Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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The Cult-Wagon of Liptovský Hrádok: First evidence of using the Urnfield

cult-wagons as fat-powered lamps
Filip Ondrkál a ,* , Jaroslav Peška b , Klára Jagošová b , c , Diana Sokolovská b, c , Lukáš Kučera c
a
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Palacký University Olomouc, Na Hradě 5, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic
b
Archaeological Centre Olomouc, U Hradiska 42/6, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic
c
Department of Analytic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the recent past, the archaeological community in European countries has drawn attention to a unique find of
Archaeometry bronze ornithomorphic plastic artworks (11th –10th cent. BC), coming from the extensive hoard from the ter-
GC/MS ritory of the Liptov Basin (Central Slovakia), belonging in terms of art to the crucial artefacts of the European
Cult-wagon
Bronze Age. A detailed GC/MS analysis of the vessel has also contributed to the scientific discussion of the
Cauldron-wagon
Fat residues
exceptionally significant data on the signals of animal fat with a prehistoric origin, which confirms the earlier
Final Bronze Age hypothesis on the use of this type of vessels as ceremonial lamps. Although the view of the item is limited by the
fragmentary nature of the archaeological research, we now have, 150 years since a similar finding, further ev-
idence of advanced spiritual thinking and sophisticated ritual activities that point to a fascinating mythological
universe of the Bronze Age.

1. Introduction
The cognitive-processual approach in archaeology makes it possible
for the iconographic analysis often to be the main method of the
reconstruction of the distinctiveness and meanings of religion outside
the literary sources (Renfrew, 1994), where the existence of the shared
elements between cultures is proved by the appearance of similar
iconographic depictions. The importance of iconography in recognizing
oral tradition is also emphasized by W. Burkert, who claims that the
iconographic treatments of myths “… play a fundamental role in the fix-
ation, propagation and transmission of those myths …” (Burkert, 1988). A
similar conclusion can be drawn also by the study of post-processual
theories, which discuss recurrent intercultural iconography. I. Hodder
and S. Hutson claim that objects can be transferred from culture to
culture or from context to context (unchanged in meaning), or if it
changes that this new meaning is still based on the old one (Hodder and
Hutson, 2003).
Cult symbols such as the sun, waterfowl, or wheel are found
throughout Europe in the Bronze Age and provide the possibility of
insight into the religious beliefs of the population and its thinking about
the afterlife (Primas, 2008). The depiction of waterfowl in this period is
mostly characterized by rough stylization without much interest in the
realistic rendering of details, which often goes all the way into schematic
representations. Very rarely, three-dimensional ornithomorphic de-
pictions appear that often borrow anthropomorphic or zoomorphic
properties including, for example, bulls’ horns, human feet, or facial
images (Reich, 2005; Palincas, 2010). On the European-wide scale, the
content of the general cult symbols of the Bronze Age are mainly dealt
with in the works by G. Kossack (Kossack, 1954), E. Sprockhoff
(Sprockhoff, 1962), J. Bouzek (Bouzek, 1985), A. Jockenhövel (Jock-
enhövel, 1974) and M. Sturm-Berger (Sturm-Berger, 2002).
Nowadays, an international team of archaeologists have been able to
document the sacral bird vessel from the hoard Liptovský Hrádok, site
Vislavce (Fig. 1) and provide extremely interesting and valuable infor-
mation on the cult practices of the prehistoric population in the Late
Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin. In order to understand the socio-
cultural phenomena of the transition from the Bronze to Iron Age (Ha
B–Ha C), a multi-analytic method from the chemical and typological
perspectives was also integrated into the study with the aim to decode
the origin of the artefact, the elemental composition, pre-deposition
series of events and later transmission of its design to the milieu of the
Mediterranean and Etruscan civilizations.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ondrkal@ac-olomouc.cz (F. Ondrkál).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102579
Received 17 March 2020; Received in revised form 10 June 2020; Accepted 9 September 2020
2352-409X/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Ondrkál et al.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Description of bird-shaped vessel
The subject of this study is the bronze model of a bird, found in the
territory of Liptovský Hrádok (Central Slovakia), artistically rendered
with a raised pose and sigmoidal-curved neck, tilted forward (Fig. 2).
The long, S-shaped neck, stylized head with protruding eyes and beak
reflects the artist’s intent in the reproduction of the anatomical features
of the waterfowl (a swan from the genus Cygnus). The highly jutting
neck, with an integral connection to the body, is relatively thick and
slightly expanding towards the head; it is rougher in the lateral pro-
jection than in the front-to-back projection. The beak is proportionally
relatively short, flat and vertically flattened. The biconvex body of the
vessel is statically shaped in the form of a deep cistern-like sub-oval with
massive walls, flattened in the area of the chest and a short, horizontal
tail in the back part of the vessel. The dorsal part is slightly arched and
contains an elongated, oval opening with two opposing perforations.
The wings are represented on each side by four parallel indented, rect-
angular curved grooves that extend from the centre of the body to the
tail, surrounded by an engraved, sharpened chain. The surface of the
object was carefully polished. Dimensions of the artefact are 15.8 ×
10.7 × 7 cm with weight 349 g.
2.2. Cultural context
The area of the Liptov Basin and its vicinity is characterized in the
Late Bronze Age by the presence of an elite population of the Lusatian
culture (Veliačik, 1983), which controlled access to the rich Carpathian
resources of copper and gold (O’Brien, 2015), had an extensive network
of long-distance contacts and which represented its power in a very
extravagant form (fortified settlements at an altitude of up to 1550 m
above sea level; e.g. Demänovská Poludnica; Pieta and Veliačik, 2014).
It is fundamentally characterized by its offensive and defensive arms
(Liptov-type swords, Lúčky-type helmets; Novotná, 2014), opulent
jewellery and vessels (Istebné-type headbands, Blatnica-type cups;
Novotná, 1991), which spread beyond the boundaries of the archaeo-
logical cultures and they were widespread throughout Europe. One of
the best examples of the social dominance of the population are the finds
of an extraordinary amount of ceremonial deposits – irreversible offer-
ings of the artefacts to the deities, often left in water (Lúčky, Martinček,
Liptovské Sliače; Novotná, 1970) and elevated environments (Bešeňová,
Blatnica; Bartík, 2007) with evidence of the presence of the components
Fig. 1. Ceremonial bird-shaped bronze vessel from Liptovský Hrádok.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579
of cult-wagons, among which the largest cache of bronze swords in
Europe dominate (Komjatná; Kubinyi, 1887; Novotná, 2014).
2.3. Find context
The reconstruction of the find context of the cache from the elevated
site of Liptovský Hrádok, Vislavce (920 m a. s. l.; Fig. 3) provided the
basic information on the spatial arrangement, which demonstrates its
organized, layered deposition. Since the accidental finder of the hoard
(metal detectorist) was unaware of the archaeological importance of the
find, he put less effort in its careful excavation, where the location of the
artefacts in the microenvironment is one of the most interesting parts of
the archaeologically tangible trace of deposition (Garrow, 2012). In this
case, he only managed to determine the depth of the find (0.4–0.5 m)
and the position of the bird vessel, which was deposited the highest
stratigraphically (on a bundle of the other artefacts), turned feet up-
wards. The set of other elite artefacts can be divided into four over-
lapping functional groups: 1. military items (bronze helmet); 2.
jewellery (spiral diadems); 3. vessels; 4. components of a cult-wagon
(wheels with thickened spokes). The crucial role is played here by the
Lúčky-type conical helmet with spool-shaped socket, generally dated to
the Ha A1–Ha B1 period (Schauer, 1988; Novotná, 1964; Müller-Karpe,
1959). Discovery: 1993. Privatsammlung Dr. Matthias Fellner, Wiener
Neustadt, Austria.
2.4. X-ray fluorescence
The analysis of the metal composition was performed using X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer Delta Dynamic XRF (BAS Rudice s.r.o.,
Czech Republic). The parameters of the measurement were as follows:
analytical mode; collimator diameter: 9 mm (see Table 1). Six samples
were taken from the intact core of an alloy using 0.75 mm carbide drill
and Dremel drill (8220 12VMax High-Performance Cordless, Dremel,
Wisconsin, USA).
2.5. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) was used for
determination of the semi-polar and non-polar compounds in the
acetone/chloroform extract sample. Briefly, the solid material was taken
from inner part of the bronze vessel and a 200 mg of sample was directly
extracted by 1 mL acetone/chloroform solution (50:50, v/v). After
centrifugation (4400 RPM), the liquid part was transferred to a 1.5 mL
F. Ondrkál et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579

Fig. 2. Reconstruction drawings of the bird-shaped vessel from Liptovský Hrádok. A: bottom view. B: top view. C and D: side views. x1–x3: cross-sections.

Fig. 3. Location map of Liptovský Hrádok, site Vislavce.

glass vial, dried by a fine stream of nitrogen and consequently derivat-
ized using 50 μL N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (Sigma-
Aldrich, St. Louis, USA) and 50 μL pyridine (HPLC grade, Sigma-Aldrich,
St. Louis, USA). The measurement was performed by an Agilent 7010
Triple Quadrupole GC/MS system with Mass Hunter software (Agilent
Technologies, Palo Alto, USA). The separation was performed on two
(5%-Phenyl)-methylpolysiloxane HP-5 ms Ultra Inert capillary columns
connected in a series (15 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm, each) with a constant
flow of 1.0 and 1.2 mL min−1, respectively. Nitrogen (Messer Group
GmbH, Germany) was used as a collision gas with a flow rate of 1.5 mL
min−1 and helium (He 5.0. Siad, Italy) as a quench gas with a flow rate of
2.25 mL min−1. The initial oven temperature was 70 ◦ C for 5 min, the
oven was heated at a rate of 15 ◦ C min−1 to the value of 320 ◦ C, which
was held for 10 min. The injection volume of the extracts was 1 µL with
splitless injection. The identification of the compounds was done using
the NIST 14 library and comparison with the authentic standard of
cholesterol (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA).

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F. Ondrkál et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579

Table 1
Analysis samples taken from different parts (see Fig. 4) of the metal artefact. (Note: “<LOD” – the element was under the detection limit of the spectrometer).
Sample Content of measured elements [%]

Cu Sn P Pb Ni Ag S Fe

XRF 1 (eye) 88.24 10.20 <LOD 0.49 0.37 0.21 0.48 <LOD
<0.08 <1,06
XRF 2 (neck) 87.76 10.24 0.59 0.45 0.39 <LOD 0,26 0.32
<0,19
XRF 3 (leg) 95.03 4.50 <LOD <LOD 0.32 <LOD 0,15 <LOD
<0,16 <0,09 <0,22 <2,08
XRF 4 (patch) 92.39 6.62 0.57 <LOD 0.20 <LOD 0,22 <LOD
<0,17 <0,25 <1,08
XRF 5 (backside) 95.59 3.86 <LOD <LOD 0.33 <LOD 0,23 <LOD
<0,29 <0,15 <0,35 <3,27
XRF 6 (body) 94.77 4.29 <LOD <LOD <LOD <LOD 0,30 <LOD
<0,37 <0,14 <0,22 <0,48 <3,60

2.6. Raman micro-spectroscopy observations, several traces of deliberate deformation are available:

The black particles found in solid material from internal part of
bronze vessel were analysed using DXR2 Raman microscope (Thermo
Scientific, MA, USA). The parameters of measurement were the
following: laser 785 nm, laser power 1 mW, aperture 50 mm Slit, collect
exposure time 2 s, sample exposures 128.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Macroscopic observation
The most noteworthy characteristic of the artefact is its material
heterogeneity (Fig. 4; Table 1), associated with the manifestations of
prehistoric secondary manipulation and its symbolic damage (selective
fragmentation), which was probably connected with the ritual activities
of the population. In accordance with macroscopic and spectroscopic
- a damaged area is present in the central part of the ventral
(abdominal) area, where the relics of the two cut and polished legs
with a circular cross-section are clearly visible, demonstrating the
porous structure of their break surface (see Fig. 4, XRF 3).
- the posterior portion of the ventral region contains three polished
projections (rivets) that indicate that the waterfowl’s figure was
attached to another object from which it was separated by force (see
Fig. 4, XRF 4). Similar bird connections from cult carts are inter-
preted as swan harnesses (Seewald, 1939; Hochstetter, 1881).
- in the process of the bird being damaged, its head has also been
removed, which was replaced by a new head (with a distinctly
different elemental composition; Table 1), integrally composed into
the body of the vessel by an process of thermal casting intercon-
nection and retouching of the contact area (see Fig. 3, XRF 2), with
evidence of macroscopic traces of intensive abrasion of the surface.

Fig. 4. Photographic presentation of the bird-shaped vessel from Liptovský Hrádok. A: bottom view. B: top view. C and D: side views. XRF 1–6: samples for XRF
spectrometry.

4
F. Ondrkál et al.
3.2. XRF evaluation
Repeated retouching of artefact damage may indicate a longer life
cycle. Precise determination of the artefact’s metal composition was
performed by XRF analysis. The samples were taken from different part
of “bird” and the results are shown in Table 1. All analysed samples of
the artefact contain more than 90% copper, besides the “eye” and the
“neck” area that have 88.24 and 87.76%, respectively. The second most
significant element was tin whose presence confirms the bronze nature
of the artefact. The tin had higher percentual representation in the “eye”
and “neck” area (10.20 and 10.24%, respectively) compared the rest of
samples with tin concentration in range 3.86–6.62%. This difference in
tin concentration points to usage of various alloys on the artefact. Note
that lead, silver and irons were found in “eye” and “neck” samples in
small concentrations. This may also indicate that the “eye” and the
“neck” were made from another alloy than the rest of the artefact.
Nevertheless, the lead in such a low concentration like in our sample
is probably due to contamination, not by intentional addition (Pernicka
et al., 1990). The presence of nickel (~0.32%) in the samples can be due
to an admixture from the NiAsS ore (the gersdorffite mineral, which are
found in the Czech and Slovak Republics, but also in Austria and in the
environs of Salzburg) (Pernicka, 2014). Arsenic was not determined in
samples. Note that the nickel and arsenic content in the artefacts de-
pends on the smelting temperature (the melting temperature for nickel is
1.453 ◦ C, the boiling temperature for nickel is 2.913 ◦ C, the sublimation
temperature for arsenic is 613 ◦ C) (Meliksetyan and Pernicka, 2010). On
wood or charcoal furnaces, the melting temperatures of copper and tin
ores reached at least 1.130 ◦ C, which can cause evaporation of arsenic
from an alloy. In samples from the “neck” and “patch”, a small amount of
phosphorus was found as well. This element may come from the soil, in
which the metal material was stored, and can penetrate to different
depths of the analysed artefact depending on its porosity (Ingo et al.,
2006).
3.3. GC/MS analysis
The solid material covered by corrosion products was taken from the
inner part of the artefact and directly hydrolyzed by MetPrep solution or
extracted using an organic solution of acetone:chloroform (1:1, v/v;
Kučera et al., 2019) and analysed using GC/MS. We can suppose that
corrosion preserved the organic molecules and protected the sample
against contamination (see also Robbiola et al., 2011; Chen et al., 1998).
This technique revealed the dominant signals of fatty acids (methyl es-
ters after derivatization) i.e. methyl isomyristate (RT 15.7 min.), methyl
palmitate (RT 17.8 min.), methyl oleate (RT 19.5) and methyl stearate
(RT 19.7 min.) in sample (Fig. 5). After derivatization of acetone:
chloroforme extract by BSTFA solution a monoacylglycerols (mono-
myristrin, RT 20.6; monopaltmitin, RT 23.3 min and mono stearin, RT
25.0 min) and cholesterol (RT 28.2 min) were additionaly found. The
identification of cholesterol was based on a comparison of the retention
time and mass spectrum with the authentic standard.
3.4. Raman micro-spectroscopy
The solid material contained black particles that were analysed using
Raman microscopy. The spectra reveal two major signals at 1323 and
1589 cm−1 (Fig. 5). Sadezky et al. ascribe those very strong and broad
signal to soot (Sadezky et al., 2005). Raman analysis of activated carbon
standards confirm those results (Fig. 6; 7). Based on these results, we
hypothetized that animal fatty material could serve as fuel for a fire
(lamp).
The analytical results are consistent with earlier hypotheses that
suggested the use of the ornithomorphic cistern-like vessels of the
Bronze Age as fat-powered lamps (Müller-Karpe, 2002; Novotná, 1991).
The detection of animal fats as the fuel for the lamps was also success-
fully proved in the past with several cases of ancient ceramic vessels
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579
Fig. 5. Chromatogram of sample after hydrolysis and methylation (A; iM –
methyl isomyristate, P – methyl palmitate, O – methyl oleate, S – methyl
stearate) and chromatogram of cholesterol in sample (solid line) and cholesterol
standard (dot line) (B).
from the Mediterranean and Egypt (Evershed et al., 1997; Colombini
et al., 2005; Copley et al., 2005), and included evidence of the presence
of beeswax, fish or cattle fat.
4. Genesis and transmission of the design
4.1. Bird-shaped cult-wagons
In the earlier Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin, significant change
took place, which is characterized by the more prominent importance of
birds in the animal cult (Guba and Szeverényi, 2007). Ornithomorphic
vessels subsequently predominate in a large chronological range,
namely until the Hallstatt Period (Kovács, 1972; Filipov, 1974; Kalicz-
Schreiber, 1991; Shalganova, 1995). During the earlier part of the
Bronze Age, the bird principle was depicted in the form of various
species of birds; however, in the Late Bronze Age, their representation
becomes more standardized and waterfowl become the dominant
design. This difference clearly indicates a process of change, likely the
result of a modification in the belief system. It seems that the leading
role in the cult was provided to waterfowl. The ethnographic records
apparently support the notion that such bird species were able to move
between every cosmological sphere, such as water, soil and air, so these
mythical birds probably became the symbolic essence of prehistoric
cosmology (Pásztor, 2017).
Sacral bird furnishings in that period were diverse in size, lacked
uniformity in their form and were fashioned mostly of clay and bronze,
often discovered in mass finds deposited with extremely valuable metal
products (Paulík, 2000; Ondrkál, 2018). The symbolic connection be-
tween the chariots, vessels and waterfowl in the cult has provided finds
from the beginning of the Bronze Age, which survived until at least the
3rd century BCE in the Mediterranean milieu (Pare, 1989; 1992). The
ornithomorphic cult chariots first appeared in the Carpathian milieu of
the Wietenberg culture (Pare, 2004), which is evidenced by the
extraordinarily decorated chariot found in northern Romania. On the
cult chariots, two major types of ornithomorphic images can be distin-
guished — stylized bird protomes embedded in the body of the chariot,
or freestanding figures of birds in the form of an ornithomorphic vessel
(Boroffka, 1994).
F. Ondrkál et al.
Fig. 6. Raman spectra of black particles found in solid material (blue line) and activated carbon standard (red line).
Fig. 7. Microscopic view of analyzed area.
4.2. Čičarovce-type vessels
From a typological point of view, the bird vessel from Liptovský
Hrádok can be described as a genetic predecessor of bird figural vessels
of the Čičarovce type whose general design was probably created in the
northern part of the Carpathian Basin (Müller-Karpe, 2002; Fig. 8). With
most vessels of this type, legs are present (indicated) and the short
horizontal tail is usually elevated/lowered at an angle. The birds do not
have plastic wings and the neck is symmetrically integrally connected to
the cistern-like vessel, which it has in the dorsal part with an oval/cir-
cular hole with opposing perforations (2–4), on which the lid was placed
(covering bird — “Deckelvogel”), which is not present in some cases.
6
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579
The vessel of the Čičarovce people led to considerations that the massive
figure of the waterfowl was originally placed on a ceremonial cult-
wagon, because of the presence of residues of rivets in the front part
of the vessel (analogically with the vessel from Liptovský Hrádok), from
which it had been separated by force (Müller-Karpe, 2002; Novotná,
1991).
The cultural and religious historical significance of Čičarovce-type
bird figurines is evaluated by H. Müller-Karpe as a crucial component of
the multilateral relations of the Central European Bronze and Hallstatt
Ages with the later manifestations of the Mediterranean. Although the
analogies and similarities may be sporadic and partial, there is no doubt
about the historical unity of the shared elements. Especially the typo-
logical and stylistic similarities of visual art of Central European and
Mediterranean cultures shed light on the Čičarovce-type vessels and
their importance in the observation of artistic and religious manifesta-
tion of the European Bronze Age (Müller-Karpe, 2002).
From a technological point of view, it is necessary to begin by
highlighting the significant value of the vessel. This value is derived
from the and intrinsic value of the raw materials used, as well as from
the work involved in their conversion into finished products. Examina-
tion of this metal artefact indicates dexterity and knowledge of the
properties of the alloys. The ceremonial vessel from Liptovský Hrádok
probably belonged to a person with high acquisition power, perhaps a
member of the local elite. It is possible that in area of Western Slovakia
local elite groups of the Lusatian culture have developed an emulation
strategy, using artefacts of intercultural origin or style to maintain their
position, and the use of these elements of material culture would not be
the basis of their power but its external expression. The lamp should be
clearly associated with the elites, especially in connection with the
bronze helmet, which (according to Mediterranean iconography) be-
longs to the warrior.
F. Ondrkál et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102579

Fig. 8. Map of findings of Čičarovce-type cauldron vessels in the territory of Europe (Table 2).

Table 2
List of findings of Čičarovce-type vessels in Europe (see Fig. 8).
Site Body length (mm) Age (BC) Cover Reference Reference

1 Liptovský Hrádok, SK 165 1100–950 N this study –

2 Čičarovce, SK 157 1050–800 N Hampel, 1886 Novotná, 1991
3 “Slovakia/Hungary” 175 1050–800 N Hampel, 1886
4 Glasinac, BiH 185 800–600 Y Hochstetter, 1881 Seewald, 1939
5 Este, IT 200 900–800 Y Not. Scavi, 1882 Woytowitsch, 1978
6 Viterbo, IT 175 700–500 N Undset, 1890 Woytowitsch, 1978
7 “Italy” 205 700–500 Y Undset, 1890 Woytowitsch, 1978
8 Tarquinia, IT 255 900–700 Y Not. Scavi, 1882 –
9 Salerno, IT 195 700–500 Y Undset, 1890 –

5. Conclusion
Several decades after the discoveries of cistern-like wagons of the
Bronze Age (cauldron-wagons) on the territory of Europe, the analysis of
the biomarkers of the newly found vessel from Liptovský Hrádok un-
equivocally confirms the earlier hypotheses concerning the practical use
of cult-chariots in the sepulchral cult and ceremonial activities as lamps,
fuelled by animal fats or vegetable oils, that was confirmed by GC/MS
analysis (i.e. presence of fatty acids and cholesterol) and by samples of
soot and burnt deposits. It is appropriate to emphasize not only the
function of the artefact as “oil” lamp, but also its symbolic value, which
is evidenced by numerous repairs/improvements indicating careful
maintenance of the item over a long period of time.
The figural ornithomorphic vessel from Liptovský Hrádok is an
extraordinarily important part of the cult symbolism of the Late Bronze
Age in Europe and is a proof of the high level of metallurgy in the
northern part of the Carpathian Basin, whose production consisted in the
individual manufacture of unique, non-standard and unrepeatable
products, with which the artist expressed his/her technical skills and
knowledge, but also his/her religious ideas. The technical demands for
the manufacture of common artefacts of mass production, as well as the
need to produce tens of thousands, even millions of nearly identical
objects, contributed to the formulation of their appearance. However,
the unique bird sculpture shows the awakening of the desire for elegance
and style of art with a greater emphasis on perspective, decoration and
realistic rendering of details. The waterfowl, wheel, fire and water are
unique symbolic elements of the Bronze Age, which play an important
role in the religious conviction on the afterlife. It is highly likely that this
exemplar belonged to a set of wheels (similar to an analogous cistern-
like vessel), and thus expresses the mobility of the cult model of the
bird in the framework of the dynamics of divine activity and human
rituals.
Acknowledgements
The elaboration of the article was made possible because of the Fund

7
F. Ondrkál et al.
for the Support of the Czech Science Foundation [17-17346S], Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic [project CZ.1.05/
2.1.00/19.0377] and Palacký University Olomouc [project
IGA_PrF_2019_028 and IGA_FF_2019_017]. We would like to express our
sincere gratitude for useful insights to Prof. Mária Novotná from Uni-
versity of Trnava, Dr. Martin Golec from Palacký University Olomouc
and Dr. Marianne Mödlinger from Université Bordeaux Montaigne
(France). Translated by Sean Mark Miller (Prague).
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