TEACHING NOTES

LIMIT / CONTINUITY & DERIVABILITY OF A FUNCTION

LIMIT
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1st LECTURE
(A) General Introduction : Concept/Notion of limit is one of the most useful and
fundamental idea that distinguishes calculus from algebra and geometry.
The word limit is often used in our day to day conversation however the exact notion
of limit taken in calculus is entirely different. To conceive the total idea about the notion
of limit 3 important questions are to be answered
(B) – Limit of what ? functions!
– Why evaluate limit ?
– How evaluate limit ?
Why?
The need for evaluating the limit of a function arises in our day to day studies of
physical sciences and engineering we come across situations where a function (denoting
a physical quantity) is not defined at x = a as it takes indeterminant situation, however
the value of the function as x is so very closed to ‘a’ (x  a) symbolyse a useful
physical quantity e.g. instantaneous velocity, acceleration e.t.c. , hence the need to
compute the limiting value as x  a .
0 
7 indeterminant forms are , ,  –  , 0 ×  , 1 , 00 and 0
0 
Explain the notion of limit by considering instantaneous speed at t = 2 for a body
moving according to the law s = t3. It should be noted that
(i) Limit f (x)  x  a
x a

(ii) Limit f (x) is said to exist at x = a if

x a
Limit f (a + h) = Limit f (a – h) = (a finite quantity, disregards whether f is defined
h 0 h 0
f (a+) f (a–)
(R.H.L.) (L.H.L.) or not at x = a) note that h is a (+)ve qty.
e.g. f (x) = [ x ] and {x} has no limit at all integers (etan x ; ecot x) Lim {x}  0 
x 0 

|x|
f (x) = has no limit at x = 0 Lim {x}  1 
x x 0 
1
Limit tan 1 and Limit sin –1(secx) does not exist
x0 x x 0

Limit cot 1 x 2  ; f (x) = [x] + {x} limit exists at x = 0, f (1+) = f(1–) = 1
x0 2
1  1
Limit x sgn( x  1) does not exist
x 1 1  1
Lim sin–1[secx] where [ ] denotes greatest integer function, exists and is equal to /2.
x 0
In some cases the function is defined at x = a however limit does not exist at
x = a and in some cases limit x  a exist however f (a) is not defined. Hence while
evaluating the limit we come across two types of situations.
– Functions which we encounter in our physical sciences.
– Functions which are of mathematical interest, but in both the cases
limiting notion and concept of existence of limit remains same.
 2x  3 , x  2

(1) Consider : f (x) =  at x  2
 4  x2 x  2
1
if x  1
 x2
 2, if  1  x  1

(2) Consider the function: f (x) =  3, if x  1
 x  1, if 1  x  2

 1
, if x  2
( x  2) 2
(i) Sketch the graph of f.
(ii) Determine the following limits.
(a) Lim f ( x ) (b) Lim f ( x ) (c) Lim f ( x ) (d) Lim f (x )
x 1 x 1– x  1 x 1

(e) Lim f ( x ) (f) Lim f ( x ) (g) Lim f ( x ) (h) Lim f ( x )

x1– x1 x 2 x2 –

(i) Lim f ( x ) (j) Lim f ( x ) (k) Lim f ( x ) (l) Lim f ( x )

x2 x 3 x5 x1.5

3
1
2 x+

1
[Hint: 2
]
–1 1

(C) Five Fundamental Theorems

Before we learn how evaluate limit of a function, following 5 fundamental theorems
should be remembered
If Limit
x c
f (x) = L and Limit
x c
g (x) = M where L and M are finite quantities then
(a) Sum rule : Limit (f (x) + g (x)) = L + M
x c

(b) Difference rule : Limit (f (x) – g (x)) = L – M

x c

(c) Product rule : Limit (f (x) . g (x)) = L . M

x c
f (x) L
(d) Quotient rule : Limit = , M 0
x c g(x) M
(e) Constant Multiple rule : Limit
x c
K. f (x) = K L
Various Strategies (To evaluate limit ): Algebraic Methods
(1) Factorisation / Rationalisation / Double rationalisation / Use of binomial theorem/
algebric identities/ involving law of love if necessary
(We love  in Denominator and 0 in Numerator)
This technique is generally used to over come the indeterminant form in rational and
irrational algebric expression.
Examples :
 1  cot 3 x t3 1 ( t  1)( t 2  t  1)  0  3
(1) Limit [ Lim 3 = Lim ]   (Factorise)[Ans ]
 3 2
x  2  cot x  cot x t 1 t  t  2 t 1 ( t  1)( t  t  2) 0 4
4

2 x  23 x  6 0
(2) Limit   [ Ans: 8 ]
x 2 2  x  21 x 0
(3) Limit   – Rationalise [Ans :  5 ]
x 0 5 x  5 x 0

Limit 3 x 0 2
(4)   – Double Rationalise [Ans : ]
x 9 0 3
4  2x  2
     
ASKING: Lim cos
x 1
 ·cos
x 1
 [Ans. 0]
x 1    

ax  b  2
(5) If Lim = 1 find a and b. [Ans. a = 4, b = 4]
x 0 x
ax  b  4
[Sol. Rationalising, Lim ; for existence of limit,
x 0 
x ax  b  2  b4

a a
so Lim = 1; =1  a4 ]
x 0 ax  b  2 4

n 3  2n 2  1  3 n 4  1
(6) (i) Limit 4 (Law of Love); [Ans. 1]
n 
n 6  6n 5  2  5 n 7  3n 3  1
3(n  1) !
(ii) Lim equals
n (n  1)3 (3n )!
(A) 3 (B) 9 (C*) 27 (D) 36

 1  2  1 
(3n  3)(3n  2)(3n  1)(3n )! 27 n 3 1  1  1  n 
[Sol. Lim = Lim  n  3n  3  = 27 Ans.] [13th, 05-08-2007]
n (n  1)3 (3n )! n 1
3
3
n 1  
 n

Limit x2 1  1
(iii) x   ( form) [Ans. – ] (take x2 as | x | and from Nr)
3x  6  3
S2 S3 S4 Sn
(iv) Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ........ + n and Pn = S  1 · S  1 · S  1 · ........ · S  1
2 3 4 n

where n  N (n  2). Find Lim Pn . [Ans. 3]

n 

n ( n  1) ( n  2)(n  1)
[Sol.(iv) Sn = and Sn – 1 = [13th, 10-08-2008, P-1]
2 2
Sn n ( n  1) 2 Sn  n   n 1 
 = ·  =   
Sn  1 2 (n  2)(n  1) Sn  1  n 1  n  2 

2 3 4 5 n  3 4 5 n 1 
Pn =  1 · 2 · 3 · 4 ·..........· n  1   4 · 5 · 6 ·..........· n  2 
  
 n  3 
Pn =  1   n  2   Lim Pn = 3 Ans. ]
   n 

if
 x  ,   0 form
 x 2  2 x  1  5
(7) (a) Limit
x   
x 2  7 x  3  [ Ans:  ] 
 2 if x  – ,   0 form
1
(b) Limit

tan 2 x  2 sin 2 x  3 sin x  4  sin 2 x  6 sin x  2  ( × 0) form [Ans: ]
x   12
2

 1 12  1
(8)(a) Limit 
x  2  x  2
 3  (  – ) form [Ans: – ]
x 8 2
  3 
Lim  4x 2  x  4x  9
(b) x   x2 (  – ) form [Ans. ]
  4

 
 4 x 3  9x 2  2x  4 x 3    9 x 2  2x 
Lim   Lim  
[Sol.(b) x   x2  = x   x  2  4x 3  9 x 2  2x  4 x 3   (on rationalising)
    

 
 9  (2 x ) 
9
= x   1  (2 x )  4  (9 x )  (2 x 2 )  4   =
Lim 
Ans. ]
   4
  

2 2 2 2 n (n  1)(2n  1) 
Limit 1  2  3  ....  n  2 1
(9) n   [Ans. ]
n 
n3  6  3
2 2 2 2
Lim [1 x ]  [2 x ]  [3 x ]  ....  [n x ] x
(10) n  where [ ] = step up function and x  R [Ans: ]
n3 3

(cos x )1 3  (cos x )1 2
(11) (a) Lim equals
x 0 sin 2 x
(A*) 1/12 (B) 1/6 (C) 1/3 (D) 1/2
(cos x )1 3  (cos x )1 2
[Sol. l = Lim ; let cos x = y [12th, 06-01-2008]
x 0 1  cos2 x

y1 3  y1 2 (1  h )1 2  (1  h )1 3 1
= Lim 2
Lim
= h 0 2 = Ans. ]
y 1 1 y (1  h )  1 12
3
(b) Limit x 3  3x 2  x 2  2x [ Ans: 2] (Use Binomial Theorem)
x 
2
(12) Limit x  9 x  20 [x] step up function [ Ans: f (5+) = 1 , f (5–) = 0 ]
x 5 x  [x]
x | x 3|
(13) f (x) = ( x 2  x  6) | x | find Lim
x3
f ( x ) and Lim f ( x ) .
x0

x ( x  3) 1
 x 3 1
 ( x  3)(x  2) ·x x  2 f (3 ) 
 5
 1
 N.D. x3 f (3 )  
[Hint: f (x) =  1 ; 5 ]
 , 0 x 3 1
 x2 f (0  )  
 1 2
 , x0 1
 x  2 f (0  ) 
N.D., x0 2

x n 1 n
(14) Limit (m, n  N) [ Ans: ]
x 1 m
x 1 m
(15) Let f(x) be the polynomial of degree 4 with roots 1, 2, 3, 4 and leading coefficient 1 and
1 1 1
g (x) be the polynomial of degree 4 with roots 1, , and with leading coefficient
2 3 4
f (x)
1. Find Lim
x1 g ( x )
. [Ans. – 24]
 g (x) = (x – 1)(x – 1/2)(x – 1/3)(x – 1/4)
f (x) (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)(x – 4) (x – 2)(x – 3)(x – 4)
 Lim
x1 g ( x )
= Lim
x1 (x – 1)(x – 1/ 2)(x – 1/ 3)(x – 1/ 4)
= Lim
x1 (x – 1/ 2)(x – 1/ 3)(x – 1/ 4)

(1)( – 2)(–3)
= (1/ 2)(2 / 3)(3/ 4) = – 24 Ans.]

Home Work : After first lecture : Q.245 to Q.313 (G.N. Berman)

* * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * *
2 LECTURE nd

USE OF STANDARD THEOREMS / RESULT

THEOREM–1 (Sandwich / Squeeze play Theorem):
General: The squeeze principle is used on limit problems where the usual algebraic methods
(factorisation or algebraic manipulation etc.) are not effective. However it requires
to “squeeze” our problem in between two other simpler function whose limits
can be easily computed and equal. Use of Squeeze principle requires accurate
analysis, indepth algebra skills and careful use of inequalities.
Statement: If f , g and h are 3 functions such that f (x)  g (x) < h (x) for all x in some
interval containing the point x =c, and if
Limit f (x) = Limit h(x) = L
x c x c

then Limit
x  c g (x) = L

From the figure note that Limit

x  0 g (x) = 1.

Note: (i) the quantity c may be a finite number, +  or – . Similarly L may be finite number,
+ or – .
Examples on Sandwich theorem :
2
(a) Lim x 3 cos [Ans. 0]
x0 x
2 2 2
[Sol. – 1  cos  1; – x3  x3 cos  x3 for x > 0 and x3  x3 cos  – x3 for x < 0
x x x
in both the cases limit is zero ]
x 2 (2  sin 2 x )
(b) Lim [Ans. ]
x  x  100

5x 2  sin 3x
ASKING: Lim [Ans. 5]
x  x 2  10
 n n n n 
(c) Evaluate : Limit  2  2  2  ....  2 
n   n  1 n  2 n  3 n n
n n n n
[Sol. Let f (n) = 2
 2
 2
 ....  2
n 1 n  2 n 3 n n
note that f(n) has n terms which are decreasing
 n n n n 
Suppose h (n) =  2
 2  2  ....  2  , n terms
 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1

n2
h (n) = ( obviously f (n) < h (n) )
n2 1
  n n n n 
and g (n) =     ....   , n terms
 n2  n n2  n n2  n n2  n 

n2
= 2 ( obviously g (n) < f (n) )
n n
Hence g (n) < f (n) < h (n)
Since Limit g(n) = 1 = Limit h (n)
n  n 

Hence using Sandwich Theorem Limit

n   f (n) = 1 ]
  x b
(d) The value of the limit Lim
x 0 a   (a  0) (where [ ] denotes the greatest integer
x
function) is equal to
b b
(A) a (B) b (C*) (D) 1 –
a a
b b b
[Sol. – 1 < x 
x   x
x
Case-I: >0
a
b x b
Lim   1 <   x  Lim b · x
x 0  x a x a x 0 x a
b
using squeeze play theorem = Ans.
a
x
|||ly for <0 ]
a
THEOREM–2 (Limits of Trigonometric Functions)
If x is small and is measured in radians then
1 x
Limit = sin x = 1 = Limit x = Limit x cosecx = Limit sin x = Limit
x 0 x x  0 sin x x  0 x  0
x x  0
sin 1 x
Proof: Consider a circle with unit radius
area of OAP < area of sector < area of OAT
T
sin x x tan x
 
2 2 2
x 1
 1  (0 < x < /2)
sin x cos x
sin x
 cos x  1
x
Now using Sandwich Theorem
sin x
Limit cosx < Limit <1
x0  x 0 x
sin x
Obviously we have Limit
x 0  =1
x
sin y
put x = – y Limit
y 0 y =1
sin x
Hence Limit =1 ....(1)
x 0 x
sin x
Note: The Limit always approaches 1 from its left hand i.e. 0.9999....
x 0 x
   sin x   sin x  
 Lim  0 where [ ] denotes step up function  note that  Lim  1
x 0  x 

  x 0 x   
Using (1) we can deduce
x 1 x
tan x Limit x cotx = Limit tan x = Limit
Limit = 1 = Limit
x 0 tan x
= x  0 x  0 tan 1 x
x 0 x x 0 x
tan x
Note that the limit Limit approaches 1 from R.H.S.
x 0 x
 tan x 
 Lim  =1 where [ ] denotes step up function
x 0  x  

Examples on Trigonometric Functions:

sin 2 x
(1) (a) Lim ; (b) Lim sin 8x cot 3x ; (c) Lim 1  cos x  1
x 0 5x x 0 x 0 x2 2

1  cos 5x 25 1  tan x  1  sin x 1

(2) Lim 2 = ; (3) Lim =
x 0 3x 6 x 0 x3 4

x3  x 2  2 x
(4) Lim = 5; (5) Lim (1  x ) tan
x 1 sin( x  1) x 1 2
1  cos x cos 2x 3
(6) (a) Lim  (rationalise first)
x 0 tan 2 x 2
1  cos(1  cos x ) 1
(b) Limit =
x 0 4
sin x 8
 x
1  cos 2 sin 2  1  cos(1  cos x ) (1  cos x ) 2 1  1  cos x 
2
1
[Hint :  2  or 2
· 4 = ·  = ]
2
4 (1  cos x ) x 2  x  8
x
don’t do it : for 6 (a) & 6 (b)
1 cos x
Limit 1 cos x cos 2x = Limit 2 as Limit cos 2x = 1 is wrong.
x 0 x2 x 0 x x 0

 1  cos x 2 
1  cos(1  cos x ) 1  cos .x  2
1  cos x 1
Limit Limit
= x 0  x 2
 = Limit 1 cos(x / 2) [as Lim  ]
4 2
x 0 x x4 x 0 x4 x 0 x 2

x2 x2
2 sin . sin
4 4 1
= 2 2 = is wrong although the answer may be correct.
x x 8
16 . .
4 4
1
x 2 cos
(7) (a) Lim x = Lim x ·cos(1 x ) · x = Lim x cos 1 = 0 [Ans. 0 ]
x0 sin x x0 sin x x0 x

1  x sin x  cos 2 x
2 x 1  cos x
(b) Lim x [Ans: 6] [Hint: rationalise first & put tan = ]
x 0
tan 2 2 1  cos x
2
sin(a  2x )  2 sin(a  x )  sin a tan(a  2 x )  2 tan(a  x )  tan a
(8) (a) Lim 2 (b) Lim
x 0 x x 0 x2
tan x tan x x 4 sin(1 x )  x 2
(9) (a) Lim Lim
; (b) x   2 Lim
; (c) x  [Ans. (a) 3, (b) 5; (c) –1]
x   2 tan 3 x tan 5x 1 | x |3
   
cos 
(10)  2 cos x 
Lim
x 0 sin(sin x 2 )

     
cos
 2 cos x
 · sin x

2
 cos

2 cos x

 ·Lim x 2
  
cos  0
[Sol. l = Lim = Lim =  2 cos x   
Lim 0
x 0 sin x 2 ·sin(sin x 2 ) x 0 x2 x 0 sin x 2 x 0 x2

     
sin      
 2 2 cos x   2 2 cos x   
l = Lim · Lim (taking    common)
x 0    x0 x2  2
  
 2 2 cos x 

  (1  cos x ) 1  1 
= (1)   Lim · 2 =– · =– Ans. ]
 2  x0 cos x x 2 2 4

cos 1 (1  x )
(11)(a) Lim [Ans : 2] (one sided limit)
x  0 x
[Hint: (a) put cos = (1 – x)
  2(  2)
Lim = Lim 2 sin(  2)
= 2 sin(  2)
= 2 Ans. ]
0 1  cos   0

sin{ x  10}
(b) Lim
x 8 {10  x}

0 sinh sin 1 sin{ h}

[Hint: (b) x = 8 + h; Lim
h 0 {h}
= = 0; x = 8 – h = Lim
{h}
= =]
1 h 0 0
Note :{x + n} = {x} and [x + n] = [x] + n if n is an integer.
Home Work : after 2nd lecture : Q.314 to Q.350 (Berman)

3rd LECTURE
Exponential Functions:
a x 1 ex 1 
x e1 x  1  1 
Theorem: Lim = ln a (a > 0) ; Lim = 1 and Lim
x  
x 0 x x 0 x
Examples on Exponential Functions :
e4x  1 1
(1) (a) Lim
x  0 tan x
[Ans: 4] ; (b) Lim
x  n

1  e1 n  e 2 n  ....  e ( n 1) n
 [Ans. e – 1]
e tan x  e x
(2) Lim [take ex common] [Ans: 1]
x  0 tan x  x
2 2 2
ex  cosx e x  cos x  1  1 (e x  1) 1  cos x 1 3
(3) (a) Lim 2
[Hint: Lim 2
; Lim 2
 2
 1   Ans.]
x0 x x 0 x x 0 x x 2 2
e sin 2 x  e sin x e sin 2 x sin x  1 sin 2 x  sin x
(b) Lim [Hint: Lim · = 1·[2 – 1] = 1 Ans.]
x 0 x x 0 sin 2x  sin x x
don’t do it : for 3(a) and 3 (b)
x 2 x 2
Limit e  cos x = Limit e  1 = 1 (as cosx  1 as x  0)
x 0
x2 x 0
x2
 sin 2 x .2x .x
Limit e  esin x e 2x e x e2x  ex e x (e x  1)
x 0
= Limit
x 0
= Limit
x 0
= Limit
x 0
=1
x x x x
is wrong although the end result may be correct.
2
a x h  a x h  2a x  a h  a h  2  x a
2h
 2a h  1  x a h 1
(4) Lim Lim x
,a>0= h  0 a   = Lim a  = a  
2 2  h 
h0 h  h  h 0
 h   
[Ans : ax ln2a]
cos(x e x )  cos(xe  x )
(5) Lim [Ans : – 2]
x 0 x3
2 2
1 x2 e1 x  1 2 1 e1 x  1
e 1 0 e1 x  1
(6) Lim     1
x  2 arc tan x 2   0  2  tan 1 x 2  =  2 cot 1 x 2 = – 2 tan 1 2
2  x
1 ey 1 y 1 1
– 2 y . 1 = – [Ans : – ]
tan y 2 2

ax  aa
(7) Lim , a > 0. [Ans: aa lna]
x a xa

a a h  a a a a (a h  1)
[Hint: Put x = a + h ; l = Lim =  aa lna]
h0 h h

cos 7 x  cos 9x 4
ASKING: Lim [Ans. ]
x 0 cos x  cos 5x 3

4th LECTURE
Theorem : For 1 indeterminant form :
1 x
 1 (cos 2 h ) n  0 ; Limit (sec 2 h ) n  
Lim (1  x ) x = e = xLim 1   ; Note that : Limit
h 1 h 1
x 0   x n  n 

ln (1  8x ) ln (1 x )
ln (1  x ) 8 Lim ln (1  x )
Alternatively: Lim 1 e.g. ln (1  7 x ) = [as e x 0 x  e1  Lim  1]
x 0 x 7 x 0 x
ln(1 x )
1x
Lim ln(1  x )
NOTE: l = Lim (1  x ) e x 0 x e;  Lim 1
x 0 x 0 x

EXAMPLES :
ln (1  x ) 1
(1) Lim [Ans : ] (2) Lim 1  2 x 5 x [Ans : e10 ]
x  0 3x  1 ln 3 x 0

ln x  1 1
(3) Lim [put x = e+h] [Ans. ] (4) Lim (1  x ) log x 2 [Ans : (– ln 2]
x e x  e e x 1
x x
xx  aa Lim x  a  a a
(5) Limit ( a  0) [ Ans: aa ln ea] (6) x a
xa xa x a
x 2  ax  b
(7) Let a, b be constants such that Lim
x 1 ln (2  x) 2 exist. Find (a, b) and also find the
limit. [Ans. (–2, 1), l = 1]
r r
[Sol. as x  1; D  0 and N  1 + a + b
hence for existence of limit a + b + 1 = 0 ....(1)
x 2  ax  a  1 ( x  1)(x  1  a )
now l = Lim 2 = Lim ln 2 ( 2  x )
(put x = 1 + h)
x 1 ln (2  x )  x 1
 h (2  a  h )
(2  a  h )
l = Lim
h 0 ln (1  h ) ln (1  h )
= Lim
h 0 h
for existence 2 + a = 0; a = – 2 and l = 1
from (1), b = 1 ]

GENERALISED FORMULA FOR 1  :

Lim  ( x ) f ( x ) 1
Let Lim f ( x )  1 and Lim  (x )   then Lim f ( x)  ( x )  e x a
x a x a x a
f ( x ) 1
 (x )
PROOF : We have l = Lim 1  f ( x )  1 ( x ) = Lim 1  f ( x )  1f ( x )1 
x a x a  
Put f (x) – 1 = y, as x  a, y  0
Limit ( x ) [ f ( x ) 1]
 1
x a Lim  ( x ) f ( x ) 1
 l =  Lim 1  y  y  = e xa
 y 0 
However if Lim f ( x ) =A > 0 and Lim  ( x ) = B, a finite quantity
x a x a
(x) B
then Lim f ( x ) A
x a
Consider the Examples:
1 x 1 / 2 if x  0 2 x 1
 x2
 1  x  1 x   x 2
 2 x  1  x 1 1 x  2
Lim    2 / 3 if x 1  
(1) x 1  2  x   ; (2) Lim  2 
  ; (3) Lim   0
x 0 1 if x   x  
 2 x  3 x  2  4 x    2 x  1 
x 

EXAMPLES ON 1 :
1 1
(1) Lim (
5 n  3n  1) n [Ans. 15]
n 
[Sol. l is of the form of 1
1 1 1 1
Lim n ( 5 n  3 n  1  1) Lim n (( 5 n 1)  ( 3 n 1))
 l = e n   e n   eln 5  ln 3  eln 15  15 Ans. ]
x x 4
 x   x6
(2)(a) xLim   [Ans : e–1] ; (b) Lim   [Ans. e5 ]
 1 x  x   x  1 

cos ec x x
 1  tan x   1 1
(3) Lim   [Ans : 1] (4) Lim  sin  cos  [ Ans: e]
x  0  1  sin x  x   x x
cos ec x
 5 
(5) (a) Lim   = (A) e–1/6 (B) e–1/5 (C) e–1/25 (D*) e–1/30
x 0  2  9  x 

2x
(b) Limit (cos x )cot  e 1 / 2 ;
x 0

x x2
n
m 2n
(6) (a) Lim cos n [Ans :  ]; (b) Lim cos m x  x 2 , m, n  N [Ans:  ]
n  n e 2 x 0 e 2

1
   x
(7) Lim  tan   x  [Ans : e2 ]
x 0  4 
x
 2 tan 1 x 
(8) Lim   equals eL then L is equal to

x 
  
 2 2 
(A) (B*) – (C) – (D) 1
  2
 2 tan 1 x 
Lim x  1
x    
[Sol. l = e  = eL [13th, 10-08-2008, P-1]
 2 tan 1 x   
where L = Lim x  

x 
  

L = Lim x

2 ( 2)  cot 1 x  
= Lim 
 1
2 ·x ·cot 1 x Lim  2 tan (1 x ) 2
= x   (1 x ) = – Ans.]
x   x   
n
 a 1 n b 
(9) Lim  
 a > 0, b > 0, n  N [Ans : b1/a]
n 
 a 
nx
 11 x  21 x  31 x  ..........  n1 x 
(10) Lim  
 n N [Ans : n !]
x 
 n 

cos 2 
2  Lim 2 ax cos
 a
sec 2  2 x 0
cos 2

2  ax
   2  bx 2 Lim
(11) Limit  sin 2  = e b [Sol: e 2  bx  e l where l = x 0  ]
x 0  2  ax  cos
2  bx

   2
(12) Lim x 2 sin  ln cos  Put = t [Ans : – ]
x 
 x x 4

LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS HAVING BUILT IN LIMIT WITH THEM :

EXAMPLES
sin x x 0
tan  x 2  ( x  1) n sin x 
(1) f (x)= Lim = , find Lim f (x) .
n x 2  ( x  1) n  tan x 2 x0
x0
x2
[Sol. xLim  0 ; Lim    limit does not exist ]
 0 x 0 –

cos  x  x 2 n sin( x  1)
(2) f (x) = Lim  , find Lim f (x)
n 1  x 2 n 1  x 2 n x1

cos x for x  1
[Sol. f (x) =  Lim f ( x ) exists = – 1 ]
  sin( x  1)
fox x  1
x1

x 1

ONE SIDED LIMITS:

tan 2 x
Lim
(a)
x 0

Lim 1  tan 2 x 
1x
; l= e x0
 x
= e; hence x  0– has no meaning

[tan 2 x ]  2[tan x ]  3
(b) Limit (where [x] is the greatest integer function of x)
x  tan 1 3 [tan 2 x ]  4[tan x ]  3
(A*) is 1/3 (B) is 2 (C) is 3 (D) does not exist
–1 +
[Hint: here f (tan 3 ) , f has no domain hence only LHL will be meaningful.]
[12th,Quiz-5]
Asking Problems (Oral)
 x e 1 sin x
Limit x sin 1 = 0 = Limit ; Limit = D.N.E. ; Limit =0
x 0 x x0 cos1 x 
x
tan x
e 1 x  x
2

sin 1 x
a x  bx a cos x  4 tan x 1
Limit  ln ; Limit x = 0 ; Limit  ;
b x 1 tan 4
x 0
x 1 x2 2
x 0 2  x  2x 2
2
 e x  1   33x  1 
x    
x 2
3x  x   x 
e 3   ];
Lim (Ans : 3 ln 3) [Hint:
x 0  x2 
sin    sin x
 sin x 2 2 sin x 
x     
2 x x 
   
x ln 2
Lim e = 0; Lim x sgn ( x  1) does not exist [T/F]; Limit x sin 1 = 1;
x  ex x 1 x  x

1  cos x 1  1 1 1 x sin x!
Lim 4 = ; Lim x 2 1  cos   ; Limit 0 ; Lim = 0;
x 0 sin (3 x ) 324 x   x 2 x 0 ln | x | x  1 x2

Lim cos1[cot x ] where [ ] is greatest integer function.

x  2

   1      1

 1  1
   1  n 2 
[Hint: f  2   cos (0)  2 ; f  2   cos (1)   ]; [Ans. ]
    n 2 2
1
f (x) = tan–1 then f (0) = ? (Not Defined) and Limit
x 0
f (x) = ? (D.N.E.) ;
x
3
Limit 1 1  cos x =(D.N.E.);
2x
Limit = 25; Lim tan x = 0;
x  5 3
x x 0 x 1  cos x x 0 x
o ln sec x 1
Limit 1 1 Limit sin x   ;
– =0; Lim 
x 0 sin x tan x x 0 x 180 x 0 x2 2
2 3 5n 1  3n  2 2n n cos(e n )
Limit 3 sin x  x  x = 3; Limit n = 5; Lim =0
n  5  2n  3n 3
x 0
tan x  2 sin 2 x  5x 4 n  2n  1
1  cos x  2 sin x  sin 3 x  x 2  3x 4 2n
Lim Lim
=2 (divide N & D by x) ; n = 0 (diminishing fraction)
r r
x 0 tan 3 x  6 sin 2 x  x  5x 3 n!
tan 2 x
Limit   
x
  tan  x    0 

 2 1 
 0 

4  8 

1 1 tan 1 x
1 cot 1 1 as x  0 cot 1  tan 1 x  0  l  1
2 x x x
Lim (sin x ) x = 0; Lim  DNE;
x 0 x 0 x  1 1
  as x  0 cot  cot 1 ()  
x

1 sin x sin(1 x )
Lim x tan 1 = Lim x cot 1 x = 1; Lim = 1 but Lim (DNE)
x  x x   x0 sin x xo sin(1 x )

f (x)  5 f ( x ) = ..... [Ans. 5] [Hint: for 0 form Lim f ( x ) must be 5]

If Lim = 3 then Lim
x 2 x2 x2 0 x2

f (x)
If Lim 2 = 2 then (a) Lim f ( x ) [Hint : Lim f (x )  0 ] and (b) Lim f ( x )
x 0 x x0 x 0x0 x
[Ans. a = 0 ; b = 0] (take f (x) = 1– cos x or sin2x)
f (x)  5 Lim f (x) =........ [Ans. 7] [Hint: Lim f ( x )  5 = 1 Lim f(x)=7 ]
If Lim
x 4
= 1 then x 4 x 4
x2 x 4 2
  
  1  x 
ASKING: (i) Lim  x  x  x  x   ; (ii) Lim 
x     1
x    2  x x x 

n ·3n 1
Extra Question: If Lim
n  n n 1
n ( x  2)  n ·3  3 n = then the range of x is (n  N)
3
(A) [2, 5) (B) (1, 5) (C*) (–1, 5) (D) (– , 5)
1
[Sol. Lim n
(dividing Nr and Dr by n · 3n) [13th(27-8-2006)]
n  (x  2) 1
n
 3
3 n
1
for Lim
n 
to be equal to
3
n
1  x 2
Lim  0 (which is True) and Lim    0.
n n n  3 

x2
–1< <1  – 3 < (x – 2) < 3  – 1 < x < 5  (–1, 5) Ans.]
3
EXPANSION OF FUNCTION:
Expansion of function like Binomial expansion, exponential & logarithmic expansion,
expansion of sinx , cosx , tanx should be remembered by heart & are given below :
x ln a x 2 ln 2a x 3ln 3a x x 2 x3
(i) a x  1     .........a  0 (ii) e x  1     ............
1! 2! 3! 1! 2! 3!
x 2 x3 x 4 x3 x5 x 7
(iii) ln(1+ x) = x     .........for  1  x  1 (iv) sin x  x     .......
2 3 4 3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6 x 3 2x 5
(v) cos x  1     ...... (vi) tan x = x    ........
2! 4! 6! 3 15
x3 x5 x 7
(vii) tan–1x = x     .......
3 5 7
12 3 12.32 5 12.32.52 7 x 2 5x 4 61x 6
(viii) sin–1x = x  x  x  x  ....... (ix) sec–1x = 1     ......
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
Special limits
The following 4 are the general limits.
ex 1 x 1 x  sin x 1
(1) Lim 2
 ; (2) Lim 3

x 0 x 2 x 0 x 6
x x
e  e  2x 1 x  tan x 1
(3) Lim 3
 ; (4) Lim 3

x 0 x 3 x 0 x 3
ILLUSTRATIONS :
3 3
ex 1  x3 ex 1  x3
(1) Lim Lim
= x 0 put x3 = t
x 0 sin 6 2 x (2x )6
1 et 1  t
l= Lim ; put t = 2y ....(1) (special limit no. 1)
64 t 0 t2
1 e2 y  1  2 y 1 (e y  1) 2  2e y  2  2 y
= 64 Lim =
t 0 4y 2 64 4y 2
2
1  1  ey 1  1 e y  y  1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1
= 64  4  y  
2 y 2

 =  
64  4 

2 64
. 64 l =   l= Ans]
    2 4.64 128
Alternatively put t = –t and add in (1)
 x
 1   1 
(2)
2
Lim x  x n 1   or Lim x 1  n1    ( × 0)
x   x x 
  x  

 1 n (1  y)  t t
put x = 1/y, Lim   2  put ln(1+y) = t  1+y = e  y = e –1  as y0 ; t0
y 0 y y
 

 1 t  e 1 t
t
et  t 1 1
Lim  t  t 2  = Lim 2 = Lim 
t  0 e  1 (e  1)
  t 0
 et 1  2 t 0 t2 2
 
 t  .t
 
(same as special limit no. 2)
1 ln (1  y) 1  1 1 ln (1  y)
Don’t do it: Lim   ·     0 as Lim  1 , is not correct.
y 0 
y y y y y y 0 y
ln (1 x )
1
 x

(1  x )1/ x  e e ( M
)
1 e eM  1 ln (1  x)  x e
(3) Limit = Limit = Limit × Limit . e = 
x 0 x x 0 x x0 M x0 x2 2
(proceed with ln (1 + x) = t)
don’t do it
1/ x e
Limit (1  x )  e = l [ Ans: – ]
x 0 x 2
Let x = y/2
1/ y
2/ y  y2  1  y2 
 y 1   y  e y 
1  y  1

1    e  e
4  e
2 4
 l = y0 
Limit = 2. Limit
y0
  = 2. Limit
y0 *
y/2 y y

 y2  1
  y . y y
 4  y 1
e  e e4 e e4 1 1 2e e
= 2. Limit
y0 = 2. Limit
y0 y
= 2e. Limit
y0
. =
4

2
y y/4 4
Note that mistake occured at *.
Special limit No.-1
1 1 1 x2 1 1 1
(4) (a) Limit  = Limit .  . 2 = Limit 2  2 = 0, is wrong.
x 0 (sin 1 x ) 2 x2 x 0 2 1
x (sin x ) 2
x x 0 x x

1 1
Limit sin 2    2
Correct is : put x = sin Limit 2
 = 0 2 2
0  sin 2   sin 
(sin   ) (sin   ) sin   
= Limit
0 4 = 2. Limit 3 [Ans. – 1/3]
 0 
e x  e  x  2x
(4)(b) Lim
x 0 x  sin x
e x  e  x  2x l1 e x  e  x  2x x  sin x
Lim
[Sol. x 0 x  sin x 3 = l where l2  Lim and l2  Lim
.x 2 x0 x3 x0 x3
x3
3
x  sin x 3t  sin 3t 3t  (3 sin t  4 sin 3 t ) 3( t  sin t ) 4 sin t
now l2 = = = = 
x3 27 t 3 27 t 3 27 t 3 27 t 3
1 4 8l2 4 1
= l2     l2 
9 27 9 27 6
x x
e  e  2x
Now l1 = Lim x = 3y
x 0 x3
 =
e3 y  e 3 y  6 y
=
e y
 e y  
 3 e y  e y  6 y 
27 y3 27 y 3
3
 e2y 1 
8 1 y y

= 27 
 2 y   9 e  e  2y   =
8 1
 l1 =
8l1

8
 l1 
1
  27 9 9 27 3
1 6
 final limit = 3 . 1  2 Ans ]

sin x  x 2  {x}.{ x} 1 1
(5) Lim (A) – (B) (C) 1 (D*) Does not exist
x 0 x cos x  x 2  {x}.{ x} 3 3

sin h  h 2  {h}{h} sin h  h 2  h (1  h ) 1

[Sol. f(0 ) = Lim
+
= [Ans. f (0+)= , f (0–)=1]
h 0 h cos h  h 2  {h}{h} h cos h  h 2  h (1  h ) 3
sin h  h h  sin h h3 1 1
= h cos h  h = · = ·2 =
h3 h (1  cos h ) 6 3
sin h
 sin h  h 2  (1  h)h  (sin h  h ) 1 2
similarly f (0–) = 2 =  h (1  cos h ) = Lim h = = 1]
 h cos h  h  (1  h)h h 0 1  cos h 2
tan x  x
(6) To a/c for consider the following example
x3
A cos x  Bx sin x  5
If Lim exists & finite. Find A & B and also the limit
x 0 x4
[Sol. note that Lim D r  0 & Lim N r  A  5 , hence for existence of limit A =5.
x 0 x 0

Bx sin x 5(1  cos x )

Bx sin x  5(1  cos x ) 2

 l Lim ;  l Lim x x2
x 0 x4 x 0 x2
5
Again Lim Dr  0 ; Lim N r  B 
x 0 x 0 2
for exitence of limit B = 5/2
x x x
5 2 x sin cos  4 sin 2
5 x sin x  2(1  cos x ) 2 2 2
 l  Lim = Lim
2 x 0 x4 2 x0 x4
x x x
2 sin x cos  2 sin 5 2t cos t  2 sin t
5
= Lim 2 Lim 2 2 = Lim where x/2 = t
2 x0 x x0 x3
2 x 0 8t 3
5 cos t ( t  tan t )
= Lim now put t =3 and proceed ]
8 t 0 t3
cos x 3  1  ln (1  x 6 )
ASKING: Evaluate Lim 2 [Ans. 1]
x 0 x 2 (e x  1  x 2 )
cos x 3  1  ln(1  x 6 ) x4
[Sol. Lim  Lim 2 ; put x3 = t and put x2 = y
x 0 x6 x 0
ex 1 x 2
ln (1  t 2 )  (1  cos t ) y2  1
Lim  Lim = 1   ·2 = 1 Ans.]
t 0 t2 y0 e y  1  y  2

4  sin 2 x  A sin x  B cos x

(7)74 Let f (x) = . If Lim f ( x ) exists and finite find A and B and the
x2 x0

limit. [Ans : A = – 2 , B = – 4 and l = 2 ]

 4  sin 2 x  A sin x  B cos x
[Sol. l = Limit
x 0 2
x
As x  0 denominator  0 .
 Numerator must also tend to 0 which is possible if 4 + 0 + A.0 + B = 0  B = – 4
(4  4 cos x )  sin x (2 cos x  A)
 l = Limit
x 0 2
x
 sin x   2 cos x  A   2 cos x  A 
 l = 2 + Lim 
x 0  x 
 . Lim 
x 0  x
 = 2 + Lim 
x 0  x

 
But from (i) 2 cosx + A must tend to 0 for x  0. i.e . 2 + A = 0 i.e. A = – 2
x
2 sin 2
 l = 2 – 2 Limit 2 = 2 – 2 . (0) = 2
x 0 x
 A = – 2 , B = – 4 and l = 2 ]

(8) An arc PQ of a circle subtends a central angle  as

shown. Let A() be the area between the chord PQ P

and the arc PQ. Let B() be the area between the A() B() R
C 
tangent lines PR and QR and the arc PQ.
A()
Find Lim
0 B()
Q

[Sol. A() = sector CPQ – CPQ P

r tan 

1 1 r
= r2 – · r · r sin  r sin
2 2  
R
C
1 2 1 /2
= r  – r2 sin  r cos  r
2 2 
1 2 Q
= r ( – sin )
2
B() = Area of quadrilateral PCQR – sector PCQ
 1 1 
= r2 tan – r2 = r2(2 tan – )
2 2 2 2
A ()   sin  1 3
 B()
= 2 tan( 2)   = · (use expansion)
6 2 tan( 2)  
A ()
B()
=2 Ans.

  3 5 
      .......
 3! 5! 
3 12
Alternatively:   3
2  5  = · 3 = 2 Ans. ]
2    .....   6 
 24 15 32 