end of the planning period. The HV levels are dedicated to
the heavy industries and LV levels serve the domestic, commercial,
agricultural and other industries. Various energy saving options which
involve lot of public participation are also suggested in this model. A star
rated Energy labeled domestic refrigerator (250 litre model) is suggested
which is capable of saving 500 kWh of electricity. In a network where there is
always a high demand of electrical energy and frequent power outages,
energy efficient house hold appliances like the refrigerator which is very
common nowadays can play a major role in energy savings.

3.3.4 Model Formulation

The proposed Energy flow optimization model aims at minimizing

the total cost function subject to various equality and inequality constraints
over the study period. It aims at optimizing the use of the resources in the
energy supply sector by installing the suitable generating options over the
planning period and in the larger extent satisfying the ever increasing energy
needs of the various components described in the end use sector.

3.3.4.1 The energy planning optimization procedure

The following simplified expression represents the energy planning

optimization procedure adopted in this study.
 81

Min f' x
sub to (3.1)
A eq X b eq
A ineq X b ineq

where x is the state variable vector, f’x is the objective function, Aeq.X = beq
represents the set of equality constraints and Aineq.X bineq represents the set
of inequality constraints.

The optimisation procedure developed by Cormio et al (2004) and

Dicorato et al (2007) is reformed for the state of Tamil Nadu, India for the
regional planning study by focusing on electricity sector, DG technologies
and energy efficiency actions. A new grid balance equation was suggested to
suit the Tamil nadu electrical energy system.

The aim of the study is to minimize the cost of energy generation

over a specified time horizon. The objective function is a sum of the
following components.

f' x CI CF CV CE (3.2)

The investment cost CI consists of two terms CA and CS

C I = C A + CS (3.3)

The first term Investment cost can be further broken down into CA
Capital Investment cost and CS Stripping cost. The Capital Investment cost
includes the sum of annuities over power plant lifetime and investment cost of
energy efficient improvement measures. Table 3.6 shows the various energy
saving measures that are considered and their reference units.
 82

Table 3.6 Energy saving measures

Reference
No Measure
Unit
1 Substitution of Incandescent and Fluorescent 1 bulb
bulbs with CFL’s
2 Installation of Solar Thermal collectors 1 m2

3 Substitution of high efficiency domestic appliance 1 unit

(refrigerator)
4 Installation of Low flux Shower head 1 shower
head
5 Installation of Aerated Jet Breakers 1 jet breaker

The total actualized fixed cost CF indicates the operation and

maintenance cost of all the generation options at the tth year. Variable cost Cv
represents the fuel procurement expenses for all the generating options over
the planning horizon. The external cost CE accounts for the estimation of the
implications on people and the environment because of the energy generation
and it includes the life cycle of primary energy sources CEF and power
generation plants CEP.

The external cost further takes into account the impacts related to
the installations, operative life of the installations and stripping of the j th
generation option in the tth year respectively. The cost functions are available
in APPENDIX-2

3.3.4.2 Equality and inequality constraints

The following equality and inequality constraints are implemented

in the optimization procedure for the minimization of the objective cost
function within the prescribed logical framework.
 83

Equality Constraints

Each generation option requires a fixed amount of time for

construction of the generation option to bring it into effective service. The
construction time constraint allows the time delay for each generation option
which depends upon the capacity and nature of the facility. Hydro power
plants take the longest time for completion follower by nuclear power plants
and other major generating options. Most of the renewable options can be
installed in a year’s time.

Another equality constraint that is modified to suit the state’s

energy balance is the Grid balance constraint. The power grid scheme of
Tamil Nadu state is modified for the three voltage levels of the state. Options
like coal, fuel oil, natural gas, hydro, wind, combined cycle, nuclear, lignite
based power plants inject power at the very high voltage levels (HHV) and
generating options like waste to energy, Biomass, CHP-ST, CHP-GT, micro
hydro and hybrid scheme power plants inject power to the high voltage level
(HV). At this high voltage levels the demands of heavy industries (Q1 t,p ) are
met.

Photo voltaic roofs can exploit power and the generated power can
be injected to the lower voltage levels. The power flow from the HV level and
the power from Photovoltaics can serve the low voltage demands (Q2 t,p ).
Energy saving measures (ESt,p ), from the domestic sector can contribute in
meeting the local needs.
 84

6 ,12,15 11,13,14

1 auxilj Pj ,t , p Expt, p (auxilj Pj, t, p ) Q1t, p PT 12t , p (3.4)

j 1 j 8

12
PT 12 t, p auxil j P7 ,t , p Q2 t , p ES t , p (3.5)

Where,

1 = Loss factor from HHV to HV Levels

12 = Loss factor from HV to LV levels

auxil j = Auxiliary energy consumed by generating devices

Expt, p = Power exported from the grid

Q1t, p = Demand at high voltage side

Q 2 t, p = Demand at low voltage side

PT 12 t, p = Power flow from HV to LV

P7 ,t , p = Power from photovoltaics

ES t, p = Electrical savings

Inequality constraints

The first time step of each load duration curve corresponds to the
forecasted annual peak load for which the total electricity generation capacity
of this period has to cover the internal load demand and exported power, is
satisfied by the peak demand satisfaction constraint. Operation limits
 85

constraint puts a limit to the net power generation of each facility so that it
does not exceed the relevant installed capacity.

Power output from renewable energy options are controlled by

imposing limits on the energy production directly. Various electricity
generating options like hydro, solar photo voltaics, wind, micro hydro are
considered by imposing a limit on their respective power outputs. Fuel based
renewables like biomass, municipal wastes are limited by fixing the limits of
maximum thresholds.

Generation of electricity is limited by putting a constraint on

limiting electrical energy generation. The maximum energy production is
controlled by the availability factor (hours/year) of each facility which takes
into account the maintenance and possible failures. Therefore the annual
energy production must not exceed the threshold levels.

Energy Exchange with

Neighbouring grid

Coal, lignite, diesel, fuel Auxil j HHV

oil, Hydro, wind, CCPP
Cycle, natural gas,
Nuclear

Waste, biomass, Auxil j HV

CHP
(GT,ST),micro Q1t,p
hydel, hybrid
systems) Electric Energy
12
PT12 Savings

Auxil j L
Photo Voltaic
Roofs Q2t,p

Figure 3.3 Electric Power grid scheme

 86

Power production by the plants/facilities are directly related to the

respective fuel consumption by each plant/facility and the sum of the fuels
consumed for power production must be well within the boundaries which is
controlled by an inequality constraint on fuel bounds. Figure 3.3 shows the
various components of the grid balance scheme by highlighting all the supply
and demand options which are connected suitably at various voltage levels of
the grid. The environmental scenario defines the time evolution of the
emission tolerance to be satisfied by the annual emission level of each
pollutant. The pollutants emitted are directly related to the fuel consumption
of respective fuels by each generation option. The emission coefficients for
the main fuels like coal and lignite are defined as per the Indian coal and
lignite grade.

Considering the population of the state the factors like number of

flats, number of houses and number of energy saving measure for each house
are fixed. Each house is assumed to have a member of five gets energy
efficient measures like compact fluorescent lights, PV panels, solar thermal
collectors, high efficiency domestic appliance, aerated jet breakers and low
flux shower heads. The maximum limit of each energy saving measure is
fixed based on a constraint on energy saving measures. The constraint sets are
explained in APPENDIX-2

3.3.5 Model Testing

The following scenarios are developed and the mathematical model

is tested based on these scenarios. The outcome of the model predicts the
additional installations that are required to satisfy the demand during the
planning period. As importance’s of renewables are an essential part of this
model, it predicts the photovoltaic installations that are required in the
planning period.
 87

Scenario 1 where no energy savings are imposed and

renewables satisfying 25% of the demand.

Scenario 2 where no energy savings are imposed and

renewables satisfying 50% of the demand.

Scenario 3 where a base target of 20,000 toe is to be achieved

by the 5th year and renewables satisfying 25% the demand.

Scenario 4 where double the base target of 40,000 toe is to be

achieved by the 5th year and renewables satisfying the same
level as scenario 3.

Scenario 5 where a base target of 20,000 toe is to be achieved

as the same levels in scenario 3 with renewables satisfying
50% of the demand.

Scenario 6 where double the base target of 40,000 toe is to be

achieved as the same levels in scenario 4 with the same
renewable satisfying the same levels as in scenario 5.

The above scenarios were analyzed under 3%, 5% and 7% yearly

reduction in CO2 emissions. In furtherance the model predicts the exploitation
of various fuels during the planning period and the emission levels for the
various emission reduction targets that are imposed. The total generation cost
of electrical energy is determined for various emission reduction scenarios.

3.3.6 Comparison of Various PV Cells for the PV Installations

The methodology described in the earlier section estimates the

level of permissible installations in a region (Tamil Nadu state) under various
scenarios which considers various factors like growing demand in the state,
availability of resources (conventional and non conventional), losses in power
transmission, operation of existing energy sources (conventional and non
conventional) etc. Three photovoltaic cells with their electrical and physical
 88

properties are used for comparison. As per the initial assumption the cells for
all the possible potential installation with respect to various scenarios are
uniform throughout the state. Monocrystalline cells that constitute the
commercially available panels along with the Concentrating photovoltaic cell
panel is considered.

Table 3.7 Various parameters of the different PV cells

Parameters Values
156.25
Area of the SIEMENS PV Cell cm2
Area of the CEL PV Cell 78.54 cm2
Area of the CPV cell 22.5 cm2
Area of the SIEMENS PV module 0.6 m2
Area of the CEL PV module 0.4 m2
Area of the CPV Module 0.0475 m2
Mass of Single SIEMENS cell 12.578 g
Mass of Single CEL cell 6.322 g
Mass of Single CPV cell 1.5525 g
Density of Silicon 2.3 g/cm3

3.3.6.1 Area and mass of Silicon required for Photovoltaic installations

The area and mass of Silicon required for the fulfillment of PV

installations using a standard SIEMENS module and a CPV cell is estimated
as below,

MW a SIEMENS or CPV
Total module area requirement (Aj)= mod ule
m2
Wp SIEMENS or CPV

(3.6)
where

a SIEMENS or CPV = Area of SIEMENS or CPV module in m2

Wp SIEMENS or CPV
= Watt Peak rating of the Siemens/CPV module
 89

A j m SIEMENS or CPV
Mass of Silicon required = g (3.7)
a SIEMENS or CPV cell

where

mSIEMENS or CPV = mass of a single SIEMENS or CPV Cell in grams

a SIEMENS or CPV cell

= area of a single SIEMENS or CPV cell in m2

The total module area requirement is calculated using

Equation (3.6) which represents a most optimistic situation if the entire PV
installations are of a same cell type. Whereas the silicon required for making
up of the modules is calculated by considering the mass of silicon required for
either the SIEMENS or the CPV cell and the area of the single SIEMENS or
CPV cell. The values can also be expressed in tonnes.

3.3.6.2 Embodied energy requirement for PV installations

Energy payback analysis is an important measure in justifying

energy intensive processes especially related to the semiconductor industry
especially the production of photovoltaic cells. Embodied energy is the
energy required for making the system to a functional level. It is desired that
the energy required for this purpose must be lesser than the energy generated
system enabling to make the energy payback time as quick as possible.
Metallurgical grade silicon is obtained by the carbothermic reduction of
Silicon dioxide in the presence of wood chips, coal and coke. This is followed
by the conversion of the electronic grade silicon from metallurgical grade
silicon. Followed by this the Electronic grade silicon is melted in a
Czochralski puller at 1400oC and slowly crystallize the silicon to form a
single crystal ingot with an yield of 72%, the ingot can then be sliced to
obtain silicon wafers. A large amount of Silicon is wasted by slicing using a
multiwire saw. Cells can be made in a pseudo square or round cells. After
 90

fabrication of the cells, they are connected in series and encapsulated to form
a module. The module has front cover low iron tempered glass, encapsulant,
Solar cells, copper ribbon, tedlar and aluminium channel. Heat and pressure is
used for encapsulation and they are hermetically sealed. Besides this balance
of system components like wiring for interconnections foundation, support
structure, concrete foundations may require more energy. In energy analysis
Balance of system cannot be neglected.

Aj E SIEMENS E BOS
Embodied Energy SIEMENS 6
GWh (3.8)
10

MW 1000 E CPV MW 1000 E BOS E mirror

Embodied Energy CPV GWh
10 6
(3.9)

Where

Aj = Area of the SIEMENS module in m2

E BOS = Energy required for the making of Balance of system

ECPV = Energy required for CPV cells

E MIRROR = Energy for Mirror.

The embodied energy required for the permissible installations

under various scenarios can be calculated using the Equation (3.8) and (3.9).
The Energy required for making a PV module by the SIEMENS process is
666 kWh/m2 which includes the making of the cell from 1 kg of metallurgical
grade Silicon subsequently converting it to electronic grade silicon and the
energy intensive Czochralski process. Cell fabrication requires 120 kWh/m 2
and module assembly requires 190 kWh/m2 .The module assembly is again an
 91

energy intensive process owing to the fact that it needs pressure and
temperature for encapsulation. The Balance of system for roof top system in
building requires 404 kWh/m2 which includes the energy requirement for
support structure, battery, inverter and overall operation and maintenance of
the structures etc. (Nawaz and Tiwari 2006 and Chel et al 2009).

The embodied energy required for the CPV modules is close to that
of making Sliver cells which are also used as CPV cells. The energy required
for the making of the cell is 1863 kWh/kWp and the BOS energy requirement
is 359 kWh/kWp (Deenapanray et al 2004). Curved mirrors are important
equipment for a CPV system which requires 365 MJ/m2 of energy.
(Reflectech 2009).

3.3.6.3 Energy payback time (EPBT)

Energy output of the system is based on the average sunshine hours

per day, efficiency of the cell etc. Energy output of a photovoltaic system is
used to determine the Energy payback time in years. The energy payback time
signifies the time period required by energy yield to compensate the energy
investment in the PV power system.

Energy output of the system = Annual average insolation (kWh)

cell P.F BOS (3.10)

Where

cell = Efficiency of the cell (%)

BOS = Efficiency of BOS (%)

P.F = Packing factor.

 92

The energy output requires the details regarding the annual average
insolation and the cell’s respective packing. The Siemens cell has a packing
factor of 0.82 and a cell efficiency of 14.2% whereas the CPV cells are
tracked for which only direct beam radiation is considered. The CPV cells
have a packing factor of 0.84 and an efficiency of 17%. The availability of
radiation data in the country helps one to find suitable locations across the
country that is favorable for CPV installations. Besides this the CPV cells are
cooled by water which yields hot water for domestic use. While considering
300 days of sunshine across various locations the performance of the CPV
cells along with the commercially available SIEMENS cell.

Embodied Energy
Energy payback time (EPBT) = in years
Energyoutputof the system
(3.11)

3.4 TECHNO ECONOMICS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC

LINEAR CONCENTRATORS

As seen earlier, solar photovoltaic concentrators are based on

concentrating PV technique (CPV) which is characterized by energy intensive
high performance cells which generates electrical energy under concentrated
sunlight. This is used effectively for densely populated sites, a characteristic
feature of urban cities and also aids in reduced demand of semiconductor
grade silicon which are the building blocks of the photovoltaic systems.
A comparison in the energy intensiveness and inherent embodied energy
required for ordinary system and concentrating system is essential. A detailed
life cycle costing is needed to justify the energy payback of such a system.
During operation the CPV based system delivers photovoltaic electricity and
hot water (as a result of cell cooling) as deliverables which are suitable for
residential roof tops.
 93

The balance between PV and thermal outputs from the CHAPS is to

be considered while analyzing the techno economics. A suitable energy value
ratio must be used to divide the thermal output to make it equivalent to the
electrical output of the system. This is due to the fact that electrical and
thermal energy are not equally useful, electricity being the superior form of
energy in a given system. A wide range of electrical to thermal energy ratios
were determined. It takes the lowest value of 1 when both outputs are
considered as equally important, whereas a value of 2.5 is assumed for a coal
station efficiency of 40% and 4.2 is assumed for the renewable energy market
approach. Thus, the assumption of the energy value ratio is case specific for
any particular application (Coventry 2004).

The seasonal variation in the use of hot water systems is another

important factor while analyzing the techno economics of a hot water system.
Effective capacity utilization thus plays a major role (Chandrasekhar and
Kandpal 2004).

However, for a PV/T system the intended primary purpose is for

the generation of electricity, and so the solar energy is utilized for the
generation of PV power and hot water whenever the system is in operation,
the reason being that the hot water generated is by the effective cooling of the
PV cells whenever they are exposed to direct beam radiation. Volume flow
rates can be adjusted to have an effective balance between the thermal and
electrical energy generated by the system. In this study, a reference system is
assumed to be in service for the PV and hot water generation. The Centre for
Sustainable energy Systems (CSES) at the Australian National University
had developed PV/T systems or Combined Heat and Power Systems
(CHAPS) operating under a 37x concentration ratio. High performance
monocrystalline PV cells are bonded to the back of an aluminum receiver,
which has a conduit with internal longitudinal fins. A typical cooling
medium like water flows through the conduit to remove the heat from the
rear of the PV cell (Coventry 2005).
 94

Under typical operating conditions of 65oC of fluid temperature,

25oC of ambient temperature and direct beam radiation of 1000W/m 2, the
CHAPS collector has a thermal efficiency of 58% and electrical efficiency of
11%. A system considered for this study would theoretically yield 220Wp of
electrical energy and relative thermal energy for a collector aperture area of
6.6 m2. Thus fixing up of the reference system for the analysis is the first step
in the techno economic analysis.

The methodology adopted for the techno economic analysis is

diagrammatically presented in Figure 3.4. The purpose of the analysis is
twofold:

To determine the effect of carbon credits on the unit cost of

electricity generated by the CHAPS

To understand market acceptable cost structure of the CHAPS

with different incentives and benefits.

Figure 3.4 Methodology of the techno economic analysis

 95

Figure 3.5 Sensitivity analysis and the effect of carbon credits and
subsidies on the capital cost

1) The Cost based on the market price of various CHAPS system

components is determined. Details of the cost are obtained
from available resources. The system is defined by its
specification, including materials, dimensions and the
configuration of its elements. The specification generally
allows determining two critical features underpinning a
techno-economic assessment: The cost of the system and its
energy output.

The cost of the system depends on the local manufacturing

capabilities, cost of labour, components, and materials. In this
paper costs are estimated assuming that the system is
assembled and utilized in India from locally available
components. Maintenance is also included in the cost
structure.

2) The Energy output from the CHAPS has two distinct routes,
one electrical and the other thermal. The energy output is
determined by the system configuration and climatic
 96

conditions. The annual energy output of solar generators such

as CHAPS can be predicted by applying the annual climate
data to the systems physical configuration. The mean monthly
global and diffuse radiation values for 23 different locations
for India are available from Solar Radiation Handbook (2008).
The Collares-Perera-Rabl model is used for determination of
the hourly radiation on a daily basis. As there is a daily
requirement of PV power, either on site utilization or with
battery storage, hot water is generated whenever the collector
is operational. The electrical energy subsystem includes the
batteries for storage, a charge controller, wires for
interconnections etc. The thermal energy subsystems include
the hot water storage tank, pipes, controller etc.

3) Thermal energy being a lower grade of energy is converted

into its electrical equivalent by four different approaches as
described in the forthcoming section.

4) The energy generated by the CHAPS system is the energy

saved by the customer by exempting the use of grid electricity;
hence, the unit price of electricity is used to determine the
money that could be saved by the customer. A portion of the
money saved by using the CHAPS system is used for the
maintenance of the system. The remaining amount gives the net
annual monetary benefits obtained in using the CHAPS system.

5) The Net Annual Monetary Benefits (NAMB) are considered

based on the maintenance cost incurred within the annual
money savings.

6) A sensitivity study as per Figure 3.5 is conducted based on

varying the parameters like, maintenance cost and the capital
 97

cost of the system to arrive at a cost that could suggest better

financial figures of merit and affordable to the customer. The
financial figures of merit are calculated by varying the Capital
cost from a minimum value for various discount rates. The
positive NPV values and Benefit to cost ratios (B/C ratios)
that are greater than one are considered for the next level for
analyzing the effect of variation in maintenance cost. The
maintenance costs that make positive NPV values are used for
further investigation where the effect of fuel price increase is
studied. Thus the market acceptable cost of the CHAPS
system that would yield tangible benefits to the customer is
determined.

7) Carbon credits are calculated based on the lifetime energy

output of the CHAPS, which are used to mitigate the capital
cost which otherwise is higher for accruing better monetary
benefits. The unit cost of energy is then recalculated, based on
the revised capital cost of the system.

8) The existing incentives and subsidies for the Solar based

energy systems were analyzed to arrive at a final cost that
would bring down the real time cost of the CHAPS based on
standard estimates of raw materials equivalent to the market
acceptable cost for the customer.

3.4.1 Climate Considerations and Solar Radiation Data

Climate data of interest are the following radiation values: Annual

global radiation Gda(0), annual diffuse radiation Dda(0). To calculate the
 98

average daily values along the year, the average daily monthly values, G dm(0),
Ddm(0) and Bdm(n) are needed initially.

There are different source of data depending of each country and

the records of the public and private organizations within each of them. There
are mainly two sets of data that were available: direct data and indirect data.
Direct data come from measurements from ground stations that records
global, diffuse and direct radiation, by using specific equipments:
pyranometer (global), pyranometer with shading component (diffuse) and
pyrheliometer (direct). On the other hand, due to the unavailability of direct
measurements, it is common to use indirect data, which comes from satellite
images and sunshine hours (Campbell-Stokes recorder). From these initial
data the estimation of the components of global, diffuse and direct can be
calculated, with certain uncertainty.

The primary source data for Indian meteorological location is taken

from Solar Radiation Hand Book 2008 (Solar Energy Centre and MNRE
Indian Meteorological Department, data 1986-2000). From the required data,
it is possible to estimate the average monthly values Gdm(0) and Ddm(0).

Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the value of the direct beam,

Bdm(n), for India, to analyze the potential of concentrators. The lack of data of
direct beam is a very common problem in most regions all over the world.
On the other hand, data from global and diffuse are not so scarce. From
these values, different models have been established by different research
groups in order to estimate the value of Direct Normal radiation (DNI) (Liu
1960, Collares 1979). One of the most accepted and a used model is the
 99

Collares-Pereira-Rabl model (Collares 1979). We have used this model to

estimate the value of Bdm(n) for India.

Gdm(0)

Ddm(0)

Ghm(0)
Dhm(0)
B hm(0)=Ghm(0)-D hm(0)

Bhm(n)

Bdm(n)= B hm(n)

Figure 3.6 Diagram explaining the calculation of the daily beam

normal irradiation Bdm(n) from the corresponding
horizontal value Gdm(0)

Figure 3.6 shows the flowchart by how the available solar radiation
data is converted into a useful form. This model uses the global horizontal
component value Gdm(0) as initial data. From this value, the diffuse radiation
is calculated first Ddm(0), and then the hourly values of global, diffuse and
direct horizontal beam are calculated. Direct normal beam is calculated from
these values, and finally monthly and yearly data are obtained based on
integration. In summary, the steps are as follows.

1. Initial data consists of monthly mean daily irradiation value on

horizontal surface.
 100

2. To calculate the diffuse radiation on the horizontal surface.

3. To estimate hourly daily irradiation for global, diffuse and
direct radiation on the horizontal surface.
4. To estimate direct normal irradiation.
5. To integrate monthly to obtain Bdm(n).
6. To integrate yearly Gda(0), Dda(0) and Bda(n) values

To calculate the diffuse irradiation, Ddm(0), the extra atmospheric

component (B0d) is calculated initially

24
Bod (0 ) Bsc 0 cos cos s cos s sin s (3.6)

360
23.45 sin dn 284 (3.7)
365

s arccos tan tan (3.8)

360d n
0 1 0.033 cos (3.9)
365

Bsc (Wh / m 2 ) 1367 (3.10)

where dn is the number of day of the year, is the declination, s is the

sunrise angle, o is the correction for others distances sun – Earth, B sc is the
solar constant, and is the latitude:

From the extra atmospheric radiation, the index of clearness, K Tm,

the relation between the solar radiation at the Earth’s surface and the
Extraterrestrial can be obtained. This index gives a measure of the
atmospheric transparency.

Gdm (0 )
K Tm (3.12)
B0 dm (0 )
 101

On the other hand, Liu and Jordan (1960) established an empirical

correlation between the fraction of diffuse of horizontal radiation,
KDm= Ddm(0)/Gdm(0), and the clearness index, defined by

K Dm 1 1.13K Tm (3.13)

By using this equation, we can calculate the value of diffuse light,

Ddm(0).

Hourly irradiation Ghm(0), Dhm(0) and Bhm(0) are estimated using

the factors of diffuse irradiance, rD, and of global irradiance, rG, defined by the
following equations, which have been examined with different.

cos cos S
D( 0 ) B0 (0) T
rD (3.14)
Dd (0) Bod (0)
S cos S sin S
180

G (0 )
rG rD a b cos (3.15)
Gd (0)

where a and b are as follows:

a 0.409 0.5016sin( S 60) (3.16)

b 0. 6609 0 .4767sin( S 60) (3.17)

and where s is the solar hour, or the true solar time, or local apparent time:

LL LH
(h ) OT 12 EOT AO (3.18)
15

where EOT is the Equation of time:

EOT (hours ) 0.128 sin d n 2.8 o 0 .165 sin 2d n 19.7 o (3.19)

 102

AO is the daylight savings (according to each country, for example

India does not use daylight savings) OT is the Official time; LL is the
Longitude; and LH is the Reference longitude.

Finally, we can estimation the hourly direct normal irradiation

Bhm(n):

B(0)
Bhm (n) (3.20)
cos ZS

where B is the direct irradiance falling on a surface perpendicular to the sun’s

rays, and cos ZS is the solar zenith angle.

cos ZS sin sin cos cos cos sin s (3.21)

where S is the solar altitude (or elevation), which represents the angle
between the horizon and the solar beam in a plane determined by the zenith
and the sun. (Figure 3.7)

Figure 3.7 Position of the sun relative to a fixed point on the Earth
(Luque 2003)
 103

A cylindrical parabolic collector similar to the linear concentrator is

oriented with its focal axis aligned in the North-South direction and the
collector is tilted in the East-West direction so that the solar beam makes the
minimum angle of incidence with the aperture plane at all times. The
minimum angle of incidence is determined with this equation

2 1/2
cos sin sin cos cos cos cos2 sin 2 (3.22)

The tilt factor rb for the aperture plane is given by

cos
rb (3.23)
cos z

The product of the tilt factor and the value of beam radiation (B eff)
give the value of incident radiation on the aperture plane of the collector
(Beff.n).

By integrating the hourly values of the direct normal beam, the

monthly values are obtained, and then the yearly value of Direct normal
radiation (DNI) is estimated. This procedure is applied to the Indian radiation
values in order to obtain the DNI. The optical design considerations are to be
considered while assessing the performance of the collector. It is evident that
the solar radiation from the sun does not fall perpendicularly on the collector
surface and causes some of the flux to be focused beyond the edges of the
concentrators. Due to this reason some of the area is lost due to edge effects
while considering the active area of solar concentration.

2 W a2
Area lost = Wa h p f Wa 1 (3.24)
3 48 f 2

where hp is the height of the parabola and f is the focal length.

 104

Other weather variables that can be analyzed to complete a detailed

study of the climatic conditions of the location are the temperature, the
sunshine hours, the wind speed and wind direction, and the spectral
distribution of the irradiance.

3.4.2 Useful Energy Output from a Single Collector

A reference CHAPS system like the prototype described previously

is selected for this study. The theoretical electrical and thermal output of the
system are based on local meteorological conditions. The system is assumed
to be N-S oriented and E-W tracked and the available direct beam radiation is
used for the PV and thermal energy conversion.

The electrical output of the CHAPS system is quantified as per the

theoretical model described below:

2
Eh [kWh] Beff .n Ac opt rx 1 T I sc Rs PR (3.25)

Eh, thermal[kWth h] Beff . n Ac thermal (3.26)

where

Eh[kWh] is the energy produced hourly by the concentrator, in

kWh.

Beff.n is the radiation collected by the concentrator normal to its

surface

Ac is the collector area,

opt is the optical efficiency,

rx is the receiver efficiency at STC with a cell temperature of

25ºC,
 105

is the coefficient of variation of efficiency with temperature,

T is the temperature difference between the real cell

temperature and the temperature at Standard Test Conditions,
25ºC.

I is the short-circuit current produced by the system,

Rs is the series resistance of the array

Eh,thermal [kWh] is the electrical energy produced hourly by the

concentrator, in kWthh ,and

thermal is the system thermal efficiency.

PR is the ‘performance ratio.

The above Equations (3.25) and (3.26) shows the useful energy
output from the CHAPS system in kWh. The PV output is limited to 220 W p
for a size of 6.6 m2 of collector aperture area. The limitation is to account for
the edge effects. The system efficiency takes into account the efficiencies of
the charge controller CC and battery BATT , since the power stored is used

during off sunshine hours. Water which acts as a cooling medium, takes the
heat away from the rear side of the PV cells. The heated water is stored in a
storage tank which caters to urban household needs. The thermal energy
collected is based on the hybrid efficiency of the collector since a major
portion of the collector is PV/T (Photovoltaic/Thermal) whereas the
remaining portion is purely a thermal receiver. A theoretical combined
efficiency of 53% considering the purely thermal receiver efficiency and the
hybrid efficiency of the PV/T receiver is thus considered.
 106

The concentrating PV collector prototype needs a single axis

tracking system for continuously capturing the sunlight. The collector is
longitudinally oriented in the N-S direction and tracked in the E-W direction

Table 3.8 CPV Cell and CHAPS characteristics

System Parameters Values

2
Collector net aperture area in m (Ar) 6.6
Aperture area corresponding to the mirror area in
m2 2.2
Geometric concentration (X) 37
Optical efficiency (%) 93.5
Series resistance (Rs) 0.043
Receiver efficiency at STC (%) 17
Coefficienct of variation with temperature (%/oC) 0.4
Short circuit current at STC (Isc) 20.25
Performance ration (%) 70

The electrical energy and thermal energy outputs of the CHAPS

system for a reference day in a month is thus integrated for the whole month
to get the total yield of the month and further integrated to get the total yield
per year.

28,30,31
E m, PV [ kWh] Eh dn (3.27)
d 0

28, 30,31
Em ,thermal[kWth h] Eh ,thermaldn (3.28)
d 0

12
E y ,PV [ kWh] Em [ kWh] (3.29)
m 1

12
E y ,thermal[kWth h] Em,thermal (3.30)
m 1
 107

3.4.3 Development of Equivalent Energy Value Ratios

The earlier section addresses the issue of the electrical and thermal
output of the CHAPS collector. One will be able to get two different energy
forms from a single unit. However for the techno economic analysis the
energy output of the system must be quantified as a single term. Electrical and
thermal forms of energy are not equally valuable as the former is more
superior to the later. To proceed further we must be able to represent the
energy output of the CHAPS collector as a single unit. It is so evident that
there cannot be a price attached to the thermal energy use in the country as the
thermal energy is not supplied through a centralized heating system. In this
situation the useful thermal energy in the domestic sector has to be converted
to an equivalent electrical form with suitably developed ratios for various
circumstances. The concept of usefulness of thermal energy in par with the
electrical energy is thus justified. The ratios compare the worth of the thermal
energy in par with the electrical energy.

Domestic sector in India uses thermal energy for varying purposes

like cooking, bathing, cleaning etc. Various means of generating hot water is
being adopted ranging from immersion rod heaters to electrical geysers. Fuels
ranging from electricity to LPG are used for achieving this purpose. The
following section addresses the methodology adopted to develop equivalent
energy ratios.

3.4.3.1 Equal value Approach

Electricity in the state/country is supplied by the nationalized grid

which has the tariff in a compartmental system. The billing is normally done
bimonthly and the customers pay according to the tariff structure. In the equal
value approach the useful electrical energy and thermal energy are treated
equal thus the ratio is unity. The thermal output of the collector is summed up
with the electrical output of the collector.
 108

3.4.3.2 Open Market Approach

In the open market approach, the commonest forms of thermal

energy generation and the operating cost of the thermal energy generation as
per the market price is considered. The domestic sector in India retorts to
either electrical heating with geysers or with gas based heating. Cooking gas
for the domestic use is available in standard cylinders meant for the domestic
energy use and are available based on successive replacements. In this
approach these two forms are considered and the ratio is developed based on a
reference electricity price assuming suitable electrical energy consumption in
an urban home.

The alternative form of thermal energy generation is by electrical

geysers which has a well established market in India with a lot of customers
in the domestic sector. The thermal energy cost based on these energy forms
is calculated using these formulas

Qg c LPG
Cost of thermal Energy generation by gas heaters [Rs/kWh] =
Hg Wg
(3.31)

where

Qg = Gas Consumption in kg/hr

Hg = Rate of Hot water generation (Litres/h)
c LPG = Cost of LPG Cylinder (Rs/Refill)
Wg = Weight of the Cylinder refill in Kg.

Cy e t
Cost of thermal Energy generation by electric heaters [Rs/kWh]= UC ee
Ve
(3.32)
 109

where

Cy e = Capacity of the electrical heater in kW

Ve = Holding capacity of the electric heater in Liters
t = Time taken for raising the water temperature
UC ee = Unit cost of electricity in Rs/kWh

The energy value ratio is the Cost of electricity paid by the

customer to the service provider to the cost incurred for obtaining the thermal
energy either by using an instant gas water heater or the conventional electric
geyser.

3.4.3.3 Levelized cost of energy approach

Levelized cost of the energy takes into account the cost of operation
of an electrical water heater of the same capacity described in the previous
section in totality by considering the operational and maintenance cost of the
equipment and the amount of thermal energy generated annually.

CC el CRF O&M ee
Levelized Cost of thermal energy [Rs/kWh] =
E th
(3.33)

where

CC el = Capital cost of the Electric water heater in Rs

n
i1 i
CRF = Capital Recovery factor = n
1 i 1
O& M ee = Operational and Maintenance charges
E th = Thermal Energy generated per annum
i = Interest rate
n = Life time of the heater.
 110

3.4.3.4 Renewable Energy market approach

The renewable energy market approach considers the energy

generated by a simple home based PV system and the energy generated by
operating an ordinary roof top solar water heater. The Load demand of the
domestic side is estimated by conducting a survey which depicts the use of
electrical energy for lighting purposes. The sizing of the PV system is done as
per the procedure adopted by A.Chel et al (2009).

The cost estimates are based on the sizing done and average energy
generated by the PV system is used for estimating the Levelized cost of PV
energy generated by the system.

Total Cost of the SAPV system = Cost of the PV Array + Cost

of Charge controller + Cost
of Battery bank + Cost of
inverter.

Overall cost of the SAPV system = 1.4 * {Total Cost of the

SAPV system}

The Overall cost of the SAPV system includes balance of system or

structure cost and land procurement cost. The life time cost of the SAPV
system includes present salvage value (P s) of the SAP V system and the
present battery bank cost (P b). The net present cost of the SAPV system is the
summation of capital investment (P i) along with all other cost components
converted to present cost subtracted by the present salvage value.

C NET = Ci + Cb - Cs (3.34)
 111

The uniform annualized cost of PV system over a 20 year life time

is calculated as

20
i 1 i
CA C NET 20
(3.35)
1 i 1

Maintenance cost of the SAPV system over a life time is generally

considered as 10% of the uniform annualized cost.

Annualized life cycle cost = 1.1 * CA (3.36)

The annual energy generated (E) by the SAPV system annually is

the amount of PV power generated for at least 300 days in a year for an
average 5.6 hours of sunlight daily

Thus the unit cost of electricity from the SAPV system is

Annualizedlife cycle cos t

UC SAPV
(3.37)
E

The unit cost of thermal energy generated by conventional solar

water heater is estimated as per the formula

T
i1 i
Co T
mC 0
1 i 1
UC THER (3.38)
VC p T f Ti N 3 .6 e

The ratio is the unit cost of electricity generated by SAPV system

and unit cost of thermal energy generated by a solar thermal collector.

E y ,Thermal kWhth
UE CHAPS E y , PV KWh (3.39)
EV

The Energy value ratios are developed as per the assumptions in Appendix 3.
 112

3.4.4 Financial Figures of Merit

The financial figures of merit are simple yet useful tools in

determining the financial viability of any investment. The methodology of
determining the suitable and optimum cost of a renewable energy system like
CHAPS system is centered around these financial figures of merit.

3.4.4.1 Simple payback period

CO1
SPP CHAPS (3.40)
NAMB CHAPS

The Simple payback period is the ratio of the capital cost to the net
annual monetary benefits.

3.4.4.2 Monetary worth of fuel savings

The monetary worth of fuel savings (Rs) can be calculated by

multiplying the annual energy savings with the fuel cost. Here, the fuel
replaced by the CHAPS system is electricity, so the market value of
electricity is considered for the analysis.

MWFS CHAPS
UE CHAPS
Pf (3.41)

where Pf is the price of electricity in Rs/unit.

3.4.4.3 Net annual monetary benefits

The Net annual monetary benefits takes into account the amount of
money spent on the maintenance of the CHAPS system

NAMB CHAPS MWFS CHAPS m MWFS CHAPS (3.42)

where m is the repair and maintenance cost of the CHAPS system.

 113

3.4.4.4 Net Present Value (NPV)

The NPV is the difference between the present value of the net
annual benefits and the capital cost, where n is the useful life of a system
(years) and d is the discount rate and S is the salvage value.

T
1 d 1 S
NPV NAMB CHAPS T T
C o1 (3.43)
d1 d 1 d

where

S = Salvage value

D = discount rate in %

T = life time of the CHAPS system

C o1 = Capital cost of the CHAPS system based on sensitivity

3.4.4.5 Benefit to Cost ratio

The Benefit to cost ratio, otherwise known as the profitability

index, is the ratio of the net present value of the investment to the capital cost
of the investment. The values of the benefit to cost ratios higher than 1 prove
a better project initiative since the benefits from the investment are of a higher
value than the cost.

T
1 d 1 S
NAMB CHAPS T T
B d1 d 1 d
(3.44)
C CHAPS Co1
 114

3.4.4.6 Internal Rate of Return

Equating the NPV to zero and solving for d gives the internal rate
of return for a project. It is an indicator of the efficiency, quality or the yield
of the investment.

T
1 d 1 S
NAMB CJHAPS T T
Co1 0 (3.45)
d1 d 1 d

Solving for d gives the IRR value.

A sensitivity analysis by varying the capital cost of the system is

carried out with respect to the various financial performance indicators and
various scenarios were developed.

3.4.5 Life Cycle costing and Analysis

The earlier section shows the cost structure and other financial
figures of merit that are favorable to the customer, however the real cost
estimates as per the market estimates are far high than the favorable costs
which are essential to identify the extent up to which incentives and subsidies
can bridge the gap. Moreover the lifecycle analysis shows the extent up to
which the energy payback is achieved in renewable energy systems like
photovoltaic linear concentrators. The Life cycle analysis, first of all involves
the system design for a rated output (both PV and Thermal). A CHAPS unit
based on solar photovoltaic linear concentrator has both PV electricity and
thermal energy at the user’s disposal. The Life cycle cost for a reference
system having a rated output of 220 Wp and a thermal energy output of 3507
kWh is presented in this section. The procedure adopted by Chel et al (2009)
is adopted with suitable modifications. Maximum rating of the Photovoltaic
 115

part of the system in represented in Wp , which indicates the rated efficiency of

the collector under standard test conditions.

Inverter capacity = 1.1 PV rating (W p ) (3.46)

Charge controller

PV rating (W p )
Capacity = in Amps (3.47)
Battery bank design voltage

Load suitable for the CHAPS unit

Design load (ED)= PV rating (W p ) Sunshine hours / day (3.48)

Autonomy days Design load

Battery bank size = in Ah (3.49)
Battery Voltage

Battery bank size ( Ah )

Number of Batteries = (3.50)
Amp.hr capacity of each battery

Life cycle cost (LCC)= C02+C1+C2+C3-C4-C5 (3.51)

where

C02 = Initial Capital Investment based on LCC

C1 = Maintenance and operational cost

C2 = Battery replacement cost

C3 = Present worth of battery bank cost

C4 = Mitigation cost

C5 = Salvage value
 116

The initial capital investment C02 includes the cost of the CHAPS
unit and Power conditioning unit. The CHAPS system cost includes the cost
of the mirrors for concentration, aluminum receiver for heat removal system,
aluminum cladding, structural supports, PV cell cost, glass wool for
insulation, solar tracker and its control unit, water circulation unit, the related
pipe work, thermal storage tank and wiring cost.

Aap
C 02 C MIRROR C CELL C BOS C MISC (3.52)
C .R

The power conditioning unit cost comprises of the cost of the

Inverter, charge controller and battery bank. The maintenance cost (C 1) is
allocated from the portion of the monetary worth of the fuel savings incurred
each year during its operation. The sensitivity analysis is used to determine
the limits of the maintenance cost that can be accommodated well within the
money worth of fuel savings without affecting the benefit to cost ratio.
Battery replacement cost (C2) is 0.93 times the cost of battery bank. Present
worth of the battery bank cost (C3) considering four replacements during the
20 year lifetime is considered as a recurring cost. The mitigation cost (C 4) is
the amount of credits earned during the course of the operation of CHAPS
unit in the entire life time. The carbon dioxide mitigation potential is
determined from the average emission baseline issued by the Central
Electricity Authority, Government of India. The salvage value (C5) is the cost
apportioned from 5% of the capital cost which is redeemed after the life time
of the CHAPS unit but the present worth is considered for fixed discount rates
for the twenty year period.

Annualized life cycle cost is determined using the formula

20
d 1 d
CA = LCC 20
(3.53)
1 d 1
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The cost per unit of Energy generated by the CHAPS system is

given by

CA
UC CHAPS (3.54)
UEE CHAPS

Table 3.9 Cost estimates of various constituent materials of the

CHAPS unit

Material Cost per unit

Mirrors 113.4AU$/m2
Aluminium Rs 107.05/kg
Glass wool Rs 198/kg
Aluminium sheet Rs 165/kg
Structural supports MS
angles, plates Rs 212.727/Wp
Tracking unit Rs 110/Wp
CPV cells 2 Euros/cm2
PV wiring cost Rs 7.27/Wp
Thermal storage tank Rs 3.209/kWhth
Cost of Inverter US$0.719/W
Cost of Charge controller US$5.87/A
Cost of Battery bank US$1/Ah

The above table shows the various constituents that make up the
CHAPS unit in its entirety. The estimates are obtained from the standard
market estimates and available literature. Labor cost for laying cables and
wire interconnections are included in the cost of structural supports and PV
wiring cost individually. The estimate for the concentrating PV cost is
obtained from the estimates by Connor (2008). The estimates for the power
conditioning unit are obtained from Chel et al (2009). The effect of price
reduction on the CHAPS unit is studied by considering the reduction of
Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) cell prices and mirror cost by 70% and the
 118

reduction of the tracker unit price by 75%. The estimates by the lowest and
intermediate values yields the other two possible cost structures along with
the actual capital cost of the system which in the real sense is much higher.

3.4.6 The role of Incentives and subsidies in the promotion of

CHAPS

Several initiatives are taken by the Government of India for the

promotion of renewable energy systems and solar energy in particular. The
primary idea for incentives and subsidies are to ensure that the buying price
which is the capital cost of the system must be with in the affordable reach of
the customer.

Personal Investment = C 02 f cs C 02 (3.55)

where C 02 is the capital cost and f cs is the fraction of capital cost provided as
capital subsidy

Personal Investment = C 02 f is C 02 (3.56)

where f is is the fraction of capital cost provided as low interest loan

Personal Investment = 1 f cs 1 f ' is C 02 (3.56)

where f is ' is the fraction of capital cost provided as low interest loan available
after capital subsidy.

The guidelines of off grid and de-centralized solar applications for

the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar mission (JNNSM, MNRE, GoI, 2010)
reveals that the scale of capital subsidy is Rs 90/Wp with battery storage and
Rs 70/Wp without battery storage and soft loans at 5% per annum. Rs 5.50/-
 119

is given as Generation based incentive for a duration of 25 years for grid

interactive systems.

The possible outcomes of the capital cost structures based on the

effect of financial and fiscal incentives on the effective capital cost of solar
energy to the user is calculated based on the actual capital cost, lower and
intermediate capital cost structures that arises after price reductions as
calculated in the earlier section. Suitable combinations of these were
suggested (Chandrasekar and Kandpal 2005) and are practically feasible. The
efficacy of the schemes highlighted is known in terms of their potential to
reduce the capital cost by a significant amount.

Table 3.10 Assumptions and input values for financing schemes

S.I No Parameter Value

1 Fraction of the Capital cost as Capital subsidy (fcs) 0.08
2 Fraction of the Capital cost as Interest subsidy (fis) 0.8
3 Fraction of the Capital cost paid out of Capital gain (fcg) 0.9
4 Fraction of the Capital cost as Commercial loan (fbl) 0.9
5 Commercial rate of interest charged by the bank (ib) 0.15
6 Rate of interest charged by Govt. Financing inst (if) 0.05
7 Discount Rate (d) 0.12,0.06,0.04
8 No of Loan repayment instalments (n) 4
9 Effective Loan repayment instalment (neff) 20
10 Number of after purchase and when income tax benefits 12
realized by the user (p)
11 Loan repayment period (T) 5
12 Marginal Income tax rate applicable to the user (t1) 0.3
13 Marginal Income tax rate applicable to the user (t2) 0.3

The above Table 3.10 shows the basic assumptions that are available in
the country for the CHAPS unit based on Solar linear concentrators, as this is a
hybrid system that generates both PV electricity and hot water, it is an ideal
candidate for attracting subsidies for both as a photovoltaic system as well as a
hot water system, however since the primary energy evolved here is Electrical
energy and the CHAPS unit is considered as a Photovoltaic system and the
available subsidies from the government are taken into account. The
 120

guidelines from the JNNSM are used for fixing the fraction of the capital cost as
capital subsidies and interest subsidies. The discount rates are considered
from the life cycle analyses that were qualified from the sensitivity study
based on the net present values and benefit to cost ratio values.

3.4.7 The role of carbon credits

Carbon credits are initiatives at the national and international levels

to mitigate the growth of concentrations of Green house gases. India has so
far generated about 30 million carbon credits, and a further 140 million
credits are in the wait for being generated and the government had approved
over 1400 projects as a part of the clean development mechanism that would
attract about 6 billion US$ by 2012 (Business Standard 2010). The emission
mitigation is considered on the basis of regional baseline for the financial year
2008-09 based on the latest updated baseline carbon dioxide emissions from
power sector (Version 5), the weighted average emission factor increased
from 0.79 tCO2/MWh to 0.82 tCO2/MWh. The combined margin for the
southern grid and the NEWNE grid are 0.90 and 0.84 tCO2/MWh respectively
against a national average of 0.86 tCO2/MWh. (CO2 Baseline database, 2009)

Based on the average emission factor (combined Margin) of 0.86

kg CO2/kWh, the effect of Carbon credits potential is considered for the
environmental implications of the CHAPS system and to offset the high
capital cost.

CO2 mitigated (kg/life) = 0.86 (kg/kWh) UEE CHAPS

(kWh/year) n(year) (3.58)

where

UEE CHAPS = Energy generated by the CHAPS system in a year

n = Life time of the CHAPS system

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Purohit and Purohit (2010) suggested that internalization of CO 2

emissions mitigation benefits reduces the unit cost of electricity within a CER
value of 15 Euros. The carbon credits earned are calculated based on the
assumption that the monetary value of one carbon credit as 15 Euros

Carbon credits earned = 15 Euros/CER CO2 emissions

mitigated (kg/life) (3.59)

(1 Euro = Rs 64.2271)

The effects of the carbon credits, which can be a justifiable cause of

future renewable energy promotion, is thus represented as

P net = (CC)CHAPS - S - Carbon credit of the CHAPS system (3.60)

3.5 SURVEY BASED ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL, MARKET

AND ECONOMICAL POTENTIAL

A structured questionnaire was developed to get the general opinion

on energy related issues and the acceptability of the CHAPS unit among the
public in a densely populated area in Chennai. This micro level study in the
later stages would aim at getting the economic and market potential of the
CHAPS unit based on the acceptance and other economic factors in the city at
large. The area selected for the study is Adambakkam which falls under the
Alandur municipality in Chennai. The residents mostly belong to the middle
and upper middle classes. Unlike many other suburbs in Chennai, this place
has more individual houses rather than apartments.

The following details are sought from the responses to the

questionnaires. The survey was conducted on an interview type where a
volunteer was designated to visit the homes for the survey.
 122

1. Demographic details highlighting the age, gender, level of

education, house hold income and family size.

2. Awareness level of the people in energy related issues and

modality of getting awareness of energy related issues

3. Acceptance level of Renewable energy systems in general,

Barriers of CHAPS, acceptance if barriers are removed and
reasons for accepting CHAPS .

4. Economic factors like time frame for buying such a system,

Funding options sought for buying the CHAPS and the effect
of issues like carbon tax in the future

5. Awareness about Green building concepts.

The concept of CHAPS system was explained clearly in the

questionnaire and by the volunteer if needed. The questionnaire allowed the
respondent to issue a tick mark based on the responses which need not be
constrained to one choice all the time and some of the questions allowed them
to rank according to their preferences. About 75 households were contacted in
the survey process and all of them responded to the survey as it was an
interview type questionnaire survey. A target area is chosen for the pilot study
of the CHAPS system for which a questionnaire based survey is conducted to
estimate the potentials, followed by an exhaustive survey conducted amongst
various respondents spread across various cities in the state.

In order to study the market potential of a specific technology, a

previous estimation of the technical potential in the target region is required.
Market potential analysis describes the maximum capacity of a defined
market for a specific product within a definite time period and a target area,
and it has to be preceded by an estimation of the available technical potential
of the analyzed technology in the region. For a heavily populated country like
 123

India an initial estimate of the technical potential of the CHAPS technology

for a target area is carried out and the results can be extrapolated to any areas
that share common features.

The technical potential of the CHAPS system in Chennai (India) is

estimated based on the methodology that links the micro level factors and
macro level effects affecting the adoption of solar water heating systems
(Pillai and Banerjee 2007). This methodology is a micro-level simulation to
estimate the technical potential for a particular end use.

The technical potential is determined based on the Electrical

demand part that is being satisfied by the theoretical output of the CHAPS
system for which only lighter loads like fans and lights are considered for the
potential estimation. The output of the CHAPS system is determined as per
3.25 and 3.26 respectively.

2
ACHAPS_ prototypem2
TechnicalPotentialm EdemandedkWh
Ea,CHAPS_ prototype kWh
(3.61)

where,

Amirror, total is the total technical potential for the system

regarding the electrical part, in m2;

Edemamded is the annually electrical load in the target area, in

kWh;

ACHAPS _ prototype is the collector area of the prototype, in m2; and

Ea , CHAPS _ prototype is the annually electrical output of the prototype,

in kWh.
 124

The total mirror area including that for the thermal energy
collection is also considered in this study. Social acceptance of CHAPS unit
in a target area is an important factor in determining the market potential.
Much of the discussions in the technology transfer, at times overlooks the
concept of social acceptance. The respondents were enquired about their
eagerness towards the purchase of the product and then were asked about their
willingness to buy the product in a fixed time period. Respondents who were
interested in buying the CHAPS unit in the next 5 years were only considered
as potential buyers.

Market Potential = Mirror area of CHAPS f1 f2 (3.62)

where

f1 = Fraction of respondents interested in CHAPS

f2 = Fraction of respondents interested in the next 5 Years.

The respondents were asked about their preferences of investment

in the CHAPS system by giving various choices. Prices ranging from Rs
2,00,000 and above with 10 Years of Maintenance, Between Rs 1,50,000 and
Rs 2,00,000 with 5 years of maintenance, between Rs 1,00,000 and Rs
1,50,000 with 1 Year maintenance and Rs 1,00,000 with no maintenance were
given as options. The Economic potential of the CHAPS unit is assumed to be
the price up to which the respondents in the market could afford to pay for
purchasing the CHAPS system. The economic potential is thus determined by
the fraction f3 based on various payment options of the respondents.

A similar survey was conducted in a larger scale by covering

various cities in the state in the similar lines of the earlier target area survey
and the radiation data for the Chennai city and the theoretical output of the
collector was used for calculating the requirement of collector area surface for
the other cities.
 125

Mirror area corresponding

Market potential
to the PV area = m2 (3.63)
Number of mirrorsin each unit

Mirror area corresponding to the PV area 2

CPV Cell area = m (3.64)
Concentration ratio

The concentration ratio corresponding to the unit is 37x and the

number of mirrors per unit is three.

CPV Rating in the target area = Watt peakratingof sin gle unit CPVCellarea
CPVcell areaof a sin gleunit

(kWp)

(3.65)

The area of a single CPV module is 0.0475 m2 as per the effective

module area specifications. The above equations shows the Watt peak rating
with respect to the calculated economic potential of the CHAPS system based
on the CPV cells according to the social acceptance factors of the customers
in a target area.

Similar study can be performed at a macro level by considering the

other cities and locations in the state.

3.6 TESTING OF CHAPS ROOF TOP SYSTEM

The prototype being built at Anna University is based on the

CHAPS parabolic trough concentrator system from the ANU. It consist of
three mirrors and three receivers installed in a horizontal one-axis tracking
system north-south orientated. The system is hybrid, Photovoltaic/Thermal,
 126

producing electricity as well as heat that can be used for domestic

applications, such as hot water, space heating or cooling.

It is known that for a horizontal one axis, photovoltaic concentrator,

the effect of the irradiation in the edges due to the sun angle produces non-
uniform illumination in the receivers. This affects the electrical performance
of the receiver as non-uniform flux reduces the power output. For this small
prototype, only one combined receiver is used in the central position and the
two other receivers are purely thermal receivers with no photovoltaic solar
cells. This avoids the non-uniform illumination on the photovoltaic receiver
and increases the system performance. The configuration of the system is
shown in Figure. 3.8

4.2m

PV/The rmal
Rx

South North 1.550m

The rmal Rx
Mirrors

Figure 3.8 Configuration of the prototype at Anna University

With this configuration system, the total collector area is about

6.6m2, corresponding to three mirrors of 2.2m2 aperture areas each. To
calculate the total electrical output at standard conditions (1000W/m2, 25ºC),
the area corresponding to one mirror is considered as the mirror caters to the
illumination needed for one PV/T receiver. For a total system electrical
 127

efficiency is of 10%, then the total electrical output will be of 220W p at

standard testing conditions.

Regarding the thermal output, the calculation is similar, but in this

case there were two thermal receivers and one hybrid receiver which have
different thermal efficiencies. A theoretical combined efficiency of 53%
considering the purely thermal receiver efficiency and the hybrid efficiency of
the PV/T receiver is thus considered.

3.6.1 Mirrors, Receivers and Cells

Anna University had procured a total of three mirrors and three

receivers from the Australian National University for the setting up of the
prototype. Two extra mirrors have been also shipped in order to have spare
components. Regarding the receivers, two of them are purely thermal and one
is a hybrid PV/Thermal receiver.

Figure 3.9 Glass on metal laminate mirror (GOML)

 128

Mirrors are 1550m wide by 1420m long, with an aperture area of

2.2 m2. They correspond to ANU Bruce Hall project in the Australian
National University, Canberra. The mirrors are made by pasting the mirrors
on a metal laminate (Glass on Metal Laminate technique) and the ends are
supported by stamped ribs for stability. Figure 3.9 shows the photograph of a
Glass on Mirror Laminate (GOML) type mirror.

Table 3.11 Main characteristics of the mirror design

Mirror Characteristics Symbol Value Unit

Aperture width A 1550 mm
Mirror Length L 1420 mm
Aperture area A.L 2.2 m2
Focal length F 841 mm
Glass thickness Gt 1 mm
Weight (Including
support) m 28 kg
Mirror reflectivity R 93.5 %

The hybrid PV/Thermal receiver is composed by 25 cells, with a total

active area of 475cm2, and a total length of 1518 mm. Geometric concentration is
about 37X with a fill factor of 0.68. The mirrors are mounted on a support
structures made as per the specifications with MS angles as shown in
Figure 3.10. The support structures are ground mounted with foundation bolts on
the roof top. The mirrors and the receivers are mounted on the support structure.
The receiver with the PV cells and the purely thermal receivers are mounted in
the focal axis with a focal distance of 841 mm from the base.
 129

Figure 3.10 GOML Mirrors on support structure

Figure 3.11 Testing of the CHAPS unit on roof top with linear actuator
based tracking
 130

Out of the three receivers one receiver has the Photovoltaic part
having a peak rating of 220 Wp capacity. The Mirrors with an optical
efficiency of 93% focuses the solar radiation on the receiver at 37x
concentration. The PV cells have a fill factor of 68% and a short circuit
current of 20.25 A. The entire mirror and receiver assembly is manually
tracked with the help of a linear actuator assembly as shown in Figure 3.11.
The Photovoltaic output is managed by a load manager in the control room as
shown in Figure 3.12. The Voltage-Current characteristics are studied by
varying the resistances. A 0.5 HP pump is used to circulate the water in the
thermal circuit for effective heat removal from the rear side of the cells and
the thermal output is collected in a insulated thermal storage tank with a
capacity of 200 liters. The thermal interconnections and piping though appear
to be bare in Figure 3.10 were insulated later to prevent heat losses.

Figure 3.12 Control panel for voltage and current measurements

 131

DTI

ST
SPVLC

RM

FCV CP
CC B ATT INV AC
LOADS

DC
LOADS

BATT- Battery, CC- Charge Controller, CP- Circulating pump, DTI- Digital temperature Indicator, FCV- Flow
control Valve, INV- Inverter, RM- Rotameter, SPVLC- Solar photovoltaic linear concentrator.

Figure 3.13 Schematic diagram of the test facility

3.6.2 Measurement of Parameters

Figure 3.13 shows the schematic diagram of the test facility along
with the measurements. The measurements on the thermal side is done with
the help of a PT100 type class A temperature sensor with an accuracy of
+0.15oC, temperatures were measured in the inlet and outlet of the collector
and the measurements of the thermal storage tanks are measured with PT100
probes at various levels. The flow rate of the circulating water is measured
with the help of a Rota meter with a measuring range of 62 to 620 lph. The
electrical output from the Concentrating photovoltaic cells is measured in
terms of current with the help of an Ammeter (0-30A) and Voltmeter (0-300V
AC). The electrical output is used for charging a 12 V, 150 Ah, low
 132

maintenance, tubular lead acid battery. The battery output is led to the inverter
for AC loads. The V-I characteristics of the PV cells are studied with the help
of a resistive load panel with a capacity of 240 W in 20 W step arrangements.
The load is induced by a push button in steps and the respective voltage and
current measurements are noted down. The average temperatures of the tank
and the difference with the start conditions helps to determine the thermal
energy collected.

The Solar radiation is measured with a Hukseflux make

Pyrheliometer with a measuring range of 0-2000 Wm-2 and a sensitivity of 10
milliVolts/Wm-2. Other meteorological parameters are measured with a
Weather station monitor. Wind speed is measured with a cup type
anemometer with an accuracy of +5%, relative humidity with an accuracy of
+3% in the 10 to 100% RH range, temperature sensor with an accuracy of
+0.6oC in -32oC to 100oC measurement range.

The tests were conducted on various days; flow rates are fixed for a
given day and remain unchanged throughout the testing procedure. Different
flow rates in the range of 420 lph till 620 lph is maintained for the testing.
Initial tank temperature at various levels are noted down during the start of
the testing and subsequent tank temperatures, voltage and current
measurements of the photovoltaic panel, meteorological parameters are noted
down for every fifteen minutes. The flux illumination in the focal line is
maintained with the help of the (pushing) movement of the collector by a
linear actuator. At noon the actuator is changed to the opposite direction and
the collector is pulled with the actuator. The testing is continued till the
collector’s fullest ability to track the sun is attained.

(Qthermal)storage = V Cp T final Tinitial kJ (3.66)

 133

where

= Density of water in kg/m3

V = Volume of water in m3

Cpw = Specific heat capacity of water

T final = Final temperature in oC.

T initial = Initial temperature in oC.

P = Vmax I max Watts (3.67)

where

Vmax = Voltage at maximum point

Imax = Current at maximum point

The thermal energy Qthermal in kJ is converted into equivalent kilo

watt hour units and the electrical energy at the maximum points for every
fifteen minute interval for a given day is averaged for the entire period.

(Qthermal)collector = mw C pw T Watts (3.68)

where

mw = Mass flow rate of water (kg/s)

Cpw = Specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg.k)

T = Temperature difference between inlet and outlet