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The evolution of obsidian procurement in ancient Oaxaca, Mexico: New data

from the Sistema 7 Venado architectural complex, Monte Albán

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 Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep

The evolution of obsidian procurement in ancient Oaxaca, Mexico: New data T

from the Sistema 7 Venado architectural complex, Monte Albán
⁎
François Gendrona, , Thomas Calligarob, Pascale Richardinb, Christian Duvergerc,
Aliénor Letouzéd, Franck Garciad, François Cuynete, Sandra Marigoe, Krzysztof Sakowicze,
Pauline Mancinae
a
ASU, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Homme et Environnement, CNRS-UMR 7194, 1 rue René Panhard, 75013 Paris, France
b
PSL, Chimie Paris Tech-CNRS, Institut de Recherche Chimie Paris, CNRS-UMR 8247, Centre de Recherches et de Restauration des Musées de France, Palais du Louvre-
Porte des Lions, 14 quai François Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France
c
PSL, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, EA 3629 Centre de Recherche sur l'Amérique Préhispanique, 10 rue Monsieur Le Prince, 75006, Paris, France
d
EA 3629 Centre de Recherche sur l'Amérique Préhispanique, 10 rue Monsieur Le Prince, 75006, Paris, France
e
ASU, Sorbonne Université, ED VI, Histoire de l'Art et Archéologie, Centre de Recherche sur l'Amérique Préhispanique, 3 rue Michelet, 75006 Paris, France

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recent archaeological investigations (2009–2016) in the Sistema 7 Venado, a ceremonial complex located on the
Lithic typology south part of the Monte Albán hill, Oaxaca, Mexico, demonstrates that occupation and ceremonial activity on the
Monte Albán site can be traced back until 800 BCE. Around 200–300 CE, this site was ritually abandoned and its structures
Obsidian covered by a thick layer of soil. This process indirectly offered a good protection of architectural structures and
PIXE
occupation levels. The chemical composition of 416 obsidian artefacts discovered during the excavations
Sourcing
campaigns were analysed by PIXE technique to determine their origin and to replace the Sistema 7 Venado
Trade
development into the complex trade network of the central valleys of Oaxaca. The results led us to twelve
obsidian sources, Otumba, Pacheco, Zacualtipán/Metzquititlán, Sierra de Pachuca, Malpaís, Paredón, Zaragoza,
Guadalupe Victoria, Pico de Orizaba, Altotonga, Ucareo and Magdalena, and also revealed variations in the areas
of supplies through time.

1. Introduction: archaeological background
The prehispanic ceremonial centre of Monte Albán is located
southwest of Oaxaca de Juárez (Coordinates UTM 14Q 737561.00 m E
1885655.00 m N), capital of the Mexican State of Oaxaca, and was
constructed on the southern part of a natural hilltop at around 1550 m
above sea level, overlooking the valley of Oaxaca. The site includes
several types of religious and political stone buildings, ceremonial
platforms, places and funeral complexes, covering a large area of about
500 ha. For eight excavation campaigns (2009–2016), the Franco-
Mexican archaeological program, “Proyecto arqueológico Sistema 7
Venado”1 (P7V-MA), has been exploring the south part of the hill,
known as 7 Venado System, according to the first denomination of
Alfonso Caso in the 1930s (Caso, 1928; Caso, 1965; Fig. 1).
The Sistema 7 Venado (hereafter S7V) is a 3 hectare site situated at a
height of around 1890 m above sea level, approximately 30 m below the
level of the Monte Albán main place. This architectural complex con-
sists of nine large courts and fifteen monumental buildings, articulated

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: francois.gendron@mnhn.fr (F. Gendron), thomas.calligaro@culture.gouv.fr (T. Calligaro), pascale.richardin@culture.gouv.fr (P. Richardin),
christian.duverger@ehess.fr (C. Duverger), alienor.letouze@mnhn.fr (A. Letouzé), franck.garcia@mnhn.fr (F. Garcia),
francois.cuynet@sorbonne-universite.fr (F. Cuynet).
1
The project has been enabled by a bilateral agreement between the Centre de Recherche sur l'Amérique Préhispanique (CeRAP, EHESS-Sorbonne Université-
MNHN) and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH, México).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.11.032
Received 9 July 2018; Received in revised form 26 November 2018; Accepted 26 November 2018
2352-409X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Gendron et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

A B C D E F G H J K L
E=14Q 737657.497

N=1885136.23
1
EDIFICIO 1 EDIFICIO 2

PLAZA A Test-Pit 10
3 ESCALINATA 1
Test-Pits
Test-Pits 51/61
26/36/46/56/66
EXPLANADA
NORTE
4
EDIFICIO 3
Test-Pit 21 PATIO Test-Pit 6
ORIENTE
Test-Pit 2
Test-Pits 29/39
5 PATIO
EDIFICIO 4 CENTRAL EDIFICIO 5
EDIFICIO 6 Test-Pits 44/54/64
PLAZA B
6
PIRAMIDE I
TEMPLO 7 VENADO ESCALINATA 2
Test-Pits 38/48/58/68
PIRAMIDE II
7
PLAZA C

8 PLAZA D
EDIFICIO 7
ESCALINATA 3

9 PLAZA E

Test-Pits 30/40
ESCALINATA 4
EDIFICIO 8
10

PATIO SUR
EDIFICIO 9 PIRAMIDE III
11 Test-Pit 52

12 PROYECTO SIETE VENADO

PLAZA F EDIFICIO 10
Monte Albán, Oaxaca
Survey data 2009/2015:
13 Víctor Manuel Jarquín
N
Digital map: Aliénor Letouzé

0 50 m
14

Fig. 1. Map of the Sistema 7 Venado, south of Monte Albán archaeological site, showing implantations of test-pits excavated since 2009.
(Drawing A. Letouzé.)

by four broad staircases. Prior to the start of the research, this complex
was considered to be a late settlement, related to the Mixtec Period
(1200–1521 CE), first described by Caso (2002: 245) and especially by
Blanton et al. (1982: 6), corresponding to the Period V of Duverger's
chronology (Duverger, 1999: 119).2 The oldest dating evidence was
2
The chronology established by Duverger in the 90s enables to get out of the
preconceptions induced by the timeline created at the end of the 19th century.
Based on the chronology of the Ancient Greece, it uses subjective names (pre-
Classic, Classic, post-Classic) that emphasise a linear evolutionist development
published in the 1970s, proving that S7V was already occupied around
(footnote continued)
of Mesoamerican societies. Pre-Classic assumes a period of cultural gestation,
which is supposed to lead to the Classic, the climax phase established on the
basis of the intense activity in the Maya area, just as subjective as the post-
Classic, sort of an unjust echo to a decadence stage. The cultural evolutionism
brings about a distorted comprehension of the chrono-cutural sequence of
Mesoamerica. That is why a more neutral chronology is privileged (Period I:
1200 to 500 BCE; Period II: 500 BCE to 200 CE; Period III: 200 to 800 CE; Period
IV: 800 to 1300 CE; Period V: 1300 to the Conquest).

584
F. Gendron et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

Paral chronology
Monte Albán phases Sistema 7 Venado
Dates of Mesoamerica
(Caso, 1967) phases
(Duverger, 1999)
800 A.D.

700 A.D.

600 A.D.
Mesoamerican
Monte Albán III Period III
500 A.D. 200 A.D. - 800 A.D. 200 A.D. - 800 A.D.
400 A.D.

300 A.D. Monte Albán II/IIIa

P7V-MA Phase IV
200 A.D. - 350 A.D.~
200 A.D. - 300 A.D.
200 A.D.

100 A.D.
Monte Albán II P7V-MA Phase III
100 B.C. - 200 A.D. Monte Albán Ic/II 100 B.C. - 200 A.D.
0 100 B.C. - 100 A.D.~
Mesoamerican
100 B.C.
Period II
Monte Albán Ic 500 B.C. - 200 A.D.
200 B.C. 300 B.C. - 150 B.C.~ P7V-MA Phase II
Monte Albán I 400 B.C. - 100 B.C.
300 B.C. 500 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Monte Albán Ia
400 B.C. 500 B.C. - 300 B.C.

500 B.C.
Rosario Phase P7V-MA Phase I
600 B.C. 700 B.C. - 500 B.C. 800 B.C. - 400 B.C.

700 B.C.

800 B.C. Mesoamerican

Period I
1200 B.C. - 500 B.C.
900 B.C.

1000 B.C.
F. Garcia, 2018
1100 B.C.

1200 B.C.

Fig. 2. Comparative chronology of the Sistema 7 Venado occupation.

(Drawing F. Garcia.)

500 BCE (Winter, 1972). Since 2009, forty-six 14C dating revealed that
the S7V represents one of the first occupations of Monte Albán hill,
which probably began around 800 BCE (Duverger et al., 2017: 732; see
comparative chronology on Fig. 2), corresponding to the end of the San
José Phase (Lyon-10,981, Test-pit 36 Carbon 2370 ± 35 BP:
728–385 BCE; C2RMF-1A774, Test-pit 43, Carbon 2495 ± 30 BP:
783–517 BCE; Richardin, 2014). Excavations also led to the recovery of
ancient monumental architecture (Test-pits 38–48 in Plaza C, cam-
paigns 2012–2013) and Olmec ceramic types, already identified in
others valley sites of Oaxaca (San José Mogote, Guadalupe, Rosario).
Then, by around 250–300 CE, the S7V was ritually abandoned and its
monuments was covered by soil, offering a good protection to the ar-
chaeological contexts (C2RMF-1A769, Test-pit 48, Carbon
1715 ± 30 BP: 249–394 CE; C2RMF-1A775, Test-pit 44, Carbon
1765 ± 30 BP: 209–354 CE; Duverger, 2015: 208–217). The aban-
donment appears to correspond approximately with the beginning of
Monte Albán IIIA phase, and could represent a transition period to the
development of classical Monte Albán site, that supposed to be the
regional “capital of the Zapotec world” (Blanton, 1978; Caso et al.,
1967; Saville, 1899; Winter, 1989).
The principal aim of the P7V-MA project was to understand space
organization and building articulations, focusing on the archaeological
exploration of courts and open spaces. The excavations revealed that
the S7V courts were not only circulation places, but also a true archi-
tectural and symbolic space arrangement, characterised by building
designs, complex stone delimitations, tombs, burials and different kinds
of offerings. This space arrangement has been modified several times
during a thousand years of occupation.
The study of the archaeological remains included various in-
vestigations focusing on the geographic origins of artefacts materials,
particularly concerning lithic and ceramic production. As part of the
Jaltepetongo sedimentary rocks formation, the hill of Monte Albán was
extensively used for stones extraction, such as sandstone, arkose and
limestone, for the construction of the whole ceremonial centre, as a
local and economical source of supplies (Duverger et al., 2017). How-
ever, various types of smaller lithic objects or tools appeared to be to-
tally exogenous. It concerns, in this case, obsidians artefacts, which
were found in large quantities in many archaeological contexts of S7V.

585
F. Gendron et al.
Fig. 3. a and b: Drill on flake (MA-Ob177), chipped on transparent grey ob-
sidian from Paredón (Hidalgo/Puebla), from Monte Albán IIIA level of Test-pit
44. Photo F. Gendron/MNHN, drawing A. Theodoropoulou.
c: The 3D study microscopy of active extremity of the drill MA-Ob177 reveals
micro-cracks due to a work in rotating drum. This tool could be a drill for shell
work, due to its small size and to the great number of drilled ornaments and
pieces of carved Pinctada mazatlanica (Hanley, 1856), a Pacific oyster shell,
which have been discovered during the excavations. Image T. Calligaro.
As shown by Pires-Ferreira (1975), Elam (1993) Elam et al. (1994) and
more recently Feinman et al. (2018), obsidian was one of the principal
prehispanic material importations in the central valleys of Oaxaca, and
was subject of intense long distance trades. Whatever their origin, all
586
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591
Fig. 4. a and b: Arrowhead wing on flake (MA-Ob07) chipped on Pachuca
(Hidalgo) green obsidian (L. 44.7 mm), from Monte Albán IIIA level of Test-pit
2.
(Photo F. Gendron/MNHN, drawing A. Theodoropoulou.)
the objects found in S7V are prismatic blades, tools or weapons de-
veloped on blades (see Figs. 3a, b and c, 4a and b, 5a and b, 6a and b).
No block, nucleus or rejuvenation tablets of nucleus were discovered.
The only typological peculiarity of this corpus is a small scraper on
flake chipped on black obsidian from Altotonga source, in Veracruz (see
Fig. 7a and b). The results presented below are based on the analysis of
416 obsidian artefacts, collected in secured stratigraphic contexts
(Table A).3
3
The obsidian artefacts which were not found in an undisrupted archae-
ological context were excluded from the selection (items showing on surface
F. Gendron et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

Fig. 5. a and b: Arrowhead wing (MA-Ob415) chipped on Zaragoza (Puebla) Fig. 7. a and b: Scraper on flake (MA-Ob141) chipped on black obsidian from
black obsidian (L. 33.2 mm), from Monte Albán IIIA level of Test-pit 66. Altotonga (Veracruz) (W. 47.2 mm), from Monte Albán IIIA level of Test-pit
(Photo F. Gendron/MNHN, drawing A. Lourdeau/MNHN.) 29–39.
(Photo F. Gendron/MNHN, drawing A. Theodoropoulou.)

2. Experimental: PIXE analysis of archaeological samples

At the end of the fieldwork season 2011, the INAH gave the project
team permission to temporarily export nine obsidian tools and flakes to
be analysed by PIXE (standing for Particle Induced X-ray Emission) at
the C2RMF laboratory (standing for Centre de Recherche et de
Restauration des Musées de France; Palais du Louvre, Paris). By com-
parison with the results of other regional research in Mexico (Argote-
Espino et al., 2012; Calligaro et al., 2005; Charlton and Spence, 1982;
Cobean, 2002; Cobean et al., 1991; Glascock et al., 2010; Tenorio et al.,
1998; Zeitlin and Heimbuch, 1978), these preliminary results con-
firmed that these obsidians came from four different sources. In 2012, a
second temporary export permit was provided for analysis of another
141 samples; this was followed by 98 samples in 2013, 161 samples in
2014 and 7 in 2015. Therefore, in total, 416 tools, flakes and weapons
have been analysed; some are drawn and studied using 3D microscopy.
PIXE analysis was carried out with the external beam of the AGLAE
accelerator at the C2RMF (Dran et al., 2004). Whilst this analytical
technique bears similarities with X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), it has four
major advantages in archaeological artefacts analysing (Dran et al.,
2000):

- it is non-invasive (direct analysis of artefacts without sampling)

- and non-destructive (analysed area is not altered)
- it has high accuracy (the chemical composition is obtained within
Fig. 6. a and b: Eccentric blade (MA-Ob410) chipped on Pachuca (Hidalgo) 1%)
green obsidian (L. 50.3 mm), from Monte Albán IIIA level of Test-pit 61.
- and high sensitivity (measurement of trace elements useful for
(Photo F. Gendron/MNHN, drawing A. Lourdeau/MNHN.)
provenance down to a few parts per million or ppm).

The artefacts were subjected to a 3 MeV proton beam of 1 nA in-

tensity for a few minutes allowing the chemical composition of the
(footnote continued) samples made of obsidian to be derived from two PIXE spectra. The first
floor, mixing artefacts in looting holes, etc.). spectrum was devoted to the measurement of major elements (from

587
F. Gendron et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

Table A
Test pits localisation, obsidian artefacts and archaeological phases of Sistema 7 Venado.
Test pit Year(s) opened Localisation Artefacts Phases

2 2009 Central Patio at the foot of the Edificio North or Edificio 3 18 Monte Albán II and IIIa
6 2009 Centre of the oriental architectural Group 1 Monte Albán II and IIIa
10 2010 Centre of the North Plaza or Plaza A 5 Monte Albán Ic/II
21 2011 East of Plaza B 21 Monte Albán II and IIIa
30–40 2012 to 2013 West side foot of the Edificio 8 27 Monte Albán IIIa
44–54-64 2013 to 2015 Plaza D 71 Monte Albán Ic, II and IIIa
26, 36, 46, 56 and 66 2011 to 2015 West of the Explanada Nord 92 Rosario
Monte Albán Ic, II and IIIa
38, 48, 58 and 68 2012 to 2015 Plaza E 81 Monte Albán Ic, II and IIIa
29–39 2014 to 2015 East side of the Edificio 6 53 Monte Albán II and IIIa
51–61 2014 to 2015 Centre of the Explanada North 30 Monte Albán IIIa
52–62 2014 to 2015 Centre structure of the Patio Sur 9 Monte Albán IIIa

sodium to iron, 10 ≤ Z ≤ 26); it was recorded in a helium atmosphere
allowing the measurement of sodium, magnesium, aluminium, and si-
licon. The second spectrum was devoted to the measurement of trace
elements. It was recorded with four detectors screened with a 50-μm
aluminium absorber to attenuate the X-ray of major constituents. The
analysis was recorded by scanning the 50 μm beam on a 1 × 1 mm2
area, in order to account for possible heterogeneities due to inclusions
or dust grains at the surface. The major element concentrations in-
cluded iron, which was determined from the first spectrum. The matrix
composition determined in this step was used in the processing of the
second spectrum by adjusting trace elements concentrations to the take
into account the level of iron determined in the first spectrum.
The quantitative processing was achieved using the TRAUPIXE
program (Pichon et al., 2015) developed at the C2RMF on the basis of
GUPIXWIN software (Campbell et al., 2010). All in all, the measured
elements comprised: Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nd, Ba and Pb. Prior to analysis of
archaeological artefacts, the full processing chain was carefully checked
on pellets of reference geochemical targets (DR-N from Centre de Re-
cherche Pétrographique et Géochimique CRPG, SRM 278 obsidian
samples from the National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST).
3. Sourcing of obsidian artefacts from the Sistema 7 Venado
3.2. Crossing PIXE sourcing results with the occupation chronology
The number and percentage of artefacts coming from each Mexican
obsidian source and for each archaeological phase identified in the S7V
is presented in Table M. These results are similar to those of Blomster
and Glascock (2011) and Feinman et al. (2018), which concerns the
valley of Oaxaca in general, but provide more detailed information on
the specific occupation of the Monte Albán hill, both spatially and
temporally.
3.2.1. From Rosario to Monte Albán Ia phase
Radiocarbon dating and the typology of ceramics recovered during
fieldwork suggest that human activity at the site may extend back to the
Rosario (700–500 BCE) and Monte Albán Ia (500–300 BCE) phases.
However, these sealed levels contain sparse amounts of obsidian, as
only two blades were discovered. One is from the Pachuca source area
(Rosario phase) whilst the other is from Paredón (attributed to the
Monte Albán Ia phase). Unfortunately, these two tools arising from
Central Plateau obsidian sources are numerically insufficient to be re-
presentative of obsidian importation, but they integrate in a homo-
geneous way the statistic already established in other Oaxaca sites. The
rarity of the material at these oldest levels may be the consequence of
architectural rearrangements, where spaces were possibly cleaned up
before works.

The results of the analysis of the 416 obsidian artefacts from the S7V
are reported in Tables B to L (see Appendices). In these tables, PIXE
sourcing results are correlated with the results of 14C dating and/or
relative chronologies in order to understand the sequence of importa-
tion since the middle of the Mesoamerican Period I (900–500 BCE) or
San José-Guadalupe-Rosario Phases4 in the Oaxaca valley to the be-
ginning of Mesoamerican Period III (200–400 CE) or the Monte Albán
IIIA Phase (250–650 CE).
3.1. Obsidian sourcing Tables I to X: results
The main results of this analyse program are the identification of
twelve obsidian sources (see Fig. 8 below and tables in Appendices).
Among these, those of Hidalgo and Puebla States (Pachuca, Za-
cualtipán-Metzquititlán, Malpaís, Paredón and Zaragoza) appear to
represent the main suppliers (83%), followed by Veracruz (6%; Pico de
Orizaba and Altotonga), Michoacán (4%; Ucareo), Mexico (3%; Otumba
and Pacheco) and of Jalisco States (2%; Magdalena).
4
We use in this report the dates of the chronological chart published by
Marcus and Flannery (2001: 31), based on the original chart published by
Winter et al. (1975).
3.2.2. From Monte Albán Ic to Monte Albán II phase
The most ancient archaeological levels with a significant density of
obsidian lithic material correspond to the Monte Albán Ic phase
(300–150/100 BCE). In total, we collected twelve artefacts from four
sources: Pachuca (80%), Paredón, Otumba and Altotonga (each 6%).
During the Monte Albán II phase, it appears that the Central Plateau
remains the principal supply region, but the material is increasing in
amount and diversity. The Pachuca source (51%) always provides the
majority of the obsidian, but Zaragoza becomes an important source
area (25%). The importation extend to other sources, in small quantities
(6 to 1%), including that of the Magdalena (2%) obsidian outcrop
around the Tequila Volcano in Jalisco State (Trombold et al., 1993).
Due to disturbed context levels in Tests-pits 26–66, 38–68 and
44–64, it was very difficult to determine an exact limit between lithic
artefacts from Monte Albán Ic and Monte Albán II (150/
100 BCE–200 CE), and those of Monte Albán II from those of Monte
Albán IIIA (150/100 BCE–200 CE–500 CE). To provide the most precise
analysis, the obsidians from these levels are presented separately. In the
MA Ic/MA II, we can notice that the source deposit of Pachuca (81%) is
dominant with subsidiary amounts from other suppliers: Zaragoza
(7%), Guadalupe Victoria (2%) and Ucareo (7%). In the MA II/MA IIIA,
we observe a similar diversification of sources supply, but the results
are slightly different. In these levels, the Pachuca source (64%) remains
the main source with secondary materials provided by the areas of
Ucareo (9%) and Zaragoza (7%) as to a lesser extent Paredón (4%),

588
F. Gendron et al.
Fig. 8. Map of obsidian sources identified in Sistema 7 Venado.
(Drawing F. Garcia.)
Altotonga (4%), Otumba (3%), Zacualtipan (3%), Guadalupe Victoria
(2%), Magdalena (3%), and a new one, Pacheco (2%) an obsidian
subsource localized in the Otumba volcanic complex (Argote-Espino
et al., 2012: 52).
3.2.3. Monte Albán IIIA phase
The beginning of phase Monte Albán IIIA corresponds to the period
of abandonment of the S7V, but during this period, the diversity and
quantity of obsidian introduced is the greatest. Of 207 objects asso-
ciated with this phase, 55% came from Pachuca and 22% from
Zaragoza sources; 49 others artefacts arise from nine others sources,
including Malpaís, Hidalgo. These sourcing analyses also reveal de-
tailed information for the Monte Albán IIIA phase. All blades (MA-
Ob46, 47, 48, 167, 168, 169, 171 and 173) discovered in Test-pits
30–40 at the base of the Edificio 8, in an offering context containing
large quantities of ceramics, are exclusively from the Zaragoza source
area in Puebla State (Gendron, 2013).
4. Regional provenances synthesis
By dividing the artefacts by age and regional provenance, it seems
that the Central Plateau was the main region of obsidian supply at the
S7V, since the Monte Albán Ic phase, albeit these trade relations
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591
involved a group of different sources and were never exclusive. We note
that the obsidian source geographically close to Monte Albán (Pico de
Orizaba) was not the most important provider. These results corrobo-
rate overall those of Pires-Ferreira (1976) who analysed 500 obsidians
arising from levels of Early and Middle Formative periods (before
300 BCE), and those of Feinman et al. (2018), even though they are
different in some details. Indeed, it turns out that the material of the
Pachuca source has always been dominant until the abandonment of
the site, likewise the Zaragoza source, whose importation increasing is
already visible during Monte Albán II phase, before 300 CE. Moreover,
the Guadalupe Victoria source, which is described by Pires-Ferreira
(1976) and Feinman et al. (2018: 19) just as important during the Late
Formative phase (300 BCE–300 CE), appears to be a minor part of the
corpus discovered.
During Monte Albán II and IIIA phases, we can observe a sensible
diversification of artefacts origins, as it happened at the same time in
the central valleys of Oaxaca. The sources are the same: the Hidalgo-
Puebla States sources of Pachuca, Paredón, Zaragoza, Zacualtipan and
Guadalupe Victoria. Various minor provenances are also present, like
Pico de Orizaba (Veracruz), Magdalena (Jalisco), and Ucacero
(Michoacán), already identified by Pires-Ferreira for the Early
Formative period. This situation corresponds approximately with the
period of abandonment of S7V, between 250 and 300 CE. Quite the
F. Gendron et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 583–591

Table M
14
Sourcing results crossed with C and relative chronology dating.
Archaeological phases Obsidian sources Artefacts quantity Relative percentages

Mesoamerican Period I (1300–500 BCE)

Rosario (700–500 BCE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 1 100%

Mesoamerican Period II (500 BCE–200 CE)

Monte Albán Ia (500–300 BCE) Paredón, Hidalgo/Puebla 1 100%
Monte Albán Ic (300–150/100 BCE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 12 80%
Paredón, Hidalgo/Puebla 1 6.70%
Otumba, Mexico 1 6.70%
Altotonga, Veracruz 1 6.70%
Monte Albán Ic/II (300–150/100 BCE–200 CE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 34 81%
Zaragoza, Puebla 3 7.10%
Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 1 2.40%
Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz 1 2.40%
Ucareo, Michoacán 3 7.10%
Monte Albán II (150/100 BCE–200 CE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 45 51.10%
Paredón, Hidalgo/Puebla 5 5.70%
Zacualtipán-Metzquititlán, Hidalgo 1 1.10%
Otumba, Mexico 3 3.40%
Zaragoza, Puebla 22 25.00%
Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 2 2.30%
Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz 1 1.10%
Altotonga, Veracruz 5 5.70%
Ucareo, Michoacán 2 2.30%
Magdalena, Jalisco 2 2.30%

Mesoamerican Periods II–III (200–800 CE)

Monte Albán II/IIIA (150/100 BCE–200 CE–500 CE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 43 66.10%
Paredón, Hidalgo/Puebla 1 1.50%
Zacualtipán-Metzquititlán, Hidalgo 1 1.50%
Otumba, Mexico 2 3.20%
Zaragoza, Puebla 5 7.70%
Pacheco, Mexico 1 1.50%
Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 1 1.50%
Altotonga, Veracruz 3 4.60%
Ucareo, Michoacán 6 9.20%
Magdalena, Jalisco 2 3.20%
Monte Albán IIIA (200–500 CE) Pachuca, Hidalgo 113 54.10%
Paredón, Hidalgo/Puebla 10 4.80%
Zacualtipán-Metzquititlán, Hidalgo 4 1.90%
Malpaís, Hidalgo 2 1%
Otumba, Mexico 4 1.90%
Pacheco, Mexico 2 1%
Zaragoza, Puebla 45 21.50%
Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla 3 1.40%
Pico de Orizaba, Veracruz 8 3.80%
Altotonga, Veracruz 9 4.30%
Ucareo, Michoacán 5 2.40%
Magdalena, Jalisco 4 1.90%

contrary, the archaeological contexts of S7V proved that obsidian im-
portation from Central Plateau in Monte Albán hill is already underway
during Rosario and Monte Albán Ia phases.
It is also remarkable that, despite the analysis of 416 artefacts,
covering a millennium of activity in S7V, we did not found obsidian
coming from the Maya area, such as El Chayal or San Martín
Jilotepeque, as those documented in Tierras Largas and San José
Mogote (Blomster and Glascock, 2011, Table 3; Feinman et al., 2018:
18).
5. Conclusions
The sourcing by PIXE technique of 416 obsidian artefacts excavated
from test-pits during height archaeological field campaigns in the S7V
permits to reintroduce this ceremonial centre in the prehispanic com-
mercial networks of central valleys of Oaxaca, and by extension, in the
cultural context of Mesoamerican Periods I and II (1200 to 500 BCE,
and 500 BCE to 200 CE). It gives us more details about its well-devel-
oped and structured trade system, and the diversity of sources supply,
and revealed a constant and intense connection with the Central
Mexican Plateau, from the Rosario phase, as it has been mentioned by
Pires-Ferreira (1976). The commonest sources are Pachuca (Hidalgo)
and Zaragoza (Puebla), which constantly supplied Monte Albán, until
the abandonment of the main site, around 700 CE.
We note that all obsidians collected in the S7V are already manu-
factured (tools or projectile points). No block, nucleus or nucleus pieces
have been discovered. This absence of obsidian nodule cores corrobo-
rates the observations already made in the Oaxaca valley (Elam, 1993;
Flannery and Marcus, 2005: 186–187), but is still difficult to explain.
Indeed, at the same time, quantities of quartzite, chalcedony or flint
flakes were discovered in S7V test-pits, and prove that peoples of
Oaxaca possessed the mastery of lithic percussion techniques. There-
fore, it could be interpreted as a commercial or political strategy to
import material from selected sources, or a technical choice to obtain a
better obsidian quality.
Besides, these analyses, combined with our 14C dating, lead us to re-
examine the early development of Monte Albán in relation to the re-
gional social model developed since 1970s (Blanton, 1978; Blanton
et al., 1979: 377; Blanton et al., 1999: 48–67; Winter, 1974). The
construction of S7V is coherent with this model overall, and may cor-
respond to the first significant occupation period of the whole Monte
Albán hill (500–100 BCE). But, in details, the presence of monumental

590
F. Gendron et al.
architectural structures and obsidian material in the most ancient levels
indicates that this place was clearly occupied before 500 BCE, perhaps
in a ceremonial way, and was already involved in the obsidian trade
activities. Undoubtedly, we have a lot to learn from the very local
history of this southern part of Monte Albán, which must be taken into
account in the general history of the hill and the valley of Oaxaca.
Acknowledgments
This research is part of the archaeological program entitled
“Proyecto Sistema 7 Venado” financed by La Commission Consultative des
Recherches Archéologiques à l'Étranger of the French Ministry of Europe
and Foreign Office. The technical assistance of the Instituto Nacional de
Antropología e Historia is much appreciated. Thanks are also due to Mr.
Antoine Lourdeau (MNHN) and Miss Angeliki Theodoropoulou (Institut
Für Klassische Archäologie, Heidelberg) for drafting the figures. This
research program named “Études du patrimoine lithique préhispanique de
Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Mexique” received financial support of SAT-SU
2015: MH@SU. Finally, we are grateful to our reviewers for the hard
work of revision and for giving us many suggestions.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.11.032.
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