IMMUNITY​: the ability of the body to resist almost all types of organisms or toxins that tend to

damage the tissues and organs

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY​: does not develop until after the body is first attacked by a bacterium,
virus or toxin; often ​weeks or months ​are required for immunity to develop
INNATE IMMUNITY​: ​immunity that results from general processes
1. Phagocytosis of bacteria and other invaders by WBC and cells of tissue
macrophage system
2. Destruction of swallowed organisms by the ​acid secretions of the stomach and
digestive enzymes
3. Resistance of the ​skin​ to invasion by organisms
4. Presence in the blood of ​certain chemicals​ and ​cells​ that attach to foreign organisms
or toxins and destroy them
● LYSOZYME​: a mucolytic polysaccharide that attacks bacteria and causes them
to dissolute
● BASIC POLYPEPTIDES​: which react with and inactivate certain types of gram
positive bacteria
● COMPLEMENT COMPLEX​: a system of about 20 proteins that can be activated
in various ways to destroy bacteria
● NATURAL KILLER LYMPHOCYTES​: can recognize and destroy foreign cells,
tumor cells and even some infected cells

ACQUIRED (ADAPTIVE) IMMUNITY

-is caused by a special immune system that forms antibodies and/or activated lymphocytes that
attack and destroy the specific invading organisms or toxin
BASIC TYPES:
HUMORAL IMMUNITY​ ​OR B-CELL IMMUNITY ​(since B lymphocytes produce the antibodies)
- the body develops circulating antibodies, which are globin molecules in the blood plasma
capable of attacking the invading agent
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY OR T- CELL IMMUNITY​ (since the activated lymphocytes are T
lymphocytes)
- formation of large numbers of activated T lymphocytes that are specifically crafted in the
lymph nodes to destroy the foreign agent
Lymphocytes​ are responsible for acquired immunity
- are located most extensively in the ​lymph nodes​ but they are also found in ​special
lymphoid tissues​ such as ​spleen, submucosal areas of the GI tract, thymus, and
bone marrow
Both types of acquired immunity are initiated by antigens

NATURE OF ANTIBODIES
-are gamma globulins that have molecular weights between 160,000 and 970,000; constitute
about 20% of all the plasma proteins
-all Ig are composed of combinations of light and heavy polypeptide chains
Variable portion​: is different for each specific antibody; it is this portion that attaches
specifically to a particular type of antigen
Constant portion​: determines other properties of the antibody: ​antibody diffusivity in the
tissues, adherence to specific structures within the tissues, attachment to the
complement complex, ​ease with the antibodies through membranes and other biological
properties of the antibody
-​combination of covalent and noncovalent bonds (disulfide) ​holds the light and heavy
chains together

5 GENERAL CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES​:

IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, and IgE
IgG​: a bivalent antibody and constitutes 75%
IgE: ​only a small percentage of the antibodies, but is especially involved in allergy
IgM​: antibodies formed during the primary response; have 10 binding sites that make them
exceedingly effective in protecting the body against invaders

Antibodies act in ​2 ways ​to protect the body against invading agents:
1. By ​direct attack​ on the invader
2. By ​activation of the ​'c
​ omplement system​'
Direct action of antibodies
1. Agglutination​: multiple large particles with antigens on their surfaces such as bacteria
or red cells, are bound together into a clump
2. Precipitation​: the molecular complex of soluble antigen (such as tetanus toxin) and
antibody becomes so large that is rendered insoluble and precipitates
3. Neutralization​: in which the antibodies cover the toxic sites of the antigenic agent
4. Lysis​: some potent antibodies are occasionally capable of directing attacking
membranes of cellular agents and thus cause rupture of the agent

COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
-complement is a collective term that describes a system of 20 proteins (many of which are
enzyme precursors)
-the enzyme precursors are normally inactive (but can be activated through ​classical pathway​)

CLASSICAL PATHWAY
-initiated by an antigen-antibody reaction; activates the C1 molecule of the complement system
Effects of end products:
1.Opsonizationand phagocytosis
C3b- activates phagocytosis by both neutrophils and macrophages
2.Lysis
C5b6789- has direct effect of rupturing the cell membranes of bacteria or other invading
organisms
3.Agglutination
-also change the surfaces of the invading organisms, cause them to adhere to one another
4.Neutralization of viruses
5.Chemotaxis
C5a: initiates chemotaxis of neutrophils and macrophages-> cause large number of these
phagocytes to migrate into tissue area adjacent to the antigenic agent
6.Activation of mast cells and basophils
C3a, C4a, and C5a: activate mast cells and basophils-> release histamine, heparin and several
other substances into the local fluids
-> ​increased local blood flow, increased leakage of fluid and plasma protein​ into the tissue
7.inflammatory effects
● Increased blood flow to increase still further
● Capillary leakage of proteins to be increased
● Interstitial fluid proteins to coagulate in the tissue spaces

T lymphocytes​: only respond to antigens when they are bound to specific molecules such as
MHC proteins ​ on the surface of antigen presenting cells in the lymphoid tissue
3 major types of APC​: macrophages. B lymphocytes and dendritic cells
Dendritic cells​: are the most potent of the antigen-presenting cells, are located throughout the
body and function is to ​present antigens to T cells
2 types of MHC proteins
1. MHC 1 proteins​: present antigens to ​cytotoxic T cells
2. MHC 2 proteins​: present antigens to ​T-helper cells

TYPES OF T CELLS
1. T-helper cells
2. Cytotoxic T cells
3. Suppressor T cells

T-HELPER CELLS​: ​most numerous of the T cells

-serve as the major regulator of virtually all immune functions by forming a series of protein
mediators called ​lymphokines​ that act on other cells of the immune system as well as on the
bone marrow
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS​: the ​killer cells
-it secretes hole-forming proteins called ​perforins​ that literally punch round holes in the
membrane of the attacked cells
-then fluid flows rapidly into the cell from the interstitial space
SUPPRESSOR T CELLS:
-capable of suppressing the functions of both cytotoxic and T helper cells
-prevent the cytotoxic cells from causing excessive immune reactions that might be damaging to
the body's own tissues

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
-temporary immunity that is achieved by infusing antibodies, activated T cells or both obtained
from the blood of someone else or from other animals that has been actively immunized against
the antigen
-antibodies last in the body of the recipient for ​2-3 weeks