Antenna Manufacturing at VHF Frequencies

Applied to Weather-Satellite Data Reception

Jaime Laviada, Car/os Vazquez-Antuna, Rene Camb/or, Migue/ Fernandez-Garcia,

Ana Arbo/eya-Arbo/eya, and Fernando Las-Heras

Departamento de Ingenierfa Electrica

Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
Modulo 8, Planta Primera, Campus Universitario, 33203, Gijon, Spain
Tel: +34 985 18 25 41
E-mail: jlaviada@tsc.uniovi.es;cvazquez@tsc.uniovi.es;rcamblor@tsc.uniovi.es;mfgarcia@tsc.uniovi.es;
aarboleya@tsc.uniovi.es; flasheras@tsc.uniovi.es

Abstract

The aim of this paper is the description of experience in teaching a university extension course for manufacturing homemade antennas
and receiving weather-satellite images with them. We thus introduce students to the field of antennas with a very entertaining
application example that they can easily reproduce by themselves. The different topics covered by the course are described, with a
special emphasis on the description of the antennas and how they are manufactured, which are the core topics of the course. Antenna
reflection parameters and received weather images are shown to illustrate the good results achieved by the students.

Keywords: receiving antennas; directional antennas; Yagi-Uda antennas; helical antennas; low Earth orbit satellites

1. Introduction knowledge about electromagnetic waves. For this purpose, the

M
any undergraduate and graduate electromagnetics
courses cover topics concerning antennas. However,
students often find it difficult to make a connection between
the underlying physics and mathematical formalisms, and the
practical applications of these. Several approaches have been
proposed in order to integrate antenna theory within a practical
context [ 1-3]. These included home-made low-cost proposals
[4], aimed at having the students go beyond basic antenna the­
ory by fabricating, testing, and finding a functional application
for their designs.
The intention of the authors was to find an attractive topic
that motivates students. After considering diverse options -
such as the building of antennas for establishing contact with
the International Space Station (ISS) or Wi-Fi band antennas­
the authors decided to propose the implementation of different
types of antennas to receive weather-satellite images. This was
expected to probably have more impact on the students, due to
the eye-catching representation of the results.
The course shown herein is aimed at bringing the basics
of antennas, and illustrating their main features with a practical
example, to a general audience that does not necessarily have
perspective of ham radio is incorporated into the course. By
providing the students knowledge of the basic principles of the
operation of antennas, they are able to build a simple low-cost
antenna with good performance, with the added attraction that
they can test the antenna's performance outside the laboratory.
A good starting point for this topic was provided in [5].
The signals to be received are transmitted by satellites
belonging to the US NOAA (National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration), which are usually referred to
as NOAA satellites [6]. These satellites are part of the most
powerful global environmental monitoring system, together
with the European Metop Series or the geostationary GOES
and Meteosat Series. The NOAA polar-orbiting satellites are
in sun-synchronous near-polar orbits (830-870 km above the
Earth). They are equipped with an onboard primary sensor
used for both meteorology and small-scale EO (Earth Obser­
vation), known as AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer). This sensor detects radiation in the visible, near,
and medium IR (infrared) and thermal IR bands of the elec­
tromagnetic spectrum. It is used for monitoring parameters
such as clouds, snow, ice, water, vegetation, soil moisture, or
sea-surface temperature [7].

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013 201
 AVHRR data can be acquired and formatted in four opera­
tional modes, with different spatial resolution and transmission
methods. One of these methods is APT (automatic picture
transmission), which is a low-spatial-resolution (4 km/pixel),
analog, direct-transmission method. Direct readout of APT data
involves only a modest investment in off-the-shelf equipment.
Furthermore, no license is needed to receive the data, and
it is possible to find several decoding and post-processing
freeware programs. For all these reasons, we proposed having
the students implement an antenna to receive APT data from
NOAA satellites. The final antennas implemented by the
students, which will be later described in the paper, are shown
in Figure l.

The course contains both lecture and laboratory classes,

with a special emphasis on the laboratory classes. Ten class­
room hours are thus assigned to teach the different theoretical
contents that are required for the reception of the images from
the NOAA satellites. There are four main areas covered by
this part: I ) satellite foundations; 2) antennas and propagation
fundamentals; 3) radio amateur framework; 4) VHF antennas Figure la. A Yagi-Vda antenna manufactured by the stu­
for NOAA-satellite reception. The lab teaching is the longest dents.
part of the course, with 20 hours. Those hours are used: 1) to
simulate the antennas; 2) to manufacture the antennas; and 3) to
receive and process the image data.

Finally, homework, consisting of the compilation of infor­

mation about a radio-amateur topic (e.g., Earth-moon-Earth
communications) has to be accomplished by the students.
The estimated time to carry out this homework is 15 hours.
The total course, the schedule for which is shown in Table 1,
thus comprises a total of 45 hours. The course is offered three
times a year in the spring, autumn, and summer semesters as a
university extension course in the Universidad de Oviedo, with
a maximum capacity for 25 students.

In the rest of this paper, the course is described by group­

ing the different topics covered into four large blocks. The
first and second blocks contain an overview of the contents
about satellite foundations, as well as antennas and propaga­
tion generalities. The third block, which is related to the
antennas employed, is presented in depth. It introduces the
type of antennas to be used, the simulation and manufacturing
methodology, and the measurement of the antennas. Next, the
results obtained by the students after the reception of the data
with the homemade antennas are presented. Finally, the con­ Figure lb. A quadrifilar helix antenna manufactured by the
clusions about the course are discussed. students.

202 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013
 Table 1. The course schedule, detailing the different blocks, the types of classes,
and the durations of the classes.

Block Topic Type Hours

Satellites introduction Lecture 1
Satellite tracking Lecture 1
Satellite foundations
APT picture fonnat Lecture I
Satellite station visit Tech. visit 1
Antennas fundamentals Lecture l.5
Antennas and propagation overview Propagation effects and Tx/Rx equipment Lecture 2
Amateur radio normative Lecture 2
Antennas description Lecture 1.5
Antennas simulation Laboratory 5
VHF antennas for satellite reception
Antennas manufacture Laboratory 8
Antennas measurement Laboratory 3
Data acquisition reception Laboratory 2
Reception of the images
Image processing Laboratory 1
Homework 15

2. Satellite Foun dations
With the purpose of acquainting the students with satel­
lite fundamentals and the particularities of the NOAA image
transmission, this block is divided into two lectures of 90 min­
utes, together with a one-hour visit to a satellite-tracking sta­
tion.
The first lecture of the course is intended to explain the
basics of satellites, focusing on the types of satellites and their
payloads, some history about meteorological satellites, the
AVHRR instrument and its transmission modes, and the basis
of remote sensing and the main monitoring parameters for
Earth observation. When explaining satellite orbits and their
main parameters, special emphasis is placed on the properties
of sun-synchronous orbits, which are the orbits described by the
NOAA satellites. The sun-synchronous polar orbits described
by the NOAA satellites enable us to link the first lecture with the
second lecture, related to the tracking ofthe satellites. Tracking
basics are thus presented to compute where the satellites are at
every moment, and the time interval in which they are visible
for direct reception of the signal. Various demonstrations are
made with different computer software and mobile applications,
freely available from the Internet. Satsignal software's [8]
WXtrack and Kepler Manager are used as the tracking software
and to download the Space-Track satellite Keplerians data,
respectively.
In the third lecture of this block, the main features of the
APT format are also explained in good detail. This includes
data-codification schemes, the electromagnetic spectral bands
used, the frame format, transmission characteristics, and fre­
quency bands. A compilation of the frequencies that the NOAA
satellites use to transmit APT images is shown in Table 2. Since
the mean frequency is approximately 137.5 MHz, the antennas
for receiving the signal are designed to provide a working band
around this frequency.
Different decoding software is also provided to the stu­
dents so they can process the sound recorded during reception
of the signal. In addition, several APT prerecorded samples are
used to perform a test of the options for each software package.
Moreover, the sounds after demodulating the signals with an
appropriate receiver (e.g., an FM receiver working at VHF
frequencies) are also played aloud so that the students can
identify the kind of sound they will be listening to during the
reception of the images.
In the final session of this block, the students visit the
satellite-tracking station [9] of the University of Oviedo,
located at the Signal Theory and Communications Area facili­
ties. This is done so that they can see a real application exam­
ple with the different modules working together (tracking,
reception, decoding, processing, and storage modules).
Table 2. Frequencies of the NOAA satellites
emitting APT images.
Satellite Frequency IMHzl
NOAA 15 137.62
NOAA 17 137.5
NOAA 18 137.9 125
NOAA 19 137.1

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013 203
 3. An te n n as and Propagation Ove rview
In order to provide introductory insight into the basic
theoretical principles associated with radio communications in
general, and satellite links in particular, several thematic lec­
tures are scheduled. Since the target audience of the course
does not necessarily have a communications technical back­
ground, the topics are addressed from a qualitative viewpoint,
focusing on the fundamental concepts that will take part in the
subsequent practical activities. This theoretical block is struc­
tured in three sessions, the contents of which are next briefly
described.
3. 1 An te n n a Fun dame n tals
This first session is aimed at introducing the concepts
associated with antennas in general: definition, main types,
basic properties, etc. Special attention is paid to the funda­
mental parameters used to evaluate the performance: input
impedance and return loss, radiation pattern, directivity, gain
and polarization, among others. The physical interpretations of
these parameters, along with their effect on the practical per­
formance of the antenna, are described in detail. These illus­
trate the optimum values for different common propagation
scenarios.
3.2 Basic Propagation Effects and
Required TxlRx Equipme n t
The purpose of this lecture i s to introduce the main
blocks that compose a satellite radio-communication link, from
transmitter to receiver, qualitatively describing the operations
they perform. The particular case of the NOAA APT system is
used as a practical example. On the satellite end, the process
of transduction and conditioning of the information signal
is illustrated, along with the modulation scheme employed,
characterizing the transmitted NOAA APT signal. On the
receiver end, the typical functional blocks required to recover
the information signal are commented on, focusing on the
particular receivers that will be used in the practical experiments
with the manufactured antennas. In order to analyze the
different contributions that compose the total link losses, the
different loss terms present in the Friis transmission equation
are discussed, emphasizing those associated with the antenna
parameters introduced in the first lecture. Other propagation
phenomena, such the Doppler effect, are also introduced.
3.3 Regulation for Satellites and
Amateur Radio
In the Spain syllabuses, regulation of Telecommunica­
tions has been forgotten or, at least, its importance has been
undervalued, for a long time. This has happened both in the
204
studies in telecommunications engineering and in the studies
in law. With the time dedicated in the course presented, the
authors have tried to attract the attention of the students to this
particular field. Its importance has been explained with a spe­
cial emphasis on regulation of scarce natural resources, such as
the radio-electric spectrum [ 10] and geostationary orbits. The
concepts of air and space law have been introduced [11]. The
focus has been placed on the study of a particular case, listening
to a NOAA satellite in the band of 137.5 MHz.
The case has been decomposed in two sections: 1) ama­
teur-radio requirements under international and Spanish regu­
lations; and 2) introduction to satellite regulations. Each of the
sections is presented using examples to maintain the students'
attention on the corresponding topic.
The concept of amateur radio is composed of two basic
ideas: the nonprofit characteristic, and the absence of interfer­
ence. In the Spanish regulations, amateurs need to pass an exam
to obtain the corresponding license. The administrative process
and the benefits of acquiring the license are explained. In the
specific case of our course, the system employed to listen to the
satellite is all passive, i.e., no emission is performed. Under the
Spanish regulations, there is no need for acquiring a license for
listening.
A brief introduction to satellite regulations is also pre­
sented in the course. Two different points of view are explained
to the students: 1) the point of view of the satellite owner; and 2)
the point of view of the satellite user. In the case of the satellite
owner, the concepts developed include launching requirements
and processes, international organizations involved, rules
for satellite operation, and the coordination procedure [12].
Specific attention is focused on the ITU and its sectors:
radiocommunication, telecommunication standardization,
and telecommunication development. In the case of the point
of view of the user, the focus is placed on data management,
protection, and utilization of NOAA satellites [ 13].
4. VHF Antennas for NOAA Satellite Reception
In this block of the course, the VHF antennas are presented
In a last lecture. The antennas are next simulated with free
software, and implemented using low-cost materials so that the
students can potentially repeat the fabrication of the antennas
for new models at home. Characterization of the antennas in
terms of the reflection parameters and the main characteristics
of the radiation pattern is also carried out in this block. Details
about the previous topics are described in the next sections.
4. 1 Desc riptions of the An te n n as
Two different antennas were selected to be manufactured
by the students. On the one hand, a Yagi-Uda array antenna
is considered, due to the directional properties of its radiation
pattern. On the other hand, a quadrifilar helix antenna, which
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, VoL 55, No, 3, June 2013
provides a hemispherical radiation pattern and circular polari­
zation, is proposed, due to its high performance. The students
can thus compare the differences at the image-reception stage
when considering two reception schemes based on antennas
with different directional and polarization properties.

4. 1. 1 Yagi-Uda Array
!
The Yagi-Uda array [ 14, 15] is one of the antennas most
used by radio amateurs throughout the world. This is due to
the fact that relatively high gain values can be achieved with
moderated physical size, it is cheap and easily manufacturable,
and it exhibits a low wind loading. The selected topology
is composed of five elements - i.e., one active dipole, one
reflector, and three directors - to achieve approximately 10 dBi
gain at 137 MHz.

A gamma-match [ 16, Chapter 9] is used to feed the active Active ---,.

element. This technique provides two main advantages. On
the one hand, baluns are not required. On the other hand, the
students will be able to tune the manufactured antenna to reach
element
optimum performance. The gamma-match feeding technique
is schematized in Figure 2a. The active dipole is shorted and
connected to the ground of the system, and it is fed through
a variable capacitor. The proposed practical implementation
of the described feeding technique is shown in Figure 2b. A
cylindrical variable capacitor is implemented by using a short
coaxial section, the outer conductor of which has been replaced

I
by a hollow metallic tube. The capacitor is therefore formed
between the inner conductor of the coaxial section and the
'"--T-
: __= - T __ �'---.---
- ---r-'
metallic tube. The capacitance depends on the overlap between _

' ,
, ,
, ,
the metallic tube and the inner coaxial conductor. Finally, the ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
dipole's feeding point can be modified by changing the position , ,
, ,

¢I
, ,
, ,
of a metallic slab that connects the metallic tube and the shorted , ,

dipole.

At the measurement stage, the antenna can be easily

tuned. On the one hand, the capacitance and the feeding point
of the gamma-match system can be modified to obtain opti­
mum VSWR. On the other hand, the length of the active dipole
can be slightly shortened to adjust the resonant frequency while
the rest of electrical parameters remain almost unchanged. In

Active
this way, the students can correct errors due to the fabrication
process, and analyze the influence of different parameters on

element
the antenna's performance.

The quadrifilar helix antenna (QFH) [ 17, 18] was selected

due to the fact that its electrical properties are very appropriate
for space communications. When properly implemented, the
input impedance of the quadrifilar helix antenna is about 40 n
, it provides a quasi-omnidirectional radiation pattern in the
upper hemisphere with 5 dBi gain, and its 3 dB-beamwidth is Figure 2. The details of the gamma match.

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013 205
about l l S O. In addition, the antenna exhibits circular
polarization, a very low level of back radiation without the need
of adding a ground plane, and reduced size when compared
with other antennas with similar characteristics. Therefore, the
quadrifilar helix antenna is a very good alternative for receiving
the signal from low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, since no
pointing system is required, and reception from low elevation
angles is possible.
The antenna is basically composed of two bifilar helices,
placed perpendicular to each other, and with their upper sides
twisted 90° with respect to their bottom sides. The described
behavior is achieved by exciting both loops with currents with
equal amplitude and a ±90° phase shift. The sign of the phase
shift determines whether the quadrifilar helix antenna is left- or
right-handed polarized.
Several techniques can be used to excite the two helices
with equal amplitude and 90° phase-shifted currents. [n this
case, the self-phasing method combined with an infinite balun
[ [ 9] was used, due to the simplicity of its practical implemen­
tation. The orthogonal bifilar loops are designed such that one
loop is larger relative to the desired resonant-frequency length
and therefore inductive, while the other loop is smaller and
therefore capacitive. The loop lengths are calculated in order to
achieve an input impedance R + jX , with R X for the case
=
of the inductive loop, and R jX for the case of the capacitive
-
loop. When the loops are connected together, they hence form
an equivalent circuit similar to an impedance divider in which
the currents along the two arms are equal in amplitude, with a
90° relative phase shift.
The infinite balun is obtained by using one arm of the
longest loop to feed the antenna at the interconnection point of
the two loops. The feeding signal is carried through the inner
conductor of the coaxial cable, while the loops that actually form
the antenna are the outer conductors of the coaxial cables. Due
to the feeding technique, the length of the two loops is a critical
parameter. The only way to compensate for manufacturing
errors at the experimental-characterization stage is to shorten
the length of the loops by cutting the coaxial cables. Despite its
superior performance, the tuning of the quadrifilar helix antenna
is hence considerably more difficult than that of the Yagi-Uda
array, which can be easily tuned by means of the mobile gamma
match.
4.2 Simulation of the Ante n n as
Once the antennas have been described, the laboratory
work starts. First, the students have several computer sessions
over five hours to carry out the simulation of the antennas.
The first session (one hour) is used to introduce the main
methods for electromagnetic simulation (Method of Moments,
Finite-Element Method, finite differences, etc.) with a special
emphasis on the context where each technique is the best
alternative. Next, the simulation software, 4Nec2 [20], based
206
on the well-known NEC-2 [2 1] code, is introduced, during
one hour. In this session, the main guidelines concerning the
length of the segments, voltage sources, and parameter plotting
are detailed. Although other, more-modern and user-friendly
alternatives are also freely available (e.g., Feko Lite [22]), the
4Nec2 software was chosen due to the large diffusion among
the radio amateur community, which has developed a vast
number of examples for this software.
After that, several tasks are asked of the students so that
they get practice with the software. First, they simulate a simple
A/2 dipole so that they practice the segmentation, sources, and
impedance matching. Next, a cactus antenna is simulated, to
learn about the use of wire intersections and a ground plane.
Measurements for this antenna [23] are provided so that the
students can check the accuracy of the simulations. One hour is
assigned for this session.
Finally, the dimensions of the antennas to be manufac­
tured are given to the students, so that they can perform the
final simulations. The students can thus compute the imped­
ance matching and radiation characteristics prior to building
the prototypes. Advice is given so that the students can avoid
modeling the baluns, and therefore the simulations are consid­
erably simplified. Two hours are assigned for the simulation of
both antennas.
Figure 3 shows the geometry and the radiation pattern of
the simulated Yagi-Uda antenna. The radiation pattern and the
quadrifilar helix antenna's structure are depicted in Figure 4,
revealing a fairly uniform radiation pattern in the upper hemi­
sphere. The relationship between the impedance of both big and
small loops is shown in Figure S. [t is clearly seen that the
amplitude and phase relationships are close to one and -90° ,
respectively. The currents flowing through both loops are
therefore expected to have the same amplitude and to be in
quadrature. This fact is confirmed by the excellent axial ratio,
equal to 0.997 along the z axis .
4.3 Fabricatin g the An te n n as
The students are divided into five groups, and each group
is assigned one of the antenna designs. Three quadrifilar helices
and two Yagi-Uda arrays are manufactured during eight hours.
The practical sessions are held in a laboratory equipped with a
wide variety of tools: drill press, power drill, saws, hammers,
riveter, different types of pliers and screwdrivers, soldering
iron, etc. Depending on its antenna assignment, each group is
given a set of materials and the electrical specifications of the
antenna: dimensions, wiring schematic diagrams, etc. Although
some additional construction guidelines are also provided, the
students are given freedom to design and develop a tailor-made
support structure for their antenna, using the supplied elements.
[n the selection of the construction materials, a tradeoff
solution between the final antenna's robustness and the ease
of fabrication has been adopted. The construction set for both
designs is detailed in the following sections.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013
 The five-element Yagi- Vda array is fabricated in alumi­ 0

num. Profiles with a 20 mm square cross section are employed ... .

- - - - - . angle(Zb'ZS ) .. .. .. ... ..
for the boom, and 13 mm tubes are used for the elements, . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,.�#.'.'"
•
•
• •

2 -20
which are secured in place with rivets. The gamma-match is
'\ " "
implemented using RG-213 coaxial cable. A segment of the '\, ,,'
aluminum tube used for the elements is substituted for the , .. en
Q)
1 .5 \, / -40
0 I
;2.
braid and allowed to slide over the dielectric, producing the � \ : 'i.
NJ:J '\ ,
�
aforementioned variable capacitance. The inner conductor of � \ / t!.

�/
Q)
the coaxial structure is soldered to the panel connector, which ro " X: 1 37.5 " -60 c;,
" V: 0.7907 ,. '"
c

is attached to the boom with a rectangular aluminum slab. The .

\ .

implemented gamma match is shown in Figure 6. This tube is \ /'

0.5 '\'\ " . �_---- -80
connected to the feeding element of the antenna, using a piece X: 1 37.5 / ___-.
Y: -91 .9
"
.... ... .. . , . '
0 '-----�----'---' - 1 00
1W 1� 1 40 1� 1�

Figure 5. The amplitude and phase relationship between the

impedance of the big ( Zb ) and small ( Zs ) loops of the
quadrifilar helix antenna, computed with 4Nec2.

Figure 6. A gamma match built by the students.

Figure 3. The radiation pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna,

computed with 4Nec2. of aluminum profile with a rectangular 60 mm x 20 mm cross
section. Two holes are drilled to accommodate the tubes and,
after tuning, the piece is fixed with two screws.

The physical lengths of the elements and the spacings

between them are extracted from design tables, and are shown
in Table 3.

The quadrifilar helix is implemented using RG-58 coax­

Figure 4. The radiation pattern of the quadrifilar helix
antenna, computed with 4Nec2.
ial cable. For the passive elements, the braid and inner con­
ductor are connected together, giving rise to an effective con­
ductor with a diameter of 7.16 mm. The feeding cable is used
to implement an infinite balun, as shown schematically in Fig­
ure 7. The dimensions of the quadrifilar helix are summarized
in Table 4. Interconnections between cables are performed
using terminal strips, except for the lower connection (Fig­
ure 7), where the braid and inner connector at one end of the
outer loop are soldered to the braid at the other end, without
cutting the feeding cable. The use of terminal strips simplifies
the subsequent tuning of the antenna, when necessary. For
the support structure, PVC pipes are provided. They have a
diameter of 32 mm for the mast and 16 mm for the horizontal
segments of the loops, as well as for the middle support. The
students are free to rout the cables inside the pipes, although

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine. Vol.55, No.3, June 2013 207
 Table 3. Yagi-Uda antenna dimensions. they are advised to fix them outside using plastic bridles.
Finally, a type-N panel connector is installed at the bottom of
Relative Distance to the the mast.
Length
Element Previous Element
Imml
Imml It is important to remark that the required materials are easy
Reflector 1115 - to find, and their total cost for each antenna oscillates between
$20 and $30. Interested students can thus try to manufacture
Active 1043 327
similar antennas at home.
Director # 1 1002 236
Director #2 962 368
Director #3 923 497 4.4 An te n n a Measureme n ts

After the antennas have been built, students have four

hours at their disposal to measure (and tune) the impedance
Table 4. Quadrifilar helix antenna dimensions. matching, as well as the radiation pattern. The first step to
validate the constructed antennas is thus the measurement of
Large Loop Small Loop the reflection parameter ( Sl l )' The adaptation band gives an
Dimension
Imml Imml idea of the result of the fabrication process at first glance. In the
Conductor Length 2306 2 192 case of a displacement of the adaptation band, the antenna is
Loop Height 696 662 slightly modified until the expected result is obtained. The
gamma match is the component that controls the operational
Loop Width 292 277 frequency in the case of the five-element Yagi-Uda antenna. On
the other hand, the quadrifilar helix antenna adaptation band
depends on the size of the spirals, which makes it more difficult
to tune once it has been constructed. In this case, the antenna is
dismounted: i.e., the cables are loosen; the plastic structure is
modified, enlarged, or cut, depending on the frequency
displacement; and then the cable spiral is again mounted. The
results for the SI I parameter for some of the antennas
manufactured by the students are shown in Figure 8. These
results revealed a reasonably good matching for both antennas
at the center frequency 137.5 MHz.

Once the antennas are centered in the frequency band of

interest, a basic characterization of their radiation diagram is
performed. This step is used to refresh concepts that have pre­
viously been explained in the theory class: radiation diagram,
gain, directivity, equivalent isotropically radiated power
(EIRP), and polarization are clarified, using the lab equipment.
The equipment used to characterize the radiation diagram is a
Rohde-Schwarz signal generator and a spectrum analyzer.

Due to the operating frequency and the dimensions of the

antennas, the far-field condition is not met when characterizing
the antennas in the anechoic chamber, nor in the other available
Figure 7. The connection scheme for the quadrifilar helix facilities. In the assembly, the antennas are separated 12 m,
antenna. but the surrounding walls are 3 m away from each antenna.

208 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013
 o .-------.---,---�--� Table 5. The main parameters of selected satellite passes
over the University of Oviedo facilities during 07/20/2012.

Acquisition Pass Max.

Satellite of Signal Duration Elevation
(UTC) Iminutesl Ideg· 1
NOAA- 19 14: 55: 19 11 :39 66.65
NOAA- 18 16: 15: 17 15: 45 72.63

----L---�--�--�
_25 L-
110 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 1 60
free [MHzl

Figure 8. The measured SI I parameter values for the Yagi­

Uda and quadrifilar helix antennas.

The ceiling and the floor also have a strong influence on the
characterization. Despite the reflections, the students can check
the position of the maximum, and also appreciate the sidelobes,
of every antenna. The polarization of the antennas is also
checked by rotating them.
Figure 9a. The last session: testing the antennas for direct
satellite readout. Shown are Groups 1-2 with the Yagi-Uda
and quadrifilar helix antenna.

5. Reception of the I mages

The last three hours of the course are employed for receiv­
ing signals from the satellite, and the corresponding processing.
After the implementation and testing of the antennas at the
laboratory, students therefore go outside to "listen" to two
satellite passes. The details of the passes in the course edition
of the summer semester in 20 12 are shown in Table 5. Each
group of five students is placed separately in a plain terrain
free of obstacles (see Figure 9) within the university's facilities
(43.5257°N, 5.63 12°W). Each group has similar equipment,
consisting of the antenna, a VHF/UHF scanner, and a computer
with a sound card and tracking and post-processing software.

The scanner for signal reception has to work in the

137 MHz band, with a bandwidth of at least 25 KHz. Several
types of receivers are employed, such as VHF radios, two-way Figure 9b. The last session: testing the antennas for direct
UHF and VHF radios, and USB "funcube" dongles [24]. For satellite readout. Shown is Group 3 with the Yagi-Uda
the case of the groups using the USB dongle, software-defined- antenna.

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine. Vol.55, No.3, June 2013 209

Figure 10. Two of the received images for the different
satellite passes: (a) the NOAA-19 direct readout with a
quadrifilar helix antenna (IR channels); (b) the NOAA-
18 direct readout with a Yagi-Uda antenna (visible and IR
channels).
Figure 11. A false-color post-processed image of the NOAA-
18 data showing land, sea, and different types of clouds 11 1 .
210
radio software [25] is used, since it provides control of the center
frequency of the receiver. This enables real-time Doppler-effect
correction, together with on-the-fly picture decoding. In the
rest of the groups, the received signal (an AM audio signal) is
recorded and simultaneously decoded and post-processed with
APT Decoder [26] and WXtoIMG [27] freeware.
Two of the images received are shown in Figure 10: one
for each satellite pass in Table 5. In particular, Figure lOa was
acquired by a quadrifilar helix antenna, whereas Figure lOb was
acquired by a Yagi-Uda antenna. In both cases, the decoded
data had acceptable quality.
Figure 11 shows a false-color post-processed image of the
Figure lOb data. Since the NOAA- 18 data for this pass were
sent for a visible and an IR channel, the false-color composite
enhances the limits between the land and the ocean. It is also
possible to make a distinction between the types of land (desert,
vegetation, etc.) and the types of clouds: for example, the blue
color means the clouds have ice particles, because their height
is greater and therefore their temperature is lower than other
clouds shown in the image.
6. Con clusions
The teaching experiences of a university extension
course for antenna manufacturing, illustrated with an eye­
catching application, has been described in this paper. Details
for providing the required background (e.g., satellite orbits,
ham-radio nonnative, etc.) to the students have been briefly
discussed. The implemented antennas have been detailed in
depth by paying special attention to the manufacturing and
tuning processes, which are the toughest parts to carry out when
dealing with multiple students.
The antennas have been successfully built, resulting in
excellent quality of the received images, with only minor arti­
facts. The students have found the course very attractive and
valuable for their infonnation. This was inferred from the sur­
veys that our institution carried out at the end of the course. The
overall rating the students gave to the course was 4.3 out of 5,
with 5 being an outstanding mark.
7. Ackn owledgme n ts
This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e
Innovaci6n of Spain/FEDER under projects TEC20 11-24492
(iScatt), CSD2008-00068 (Terasense), and MICINN- ll­
IPT-20 11-095 1-390000 (Tecnigrat); by the Gobiemo del Princi­
pado de Asturias (PCTI)/FEDER-FSE under projects PC 10-06,
EQUIP08-06, FC09-COF09-12, EQUIP I 0-3 1; by grants BP ll-
169; and by Catedra Telef6nica - Universidad de Oviedo.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.55, No.3, June 2013
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