Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196

www.elsevier.com/locate/finel

2D and 3D meso-scale finite element models for ravelling analysis of porous

asphalt concrete
L.T. Mo a,b,∗ , M. Huurman a , S.P. Wu b , A.A.A. Molenaar a
a Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2600GA, The Netherlands
b Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China

Received 14 December 2006; received in revised form 19 November 2007; accepted 26 November 2007
Available online 18 January 2008

Abstract
This paper presents 2D and 3D meso-level mechanical modelling for numerical analysis of ravelling resistance of porous asphalt concrete
(PAC). The complex geometry of PAC was simplified so that the main components (aggregate particle, mortar, interfacial zone and air void)
in the actual mixture were represented in the meso-scale model separately. Three different models, comprising 2D representations of different
particle packing and 3D representations of the highest particle packing, were developed to gain insights into effects of geometric issues.
Stress states linked to ravelling within bitumen-aggregate interfacial zones and mortar bridges were presented under moving wheel loads. In
combination with computational results of 2D and 3D simulations insights into the correction error that follows from 2D representation were
obtained. For the purpose of comparison, the relevant stress components were further transferred into various equivalent stresses using different
failure criteria. Indicators including the stress/strength ratio and fatigue life were introduced to estimate the potential of material failures
involved in grain contact region.
䉷 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Meso-mechanics; Finite element analysis; Porous asphalt concrete; Ravelling

1. Introduction established to get insights into the stress/strain states in porous

Loss of aggregate particles, called ravelling from porous as-
phalt surface wearing course remains a major issue of its dura-
bility, which has resulted in frequent road maintenance and
thus in reduced road network capability in the Netherlands
[1,2]. A solid understanding of failure mechanisms within grain
contact regions is essential to predict pavement performance
in the context of material design and optimization as well as
maintenance [3–5]. Any hope of developing more ravelling
resistant porous asphalt mixes under repeated traffic loads re-
lies on an improved understanding of the damage mechanics
within the relevant materials including bitumen-aggregate inter-
facial adhesion and mortar bridges that binding aggregates to-
gether. Unfortunately, not a practical numerical model has been
∗ Corresponding author. Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials Science and
Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan
430070, China. Tel./fax: +86 27 87162595.
E-mail addresses: molt@whut.edu.cn, l.mo@tudelft.nl (L.T. Mo).
0168-874X/$ - see front matter 䉷 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.finel.2007.11.012
asphalt concrete (PAC) with respect to ravelling investigation.
Improvement in ravelling resistance requires a new understand-
ing on how and where material damage initiates, develops and
then causes loose.
Ravelling is currently distinguished to be a type of material
damage than pavement structural damage. Meso-mechanical
material modelling thus becomes a necessity. Comparing with
the macro-level scale of the whole pavement structure, the
meso-level scale discussed here is defined as limited space di-
mensions similar to the magnitude order of stone aggregates,
in which a very limited number of stone aggregates stick to-
gether by mortar bridges. This implies that the main mixture
components (aggregate, mortar, adhesive interfacial zone and
air void) must be taken into account in any mechanistic model
that gives insights into the mechanics that explain ravelling.
Due to high computational costs, such a meso-level model
was developed in 2D nature firstly [3–5], although 3D would
provide more acceptable computational results. It is also ap-
parent that 2D model, which is lack of freedoms, needs to be
 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196
further verified using the data obtained from a relatively com-
plex 3D model. By this means, insights into the correction error
that follows from 2D representation can be obtained. A prac-
tical tool for investigating ravelling of PAC is expected to be
established on 2D model in combination with the correction
error between the two models.
Both 2D and 3D meso-mechanical structural models of PAC
are obviously required because of their own limitations, for in-
stance, differences in particle packing and loss of dimension.
Three models, comprising 2D representations with different
types of particle packing and 3D representation of the highest
particle packing were proposed. These models were developed
within the CAPA-3D finite element platform (Computer Aided
Pavement Analysis, Delft University of Technology) [6] to pro-
vide insights into the development of stresses within mortar
bridges and interfacial zones of the PAC mixture under moving
tyre loads.
2. Model characteristics
2.1. Geometry and restrains
Fig. 1 presents the scanning image of PAC captured by X-ray
computerized tomography technique. As can be seen, the gap
gradation, i.e. a large amount of coarse aggregates combined
with a very small amount of fine materials results in a very
open material structure. This picture distinctly exhibits three
main material components including stone particle, mortar and
air void. Coarse aggregates form the stone skeleton throughout
the whole structure, which stick together by mortar bridges.
Currently, the simulation of irregular shapes of actual stone
Fig. 1. Scanning image of porous asphalt concrete using X-ray computerized
tomography technique.
187
particles requires huge degrees of freedom and thus results
in very high computational costs. For an easy start of PAC
structural modelling, geometry simulation was simplified to
the following three phases: (1) aggregate particles larger than
2 mm, which were represented by spherical 3D rigid grains
with an equivalent size; (2) mortar consisting of bitumen and
fine materials and (3) air voids. Hereby, an idealized PAC was
proposed and the following parameters were taken into account:
(1) the equivalent radius of aggregate particles; (2) the distance
between adjacent aggregate particles, which reflects the degree
of compaction of PAC; (3) thickness of the free mortar coating
around aggregate particles, which reflects the bitumen content
in asphalt mixture.
In this paper the model parameters were chosen in such a
way that the model reflected the uniformly graded aggregate
of typical PAC 0/16 commonly used in the Netherlands. As
discussed coarse aggregates larger than 2 mm were represented
by spherical rigid bodies with an equivalent size determined by
the following equations:
n
wi d̄i
d̄ = i=1n , (1)
i=1 wi
where
d̄i = (di + di−1 )/2, (2)
where n refers to the total number of sieves for coarse aggre-
gates; d̄ is the representative size of aggregate particle, mm; di
and di−1 is the size of i and i − 1th sieve, respectively, mm; wi
is percentage by weight remaining on the ith sieve, %; d̄i is the
average size of adjacent sieve sizes di and di−1 , d̄1 =d1 =16 mm.
Using the above equations the equivalent size of coarse
aggregates can be calculated as 9.6 mm according the typical
gradation for PA 0/16 [1].
Assuming that the larger aggregates were homogeneously
coated with a mortar film the thickness of this film may be
determined theoretically. Hereto the weight percentage and
specific gravity of relevant components was to be known. The
volume fraction k of coarse aggregates in this idealized porous
asphalt mixture was calculated by the assumption that all of the
spherical 3D grains with the same equivalent size were coated
by mortar of uniform thickness, thus k can be obtained by the
volume of stone ball body divided by the larger ball one con-
sisting of stone and mortar:
 3
4
 · r3 r
k= 4 3 = . (3)
3 (r + h)
3 r +h
With (3) the theoretical thickness of the mortar film h becomes
h = r(k −1/3 − 1), (4)
where r is the radius of the equivalent aggregate particle,
r = d̄/2, mm; k is the volume fraction of coarse aggregates in
mixture; h is the film thickness of free mortar, mm.
On the basis of the real mix proportion, for instant, 4.4 wt%
for bitumen, 81.3 wt% for coarse aggregates and 14.3 wt% for
fine aggregates, one can obtain k =0.76 with the aid of material
specific gravities, thus h = 0.45 mm.
188 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196
Fig. 2. The overlook of the proposed meso-scale models.
The distance between two adjacent aggregate particles ap-
parently has the upper and lower bounds:
Dmin = 2r and Dmax = 2r + 2h, (5)
Dmin denotes fully compaction with stone–stone contact di-
rectly, Dmin represents loose mixture without any compaction.
In this study, the choice of the distance above is used the aver-
age of both extrema, D = 10.1 mm.
Fig. 2 gives the basic layout of 2D and 3D models for the
idealized PAC, in which white refers to stone while shade refers
to mortar. Three models were developed, i.e. two in 2D (2D-1
and 2D-2) to evaluate the influence of different types of particle
packing and another in the highest 3D particle packing to study
3D effect by comparing with 2D representation.
In the represented case of 2D-1 model, it contained 50 sim-
plified particles in four rows with a single angle of pack-
ing, for instant, 45◦ , while 2D-2 model shown in Fig. 2, was
generated in the highest particle packing with 38 grains in three
rows. The upper part of the surface grains was not coated with
mortar. This is consistent with real trafficked PAC. Loss of ag-
gregate under the function of directly repeated traffic loads just
happens on the pavement surface, that is, the top row in the
model. Increasing thickness of pavement proved to be unable
to avoid this problem. Therefore, the main area of interest was
focused on the central particle on the top row for all of models
so that more nodes in the contact regions between aggregate
particles were created in that particular area to obtain the most
accurate results. Given the importance of interfacial debonding
between stone and mortar for ravelling investigation, the zero-
thickness interface elements were generated between stone and
mortar.
The 3D model consisted of 30 particles in two rows by means
of highest particle packing, as shown in Fig. 2. The main par-
ticle of interest was the central one in the upper layer, which
 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196 189

was surrounded with six particles at top and supported by three Table 1
particles at bottom. Only the upper part of the central six par- Burger’s parameters for mortar obtained from Woldekidan
ticles was not surfaced with mortar. In total, these ten particles Temperature E0 (MPa) E1 (MPa) 1 (MPa s) ∞ (MPa s)
formed a basic constituent element for ravelling investigation. (◦ C)
The rest particles only played a role of boundary function.
10 1.54E + 03 1.10E + 03 5.45E + 03 6.80E + 04
The central particle at top row was seated in a bowl of zero- 20 4.09E + 02 1.02E + 02 7.25E + 02 1.64E + 03
thickness interface elements. For the sake of saving degrees 40 2.17E + 00 2.70E−01 1.90E + 00 4.81E−01
of freedom, such an interface element was not generated for 60 9.28E−02 3.19E−02 1.13E−01 3.48E−02
other particles. At the same time, except for the ten particles
that make up the basic constituent element, the rest particles at
The viscoelastic strain increment ve is given by
edges and bottom were further simplified using a viscoelastic
ball body to characterize the general respond of stone–mortar N 
combination based on the equivalent load-carrying behaviour. ve
ve (e−t/(i /Ei ) − 1)
t i

These equivalent balls were used to reduce any influence of the i=1
 
rigid boundary on the load-spending to the central particle at t −t/(i /Ei ) 
+ e t
+ . (7)
top row. i 2
All of the models were created in the CAPA-3D platform The viscous strain increment vp is given by:
[6]. The total number of nodes and elements were 17 168 and  
2510 for 2D-1 model, 15 327 and 2274 for 2D-2 model, 16 309 t t 
vp
+ . (8)
and 2466 for 3D model, respectively. The elements used for ∞ 2
modelling the stone particles and the mortar were 20-node
The behaviour of the mortar at a temperature of 20 ◦ C was
cubic elements, i.e. solid elements. Each node has six degrees
obtained by the Burger’s parameters (E0 , ∞ E1 and 1 ) of a
of freedom. The elements used to model the interfacial zone be-
mortar consists of 70/100 penetration grade bitumen and sand
tween mortar and stone were 16-node interface elements. Each
at the mass ratio of 1:1 reported by Woldekidan [5] (Table 1).
node has three degrees of freedom, i.e. one normal and two
With respect to the behaviour of the equivalent ball body in
tangential traction components. Effectively these interface ele-
3D model the Burger’s parameters were represented by those of
ments acted to tie nodes on both sides of the interface by means
mortar in combination with a hardening factor. It is known that
of springs, so allowing for extreme aspect ratios. As CAPA-3D
the displacement is mainly attributed to the mortar around stone
is a pure 3D platform the model was made 2D by choice of
particles since stone is extremely stiffer than mortar before
boundary conditions. In effect no displacements perpendicular
simplifying; whereas the whole equivalent ball body composed
to the plane in which the model was plotted were allowed, a
of stone and mortar would response together under a given
plane strain model was thus produced.
force. Based on the loading-carrying behaviour, the effective
As indicated in Fig. 2, the boundary conditions of 2D model
stiffness of such an equivalent ball should be much higher than
were that movements at the bottom were fully restraint in the
the mortar with a factor, which can be simply represented by
mortar; at the vertical boundaries of the model only horizon-
the ratio of the sum of mortar thickness and stone radius divided
tal movements were restrained. The boundary conditions of
by mortar thickness, that is, 11.6.
3D model were defined in the nodes at the contact regions of
The behaviour of interfacial zone was usually formulated in
the particles located at the model bottom and edges, where
terms of one normal and two tangential traction components.
the displacements in horizontal and vertical directions can be
Normal and shear elastic stiffness Kn , Ks can be interpreted in
restrained.
CAPA-3D and were set to high values to minimize the induced
deformations [12]. The constitutive model in 3D was given as
2.2. Material behaviour   
zz Kn zz
The grains were modelled as the linear elastic behaviour with zx = Ks zx . (9)
E = 5 × 104 MPa and  = 0.25. The mortar was modelled by zy Ks zy
the viscoelastic model implemented in CAPA. In the calcula- The stiffness of the interfacial zones between mortar and par-
tions discussed hereafter this model was equal to the gener- ticle were expected to be a result of both binder behaviour and
alized Burger’s model that comprises an elastic element (E0 ) particle behaviour. At this moment it was assumed that the stiff-
in series with a number of viscoelastic elements (Ei and i ) ness of this zone may be obtained by a combination of 50%
and a viscous element (∞ ). CAPA-3D is based on an incre- particle behaviour and 50% binder behaviour. This leaded to
mental formulation where a change in stress is calculated from the following elastic properties: Kn = 6.4 × 105 MPa/mm and
a change in displacement, thus the constitutive model can be Ks = 1.3 × 104 MPa/mm.
expressed in the following incremental form [7].
The elastic strain increment el is simply given by 2.3. Loading

 The loading on 2D and 3D models should be a well reflec-

el = t+t el − t el = . (6)
E0 tion of actual traffic loading as possible. Some researches had
190 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196

been conducted on 3D contact stresses occurring between the

road surface and the tyre through actual measurements [8,9].
With the aid of vehicle-road surface pressure transducer array
(VRSPTA), an effective method has been developed for the
measurement of tyre/pavement contact stresses [8,9]. These
new findings also have been applied in the numerical compu-
tation in the field of road engineering [10,11].
Since the VRSPTA measurement device recorded the actual
contact stresses under a moving tyre, the induced loading by
the moving tyre could be directly simulated in CAPA 3D model
because of its capability to implement any time–stress signal
statically or dynamically. Direct application of the VRSPTA
load-time history would increase the computational time sig-
nificantly, but provide more accurate analysis data. This study
utilized the library of 3D tyre stress distributions developed by
Blab [9], as shown in Fig. 3. From this figure, the basic time
functions of wheel load including the vertical, lateral and lon-
gitudinal directions were further derived as Fig. 4. Therefore,
when these functions were applied to the magnitudes of max-
imum contact stresses, the induced loading by tyre–pavement
interaction on individual stones would be determined.
From the statistics of maximum contact stresses of vari-
ous tyres, the measured lateral, longitudinal and vertical peak
stresses, zy , zx and zz were reported to have on average
0.267–0.339, 0.318–0.590, 1.740–1.871 of the tyre inflation
pressure, respectively, that is, zy , zx was 0.139–0.224 and
0.170–0.339 of zz [8]. In this study, the load case applied to
2D and 3D models considered a set of two 80 kN axles. The
length and width of the tyre footprint was 220 and 230 mm, re-
spectively, for both axles, resulting in an average 0.8 MPa verti-
cal contact pressure. Each first axle was free rolling while each
second was driven with a normal driving speed of 80 km/h.
It should be noted that the applied traffic load on PAC was
transferred to the pavement through the individual stones. Due
to rough texture depth, the stone particles were loaded with
higher stresses in order to provide equilibrium in the transfer
of the bulk load imposed by the wheel to the pavement surface.
Therefore the applied zz was larger than the average contact
pressure with a factor of 2. This introduced factor is a little bit
larger than the average ratio of actual contact pressure divided
by theoretical value, but smaller than the maximum value of
3.87 as reported [9]. The maximum values of zy , zx were
arbitrarily given as 0.15 and 0.30 of zz , respectively.
Furthermore, Milne reported that the rolling friction stress Fig. 3. The 3D tyre stress distributions obtained from Blab’s report.
also should be taken into account, so the additional longitudinal
shear stress is 0.025 of zz for free wheel and −0.12 of zz for zx = 0.8 × 2 × 0.30 × fx (t)
driven wheel via time function at vertical direction [12].
− 0.8 × 2 × 0.12fz (t) for driven wheel, (13)
Based upon the discussion above, the loading applied on
the proposed models to simulate the moving tyre was given as where fx (t), fy (t) and fz (t) refers to the time functions for X,
follows: Y and Z directions, respectively.
The loading time, t, for each individual particle was deter-
zz = 0.8 × 2 × fz (t), (10) mined on the basis of the speed and the length of the contact
area
zy = 0.8 × 2 × 0.15 × fy (t), (11)
L
t= , (14)
zx = 0.8 × 2 × 0.30 × fx (t) v
+ 0.8 × 2 × 0.025fz (t) for free wheel, (12) where L = 220 mm and v = 22 m/s, thus t = 0.01 s.
 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196 191

(2) The 2D-2 model vs. 3D model without lateral loading (3D-
1 model), thus the loading effect can be minimized and the
effect of geometry between 2D and 3D can be obtained.
Vertical (3) The 3D model fully loaded in all of three directions (3D-2
Stress

Longitudinal
Lateral
model), which may provide more acceptable information
on stresses linking to ravelling that the associated materials
are subjected.

For the purpose of comparison, it was necessary to transfer

the six stress components obtained from finite element mod-
Time
elling into a simple, but suitable equivalent stress that indicates
material loading. Therefore, von Mises equivalent stress and
Mohr–Coulomb like failure envelope were employed for stress
Fig. 4. Time functions for loading at three directions. analysis in mortar due to its complex characteristic. However,
only Mohr–Coulomb like stress was utilized for interfacial ad-
2 hesion because the behaviour of interfacial zone can be usually
Vertical translated into the minimum required tensile strength taking
1.5 Longitudinal into account an angle of internal friction, which was expected to
Lateral
range from 30◦ to 60◦ in accordance with previous researches
1 [13–15].
The von Mises stress v is calculated as follows:
0.5

(1 − 2 )2 + (2 − 3 )2 + (3 − 1 )2

0 2
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Time (s)
-0.5
Free wheal loading
-1
Fig. 5. Graphical representation of a load case introduced by a set of two
modelled axles (tyre loadings).
The distance between two tyres is much larger than the length
of tyre–pavement contact area. This implies that a calculation
in which the spacing between tyres is realistic mainly computes
what happens when no load is present. To make use of computer
more effectively a rest period of 2 times the loading time was
implemented between load pulses. This rest period was long
enough for the relaxation of mortar because of its viscoelastic
behaviour, thus no effect occurring between the adjacent wheel
loads.
In combination of the discussed equations, it leaded to the
load case graphically shown in Fig. 5. To simulate a moving tyre
the load on each individual particle was delayed as a function
of the longitudinal position of the particle.
3. Results and discussion
The main purpose of the present work was to evaluate the
possibility of meso-level modelling for determination of the
local in-material state of stress as it developed under moving
tyre loads. At the same time, the effect of different geometry
on the computational stresses was emphasized. To achieve the
goals above, the following running cases were proposed:
(1) The 2D-1 model vs. 2D-2 model, which was expected to
give insights into the influence of particle packing;
v = . (15)
0.05 0.06
It is well known that, with the ordering of the principal stresses
Driven wheal loading 1 > 2 > 3 , the shear component has maximum value max =
(1 −3 )/2 achieved at the normal component n =(1 +3 )/2
[16].
If the principal stresses are not all distinct then the above
value still hold, for instant, max = 0 at 1 = 2 = 3 .
The equivalent stress e is therefore given as follows:
e = max + n tg, (16)
where n is positive as subjected to tensile stress and  is
friction angle.
The above-mentioned friction angle was taken to be 38◦ for
mortar according to Birgisson’s research and 45◦ for the inter-
facial zone based on Canestrari’s report [13,14]. In the centre
of each grain contact, two nodes standing for interfacial zone
and mortar were selected for stress analysis as shown in 2D-1
model in Fig. 2. All of the computational results are displayed
in Figs. 6–11 in terms of development of the associated equiva-
lent stresses in both interfacial zone and mortar in each contact
region over time. Each grain contact was ordered based on its
location, as presented in Fig. 2. In the following discussion, the
number of grain contact discussed was given in combination
with model type and its position. For example, 2D-1.1 denoted
No. 1 grain contact in 2D-1 model. Four models (2D-1, 2D-2,
3D-1 and 3D-2) and totally 24 grain contacts were involved in
this study.
3.1. Optimization of equivalent stress
Table 2 lists the relevant maximum values of different models
obtained from von Mises and Mohr–Coulomb like stress. As
can be seen, the Mohr–Coulomb like stress e ranges from
192 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196

3.50 5.0
3D-1.1
2D-1.1 3D-1.2
3.00 2D-1.2 3D-1.3
4.0 3D-1.4
Von mises stress (MPa)

2D-2.1 3D-1.5
2.50 MA
2D-2.2 3D-1.6
3D-1.7
2D-2.3 3D-1.8
2.00 2D-2.4
3.0 3D-1.9
3D-1.1
3D-1.2
1.50 3D-1.3
2.0

Mohr-Coulomb like stress (MPa)

3D-1.4
3D-1.5 IF
1.00 3D-1.6
3D-1.7
3D-1.8
0.50 1.0 3D-1.9

0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (10E-4 Second)
Time (second)
-20.0
Fig. 6. Development of von Mises stress in mortar for each contact region
over time in 2D model.
-40.0

2.00
-60.0
1.00
Mohr-Coulomb like stress (MPa)

0.00
-80.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 2D-1.1 700
-1.00
2D-1.2
-2.00 2D-2.1
IF -100.0
2D-2.2
-3.00 2D-2.3
-4.00 2D-2.4 Fig. 9. Development of Mohr–Coulomb like stress in each contact region
2D-1.1 over time in 3D-1 model.
-5.00 2D-1.2
MA 2D-2.1
-6.00 2D-2.2 6.0
2D-2.3 3D-2.1
-7.00 3D-2.2
2D-2.4 5.0 3D-2.3
-8.00 3D-2.4
MA 3D-2.5
Time (10E-4 Second) 3D-2.6
4.0 3D-2.7
3D-2.8
Fig. 7. Development of Mohr–Coulomb like stress for each contact region 3D-2.9
3.0 3D-2.1
Mohr-Coulomb like stress (MPa)

over time in 2D model. 3D-2.2

3D-2.3
2.0 IF
3D-2.4
3D-2.5
3D-2.6
50 3D-2.7
1.0 3D-2.8
3D-1.1
45 3D-1.2
3D-2.9
3D-1.3
40
Von Mises stress (MPa)

3D-1.4
3D-1.5
0.00 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
35 IF
3D-1.6 Time (Second)
30
3D-1.7 -20.0
3D-1.8
3D-1.9
25 3D-2.1
3D-2.2 -40.0
20 3D-2.3
MA 3D-2.4
15 3D-2.5
3D-2.6 -60.0
10 3D-2.7
3D-2.8
5 3D-2.9
-80.0
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (Second) -100.0

Fig. 8. Development of von Mises stress in mortar for each contact region Fig. 10. Development of Mohr–Coulomb like stress in each contact region
over time in 3D model. over time in 3D-2 model.

0.08 to 5.38 MPa for interfacial zone and 0.11 to 5.97 MPa
for mortar. However, von Mises equivalent stress v in mortar
is found to be much higher, ranges from 1.50 to 45.96 MPa.
One should realize that the high value of v is far beyond the
tensile strength of mortar, which was smaller than 10 MPa as
reported, thus indicating that v is unacceptable for an indicator
of mortar failure. Hereafter only e is utilized for investigation
into stress states linked to ravelling in both mortar-aggregate
adhesion zone and in the mortar.
3.2. Effect of particle packing
Fig. 7 presents the influence of particle packing on the com-
putational stress. As mentioned before, the particles of 2D-1
 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196 193

7 for each contact region in 3D-1 model ranges from 0.03 to

6 3.93 MPa for interfacial zone and from 0.01 to 3.98 MPa for
5
4
mortar bridges, as shown in Fig. 9. Compared with 2D-2 model
3 discussed above, the critical values in 3D-1 model are 2.62
2 and 3.49 times higher in interfacial zone and mortar bridges,
Stress (MPa)

1 respectively. This might be explained by the differences on the

0
effective loading on per unit contact area between two models
-10.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
-2 in combination with the characteristic of plane strain model
2D-1.1 IF
-3 2D-1.1 MA for 2D model. The effective loading on per unit contact area is
2D-2.1 IF
-4 2D-2.1 MA
3D-1.1 IF
herein defined as the loading area of individual particles divided
-5 3D-1.1 MA
3D-2.1 IF
by total contact area.
-6 3D-2.1 MA
-7
Due to no uniform thickness, the contact area is thus required
-8 to transfer into an equivalent value with the same thickness.
Time (s)
Such an equivalent contact will behave similarly to the origi-
Fig. 11. Stress development at the critical contact region with highest level
nal one under a given loading. By this means, the equivalent
of Mohr–Coulomb like stress over time. individual contact area is determined as 4.62 and 4.65 mm2 for
2D-2 and 3D-1 model with a thickness defined as the minimum
distance between two particles according to the load-carrying
Table 2 behaviour, respectively. The loading area of 2D-2 model is rep-
Summary of the maximum values of the relevant equivalent stresses for each resented by the length of individual stone particle coating with
model
mortar film multiplied by model thickness, whereas 3D-1 model
Model 2D-1 2D-2 3D-1 3D-2 is the circle area of individual stone particle plus mortar layer.
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Based on the structural geometry, these values of loading area
IF Mohr–Coulomb 0.08 1.50 3.93 5.37
are calculated as 20.2 and 86.6 mm2 for 2D and 3D models, re-
spectively. Therefore, the effective loading on per unit contact
MA Mohr–Coulomb 0.11 1.14 3.98 5.97 area, that is, stress factor (SF) can be simply given as
von Mises 3.29 1.50 45.93 45.96
20.2
SF 2D = = 1.09 for 2D-2 model, (17)
4.62 × 4
model were packed with an angle of 45◦ , which is herein de- 86.6
fined as the included angle between the central connection line SF 3D = = 2.07 for 3D-1 model. (18)
4.66 × 9
of adjacent particles and the horizontal line. As a result, there
are only two contact regions for each grain on the top row. Both The ratio of SF between these two models is determined by
of these contact regions are mainly subjected to compressive
SF 3D
stress as shown in Fig.‘7. The maximum value of e is 0.08 R= = 1.89. (19)
and 0.11 MPa in interfacial zone and mortar. SF 2D
The 2D-2 model is in form of highest particle packing, thus It should be noted that this ratio is just investigated in terms
providing four grain contact regions for each surface stone of the overall force divided by the total effective contact area,
grain. Different contact regions exhibit various stress develop- which is somewhat different to the real situation. However, it
ment over time, seeing in Fig. 7. The maximum values for each indicates that 3D model is loaded more heavily than 2D model
contact region vary from 0.10 to 1.50 MPa for interfacial zones with a factor of approximately 2.
and from 0.08 to 1.31 MPa for mortar bridges, respectively. Furthermore, 2D approach restricted by two limit cases of
Similarly, the lower values are found to be the contact regions plane strain would introduce to another factor compared to 3D
located at the bottom, which mainly act as a role of supporting. nature. Therefore some effort has been paid on the determi-
The stress development of such contact regions is very close to nation of 3D effects recently [17–19]. For instance, the stress
2D-1 model. intensity factor between 3D and 2D finite element models var-
It can be concluded that the particle packing affects the over- ied from 1.0 to 2.2 as Kačianauskas and Shih reported [18,19].
all stress level significantly while the local stress level tends Note that the suggested 3D correction concept is of a particle
to be the same at the similar contact location. The stress con- character when compared to 2D approach, while the quantita-
centration exists in some particle contact regions because of tive evaluation has to be demonstrated for a given loading and
disadvantageous positions. geometry.
In this study, both of loading and geometry is not constant,
3.3. Difference between 2D-2 model and 3D-1 model thus two factors discussed above have to be used to explain the
difference between 2D-2 and 3D-1 model. Assumed that the
Since 3D-1 model was loaded in X and Z direction without total factor is 2.62 and 3.49 times higher in interfacial zone and
Y direction, it thus provides a comparison with 2D-2 model mortar, respectively, in combination with the pure SF R = 1.89,
in terms of the influence of geometry. The maximum values the constraint factor (CF) due to 2D plane strain model may
194 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196

be determined as follows: For a random stress–time signal, the damage accumulation

can be translated in the form of integral:
2.62
CF 3D/2D = = 1.39 for interfacial zone, (20)  n0
1.89 k  k t+t  + t 
D(t) = Ḋ()t = t. (23)
3.49 2
CF 3D/2D = = 1.85 for mortar. (21) i=1 i=1
1.89
The interpretation of various test results was able to use the
These factors seem to be in agreement with the range as concept of damage accumulation, which is that the various
reported. samples will have accumulation damage D =0 at the beginning
of the test and that accumulation damage per definition will
3.4. Effects of lack of lateral loading (3D-1 vs. 3D-2 model) be 1 at the end. To achieve this, regression analysis must be
performed on test results to obtain model parameters k0 and n0
When compared Fig. 9 with Fig. 10, the effects of lack of by least square error method.
lateral loading in 3D model are obtained. As anticipated, the For instant, the required stress f to debond asphalt–stone
tendency of stress development in both models is quite similar, adhesion at a given applied time of period tf can be derived
and only higher stress level with a factor of 1.37 and 1.50 for from Eq. (23):
interfacial zone and mortar, respectively is observed after lateral 
k
loading was applied. D(tf ) = Ḋ()t = f n0 tf = 1. (24)
i=1
3.5. Stress linking to ravelling Therefore,

The critical contact region with highest stress level in each f = (k0 tf )−1/n . (25)
model will be of great interest for ravelling analysis, which was
In this study, the loading time for a wheel passage is 0.01 s,
further summarized in Fig. 11. There are obvious differences
thus the required stress f to fail at such a short period may
for stress levels in both interfacial zone and mortar among these
be as high as 28 MPa according to Eq. (25). This value also
four models. The most disadvantageous stress state is intro-
can be regarded as the strength of asphalt–stone adhesion at
duced by the second wheel, namely, the driven wheel. Further-
such a loading situation. Since the computational stress in the
more, the stress states in interfacial zone are similar to those
interfacial zone is 5.37 MPa, the ratio of computational stress
in mortar. This agrees with what one can expect because the
divided by adhesion strength of 28 MPa can be given as 0.19.
contact region is so small that the stress distribution could not
As mentioned before, the damage accumulation model is
vary significantly among its thickness direction. It implies that
capable to provide a tool to transfer a random stress–time signal
ravelling resistance really depends on the strength, in partic-
into damage. For example, the reciprocal of cumulative damage
ular, fatigue behaviour of materials involved. Therefore, both
fraction in only one cycle during fatigue tests is equal to the
bitumen–stone adhesion and mortar bridge has to be empha-
number of such stress spectra that material can withstand before
sized for more durable PAC because ravelling will only occur
failure, that is, fatigue life, N.
on the weak link.
In combination with this damage accumulation model and the
Marek reported that the tensile strength of asphalt cement in
stress–time signal obtained from 3D-2 during two wheel pas-
thin film of 25 m thickness had a value of 6.9 MPa tested at
sage, the cumulative damage fraction is determined as 0.0287,
25 ◦ C and loading rate 0.02 in/min. It was also found that spec-
thus the fatigue life is given by N = 2/0.0287 = 70 cycles.
imens which were subjected to the higher rates of loading have
Heukelom summarized the relationship between stiffness
greater tensile strengths at failure [20]. Frolov reported that the
modulus and tensile strength of bituminous materials, as shown
tensile strength of asphalt film can reach 5.2 MPa at room tem-
in Fig. 12. The behaviour of mortar used is expected to be close
perature and loading rate 100 mm/min [21]. Currently, the di-
to MIX II, which was well graded, well compacted and had the
rect measurements of tensile strength of asphalt–stone adhesion
optimum binder content [23]. Based on Woldekidan’s research
are still not available to reflect the real traffic loading. To solve
on the actual mortar used in this study, the shear complex mod-
this problem, a damage accumulation model for asphalt–stone
ulus at a similar loading rate reflecting real traffic function was
adhesion was developed based on stress–time history [22]. The
about 1.0 × 108 Pa [5], thus the tensile strength of mortar at
damage rate of a given stress is described as follows:
such a situation was determined as 7.2 MPa according to the
dD chart provided by Heukelom. Furthermore, Osman reported the
= Ḋ() = k0 n0 , (22) tensile strength of mortar containing 65% limestone was about
dt
9.3 MPa tested at −10 ◦ C and 5.9%/min [24]. It is well known
where D and Ḋ denote damage accumulation and damage rate. that bituminous materials follow time–temperature superposi-
Only tensile and shear stresses cause damage. For compres- tion principle, that is, high loading rate at normal temperature
sive stress 0, D = 0, t is time, k0 and n0 are material con- can be approximated by relatively low loading rate at low tem-
stants, k0 = 1.4123 × 10−10 and n0 = 1.5911 according to Mo’s perature [25]. In consideration with the extremely high loading
research [22]. rate under tyre/pavement interaction, the tensile strength of the

90
Tensile strength of mix, kg/cm2
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
104 2
105
4 68 2 4 6 8
106
Stiffness modulus of bitumen, N/m
Fig. 12. Relationship between stiffness modulus and tensile strength obtained
from Heukelom’s report.
mortar studied thus is estimated to have a high value close to
9.3 MPa. This is apparently larger than the computational stress
obtained from finite element modelling. As an indicator, the
ratios of the computational stress obtained from 3D-2 model
divided by material strengths (9.3 and 7.2 MPa) above are de-
termined as 0.6 to 0.8.
In general, the failure of mortar resulted in repeated traf-
fic loading, thus indicating that the fatigue behaviour under
the computational stress obtained will be more acceptable and
practical. The fatigue life N of mortar can be usually expressed
in terms of the following equation:
N = k−n ,
where k and n are material constant.
Heukelom stated that the exponent n had a constant value of
about 4 for bitumen and some higher for mixes [23]. Osman
reported a series of fatigue testing data of various mortars under
stress controlled mode and found that n was equal to 4.8 [24].
Woldekidan conducted a fatigue test of the mortar used in this
study by dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) with a maximum
shear stress 1 MPa and obtained a fatigue life of 5.2 × 106
cycles [5]. It must note that the stress distribution in column
sample using DSR is no uniform but linear to the distance
from the centre to edge, and the maximum stress occurs at the
edge. Therefore, when the maximum stress  = 1 is applied and
combined with n = 4.8 and N = 5.2 × 106 , the other material
constant k is given as 5.2 × 106 .
The equation above can be further rewritten as
N = 5.2 × 106 −4.8 .
When the stress is equal to the computational value in 3D-2
model, 5.97 MPa, the fatigue cycles at failure can be predicted
to be 980, which is relatively small because loss of aggregate in
real pavement surfaces is believed to occur after several years’
serving life.
Based upon analysis above, it is found as an indicator, the
stress/strength ratio in mortar is much higher than interfa-
cial zone, while the predicted fatigue life at the stress states
obtained from finite element modelling point to that mortar
shows much stronger fatigue resistance compared with interfa-
cial adhesion. Therefore, fatigue testing data on both of mortar
and bitumen–stone adhesion is of great importance to assess
L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196 195
correctly what type of failure, i.e. cohesive or adhesive failure
would be the key factor that results in ravelling.
Mix II
4. Conclusions and recommendations
Bitumen
Mix I The 2D and 3D meso-level finite element modelling for rav-
elling analysis of idealized PAC has been developed and dis-
cussed in this study. The following conclusions can be drawn
2 4 6 8
107 2 4 6 8
108 2 4 6 8
109 based upon analysis above:
2
• von Mises stress cannot be satisfactorily employed as an indi-
cator for stress analysis of mortar bridge between two neigh-
bouring particles. For a better description, Mohr–Coulomb
like stress is proposed as failure criterion, which is com-
pared favourably with experimental data collected on mortar
strength and fatigue behaviour.
• The particle packing shows the most significant influence on
the computational stress with an introduced factor larger than
10. The stress concentration locally exists in some certain
contact region and thus results in earlier debonding.
• The 3D model tends to be loaded more heavily compared
to the equivalent 2D representation and the computational
stresses in 3D model show 2.6–3.5 times larger within the
interfacial zone and mortar bridge than those in 2D model,
respectively.
• Both the stress/strength ratio and fatigue life are utilized as
(26) indicators for evaluation of the feasibility of the proposed
models. It is found that the computational stress is so high that
will result in low fatigue life, which is not well in agreement
with visual inspection in field.
• The current meso-level models are limited to the assump-
tion of idealized PAC. Clearly this assumption is not very
acceptable as reflected in this study. Some other meso- or
micro-structural features including various aggregate sizes,
shape, texture and packing geometry are believed to play
an important role. Thus an improved model which involves
some features above is underway using image analysis tech-
niques. Furthermore, the nonlinear material model especially
for modelling mortar and unreal boundary conditions utilized
could also be important reasons.
• To finally verify the work of finite element modelling, a
test section paved with real mixture has been undergoing.
Combining test data and the current results, an acceptable
(27) model could be hopefully obtained by further correction once
the further improvement in finite element model turn out to
be unavailable for unforeseen reasons.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge support of the Road and
Hydraulic Engineering Institute, The Netherlands provided
under the project Life Optimization Tool for Porous Asphalt
(DWW-2923). The authors also appreciate the cooperation
between Wuhan University of Technology and Delft University
of Technology and express their wish to prolong and strengthen
the current cooperation between the mentioned institutes of
technology.
196 L.T. Mo et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 44 (2008) 186 – 196
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