Article

Joining Technologies for Automotive Battery

Systems Manufacturing
Abhishek Das * ID
, Dezhi Li, David Williams and David Greenwood
WMG, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK; Dezhi.Li@warwick.ac.uk (D.L.);
David.K.Williams@warwick.ac.uk (D.W.); D.Greenwood@warwick.ac.uk (D.G.)
* Correspondence: a.das.1@warwick.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-247-657-3742




Received: 13 June 2018; Accepted: 3 July 2018; Published: 5 July 2018


Abstract: An automotive battery pack for use in electric vehicles consists of a large number of
individual battery cells that are structurally held and electrically connected. Making the required
electrical and structural joints represents several challenges, including, joining of multiple and
thin highly conductive/reflective materials of varying thicknesses, potential damage (thermal,
mechanical, or vibrational) during joining, a high joint durability requirement, and so on. This paper
reviews the applicability of major and emerging joining techniques to support the wide range of
joining requirements that exist during battery pack manufacturing. It identifies the advantages,
disadvantages, limitations, and concerns of the joining technologies. The maturity and application
potential of current joining technologies are mapped with respect to manufacturing readiness levels
(MRLs). Further, a Pugh matrix is used to evaluate suitable joining candidates for cylindrical, pouch,
and prismatic cells by addressing the aforementioned challenges. Combining Pugh matrix scores,
MRLs, and application domains, this paper identifies the potential direction of automotive battery
pack joining.

Keywords: EV (electric vehicle); thin metal film; electrode; materials; powertrain; joining

1. Introduction
Recent advances in developing secondary batteries enables their extensive use in everyday life,
from portable technologies to high energy applications. Lithium-ion based secondary batteries show
enormous potential to be used for low to high capacity applications, such as portable electronics and
electric vehicles, respectively. High energy density, low self-discharge, and portability characteristics
of Li-ion based automotive battery packs make them an emerging alternative power source that are
being increasingly used in electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs or
PHEVs) [1–3]. Often, these vehicles are exposed to different driving conditions having a huge impact
on the energy consumption [4]. Typically, a standard automotive battery pack consists of hundreds,
even thousands, of individual Li-ion batteries that are connected in series or parallel in order to achieve
the required power and energy. Additionally, there is an increasing requirement for manufacturing of
battery packs, reflecting the increased demand for this energy storage technology, which is predicted
to grow as the volume of automotive product using it develops.
In general, an automotive battery pack can be hierarchically decomposed into three levels:
(a) emphcell level: an individual battery cell is primarily composed of positive and negative electrodes,
separators, electrolyte, and case; (b) module level: a collection of multiple cells generally connected in
series and parallel, encased in a mechanical structure; and (c) pack level: a battery pack is assembled
by connecting modules together, either in series or parallel, with sensors and controllers, and then is
encased in a housing structure. Typically, design and construction of an automotive Li-ion battery
pack, as illustrated in Figure 1, involve producing robust and reliable joints as per hierarchical levels

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22; doi:10.3390/wevj9020022 www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 2 of 13

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

and types of cells used to build the battery pack. Relying on the geometry and form factor, lithium-ion
and types of cells used to build the battery pack. Relying on the geometry and form factor, lithium-
cells are manufactured as (i) cylindrical cells; (ii) pouch encased prismatic cell (typically called a pouch
ion cells are manufactured as (i) cylindrical cells, (ii) pouch encased prismatic cell (typically called a
cell); and (iii) solid-container encased prismatic cell (typically called a prismatic cell). Choice of joining
pouch cell), and (iii) solid-container encased prismatic cell (typically called a prismatic cell). Choice of
methods
joining is largely isbased
methods on based
largely the type of cell
on the typeused, and
of cell subsequently,
used, to satisfy
and subsequently, to electrical, thermal,
satisfy electrical,
and mechanical key criteria. This paper identifies major and emerging joining technologies
thermal, and mechanical key criteria. This paper identifies major and emerging joining technologies with
a comprehensive reviewreview
with a comprehensive and provides guidance
and provides for appropriate
guidance joining
for appropriate method
joining selection.
method selection.

Complete Pack hierarchical

pack levels Joining requirements Cell Type
(used for Automotive Electric
Vehicle Battery Pack)
Electrode-to-tab within the
cell
Automotive Battery Pack

Cell Level Cylindrical Pouch encased Solid-container encased

Case Sealing of outer cell Cell Prismatic Cell (or Prismatic Cell (or
container simply Pouch cell) simply Prismatic cell)
terminals and safety
+ve/-ve terminals
Cell-to-Cell (i.e. tab-to-tab / vent +ve/-ve terminals
Module
tab-to-busbar) electrical and Pressure
Level
structural joints relief vent

Anode
Module-to-Module Foil Pouch Metal case
Pack Level Anode Anode
electrical & structural joints Cathode Cathode
Metal Case Separator Cathode
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Battery packs of electric vehicles, and hybrid or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Figure 1. Battery packs of electric vehicles, and hybrid or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(EVs/HEVs/PHEVs) (a) joining at hierarchical/assembly levels and (b) cell types [5].
(EVs/HEVs/PHEVs) (a) joining at hierarchical/assembly levels and (b) cell types [5].

1.1. Overview of Key Joining Challenges

Overview of Key Joining Challenges
Extensive research has been conducted on developing and characterising Li-ion battery cells
Extensive
including researchand
modelling hassimulation,
been conducted
materialon developing performance
development, and characterising Li-ion and
enhancement, battery cells
safety.
including
Limited modelling
literature isand simulation,
available material
on joining development,
preferences performance
and addressing theirenhancement, and safety.
associated challenges,
Limited
which literature is available
can be summarised on joining preferences and addressing their associated challenges,
as follows:
which can be summarised as follows:
 Electrical and thermal challenges: (i) Producing joints with low electrical resistance—lower
• electricaland
Electrical resistance
thermal at challenges:
the joint results in low energy
(i) Producing jointsloss,
withlow
lowheat generation,
electrical and subsequently,
resistance—lower electrical
lower joint temperature increase during charging and discharging.
resistance at the joint results in low energy loss, low heat generation, and subsequently, (ii) Producing joints lower
with low
joint
thermal input—low
temperature increasethermal
duringinput is preferable,
charging especially when
and discharging. (ii) joining
Producing withjoints
fusionwithtypelow
welding
thermal
processes, thermal
input—low as exposinginputtheiscell to high heat
preferable, may meltwhen
especially or disturb
joiningthewith
safetyfusion
vent, compromise
type welding
seals, or cause internal shorting. (iii) High thermal fatigue resistance—thermal
processes, as exposing the cell to high heat may melt or disturb the safety vent, compromise fatigue resistanceseals,
of
battery interconnects is an important criterion for long-term durability and reliability
or cause internal shorting. (iii) High thermal fatigue resistance—thermal fatigue resistance of battery
performance.
interconnects is an important criterion for long-term durability and reliability performance.
 Material and metallurgical challenges: (i) Compatibility for dissimilar materials joining—dissimilar
• Material and metallurgical challenges: (i) Compatibility for dissimilar materials joining—dissimilar
materials may create intermetallic layers, which are not preferred because of their higher
materials
electricalmay createand
resistance intermetallic
brittle nature layers, whichwith
compared are parent
not preferred
materials.because
Therefore, of joints
their with
higher
electrical resistance and brittle nature compared with parent materials. Therefore,
low intermetallic is preferable. (ii) Variability of materials and surfaces—highly conductive and joints with low
intermetallic is preferable.
reflective materials, any (ii) Variability
surface coatingsof materials
or oxideand surfaces—highly
layers, joint stack-ups conductive
(especially andvarying
reflective
materials, any surface coatings or oxide layers, joint stack-ups (especially
thicknesses and/or multiple sheets) also need to be overcome for satisfactory joints. varying thicknesses
 and/or multiple
Mechanical sheets) also
challenges: need tojoint
(i) Durable be overcome
strength—the forjoint
satisfactory joints.
area/nugget size that can be achieved
• Mechanical challenges:
by the joining methods(i) Durable
should joint
have strength—the
satisfactory jointjoint area/nugget
strength with low size that variability.
strength can be achieved
(ii)
byAvoid mechanical
the joining and vibrational
methods should damage when joining—excessive
have satisfactory joint strength deformation
with low of, or transmission
strength variability.
(ii)ofAvoid
vibration into, the
mechanical andcell may damage
vibrational damageinternal connection. Precautions
when joining—excessive must be
deformation of,taken to avoid
or transmission
of these as induced
vibration residual
into, the cell maystress or vibrational
damage internalenergy may bePrecautions
connection. released andmust causebejoint failure.
taken to avoid
these as induced residual stress or vibrational energy may be released and cause joint failure.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 3 of 13

2. Major and Emerging Joining Technologies—A Comprehensive Review

This section reviews the advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and concerns of major joining
technologies (See Table 1) including ultrasonic, resistance spot/projection, micro-Tungsten Inert
Gas (TIG) welding/pulsed arc welding, ultrasonic wedge bonding, micro-clinching, magnetic pulse
welding, laser welding, and mechanical fastening.

Table 1. Summary of joining technologies.

Id Joining Technology Advantages Disadvantages Issues and Concerns

1 Ultrasonic welding
Resistance
2 conductive and dissimilar
spot/projection welding
Micro-TIG/pulsed arc
3 Difficult to join Al to steel
welding
Ultrasonic wedge
4 wires, low wire and joint
bonding
5 Micro-Clinching
6 Soldering
7 Laser welding
8 Magnetic pulse welding
9 Mechanical assembly
Fast process, high strength and
low resistance, able to join
dissimilar materials, low energy
consumption
Fast process, low cost, good
quality control, easy automation
Low cost, high joint strength
and low resistance, able to join
dissimilar materials, easy
automation
Fast process, acting as fuses,
able to join dissimilar materials,
low energy consumption and
easy automation
Cold process, no additional part,
clean process, able to join
dissimilar materials
Joining dissimilar materials,
wide spread in electronics
industry
High speed, less thermal input,
non-contact process, easy
Automation
Solid state process, able to join
dissimilar materials, high joint
strength, dissimilar materials
Easy dismounting and recycling,
easy repair, cold process
Only suitable for pouch cells,
two sided access, slow
joining
Difficult for highly
materials
High thermal input and heat
affected zone, porosity
Only suitable for small
strength
Only suitable for pouch cells,
two side access, slow joining
High heat, fluxes required
High initial cost, additional
shielding system may
required
Potential large distortion,
rigid support required
Additional weight, high
resistance, expensive
Access of anvil and sonotrode
needs to be well designed
Difficulty to produce large joints,
joining of more than two layers
Clamping of the batteries is
critical
Loosening under vibration,
moisture ingress
Joint strength, debris,
neutralisation of fluxes
Need good joint fit-up (intimate
contact), high reflective
materials
Possibility of eddy current
passing through the cells
Potential mechanical damage
and go loose

2.1. Ultrasonic Welding or Ultrasonic Metal Welding (UMW)

Ultrasonic metal welding (UMW) is one of the most commonly used joining methods for battery
systems manufacturing and has been applied to a wide range of metals and thin metal films (e.g., foils).
It utilises high frequency ultrasonic vibration, typically 20 kHz or above, to join substrate materials by
creating solid-state bonds under a clamping pressure [6]. In principle, high frequency relative motion
creates progressive shearing and plastic deformation between mating interfaces and produces an
atomic bond at elevated temperature (i.e., typically at 0.3 to 0.5 times the absolute melting temperature
of the substrate materials) [7]. However, it needs two sided access, as shown in Figure 2a; one side uses
an anvil to support the parts to be joined, and the other side a sonotrode that passes ultrasonic energy
to the assembly. Ultrasonic welding is applied for joining of multiple thin foils, dissimilar materials,
or highly conductive materials (e.g., Al, Cu, or others) [8,9], especially for pouch cells [10]. However,
it may not be suitable for terminal-to-busbar joints of cylindrical or prismatic cells as vibration under
pressure may damage structural integrity. UMW has been used for various EVs/PHEVs, including
Nissan LEAF, General Motors Chevrolet-Volt, Spark, and Bolt.

2.2. Resistance Spot/Projection Welding

Resistance spot welding (RSW) works on the principle of electrical resistance at the mating
surfaces when high current passes through them, creating localised heating and fusion of materials
under pressure [11]. Resistance spot welding is used to join different tab materials, up to 0.4 mm
thickness, which are being used for battery connections, including steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and
aluminium (Al) [12]. However, RSW of Al and Cu tabs is difficult because of high electric and thermal
 2.2. Resistance Spot/Projection Welding
Resistance spot welding (RSW) works on the principle of electrical resistance at the mating
surfaces when high current passes through them, creating localised heating and fusion of materials
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 4 of 13
under pressure [11]. Resistance spot welding is used to join different tab materials, up to 0.4 mm
thickness, which are being used for battery connections, including steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and
aluminium (Al)
conductivity and[12]. However, the
in particular, RSW of Al and
presence ofCu
antabs is difficult
oxide layer onbecause of high
the surface of electric and thermal
Al. To overcome these
conductivity and in particular, the presence of an oxide layer on the surface of Al. To overcome these
challenges, projection welding, a variant of RSW, shows a significant improvement, where projection on
challenges, projection welding, a variant of RSW, shows a significant improvement, where projection
tabs will increase the joint quality and make welding easier. As indicated in Figure 2b, the projections
on tabs will increase the joint quality and make welding easier. As indicated in Figure 2b, the
not only act as energy concentrators for the weld, but also greatly increase electrode lifetimes, because
projections not only act as energy concentrators for the weld, but also greatly increase electrode
a flat-end RSW-electrode can be used instead of a domed one [13]. In spite of easy automation and
lifetimes, because a flat-end RSW-electrode can be used instead of a domed one [13]. In spite of easy
good quality and
automation control,
goodRSW hascontrol,
quality challenges
RSWwhen applied towhen
has challenges battery welding
applied because
to battery of RSW-electrode
welding because
sticking (i.e., pick-up of material on the electrode tips) [14], highly conductive materials,
of RSW-electrode sticking (i.e., pick-up of material on the electrode tips) [14], highly conductive dissimilar
materials
materials,having
dissimilardifferent
materialsmelting
havingtemperatures, andtemperatures,
different melting the smaller weld nugget
and the experiencing
smaller weld nuggetheat
generation during charging–discharging because of the increased current density.
experiencing heat generation during charging–discharging because of the increased current density.

Projections
(a) Clamping Force (b) Clamping
Force
Sonotrode
(Vibrating High RSW
Ultrasonic Part) Current Electrode
Vibration Flow
Weld Zone
Cell terminal tabs Weld Zone
External Cell
busbar terminal
Anvil tabs Projection
(Stationary Part) External Application of projection
Ultrasonic Welding busbar welding using bi-furcated
Support Plate strip for increased current
Application of ultrasonic welding for pouch flow through tab and cell
cell-to-cell connection (adapted from GM terminal (adapted from
Schematic of ultrasonic welding Chevy Volt) Resistance Spot Welding Projection Welding Variant MacGregor Systems)

Figure2. 2.
Figure Schematic
Schematic of working
of working principles
principles and applications:
and applications: (a) ultrasonic
(a) ultrasonic welding
welding and (b)and (b)
resistance/
resistance/projection welding. RSW—resistance spot welding.
projection welding. RSW—resistance spot welding.

2.3. Micro-TIG or Pulsed Arc Welding (PAW)

Pulsed arc welding, also known as micro-TIG welding, uses a pulsed TIG arc without filler wire to
join thin materials by localised fusion, see Figure 3a [15]. The arc pulse has a very short duration, in tens
of milliseconds, such that heat input is much less than in conventional TIG welding, and can be used
for welding dissimilar materials [16]. However, even with a significantly reduced heat input, it is still
crucial to control the welding parameters to avoid overheating of the battery. PAW is suitable for nickel,
copper, or steel tabs and copper bus bars. Al tabs and bus bar joining using PAW is difficult and not
preferable (because of the typical direct current (DC)–electrode negative configuration). Alternating
current (AC) PAW is more typically used for Al welding, this is because of the cleaning mechanism,
which breaks down the electrically resistive aluminium oxide skin of aluminium alloys. AC pulsed arc
welding has not yet been commercially developed for micro-joining applications. For copper tab to
copper bus bar welding, micro-TIG can produce a single spot nugget in diameter up to 4 mm. There is
no report of the application of pulsed arc welding for joining of existing EV or HEV battery packs.

2.4. Ultrasonic Wedge Bonding

Ultrasonic wedge bonding (UWB) is a joining technique typically used for electronic connections
between circuit boards or electronic chips [17]. During the welding process, a small (typically <500 µm
in diameter) wire (of Al, Cu, or Au) is fed through a welding head; the welding head applies ultrasonic
vibration and pressure forcing the wire against the welding target, for example, the battery terminals
or bus bar, as shown in Figure 3b. The main mechanism of UWB is cleaning of mating surfaces and
bringing surfaces to the distance required for atomic bonding to create the connections, although
other mechanisms, such as inter-diffusion of wire into the mating surface and mechanical interlocking,
also contribute to the joining process [18]. UWB can be used for joining of dissimilar materials and the
bonded wire can be used as a fuse to protect the battery pack against extreme thermal and mechanical
impact or internal defects. However, because transfer of ultrasonic energy into the material to be joined
is critical for welding, any significant lateral movement of the welding substrate will be detrimental
as it will decrease the vibration amplitude, thereby diminishing the power of the welding operation.
Consequently, the cells and the bus bar in the battery module need to be fixed rigidly to allow the
 although other mechanisms, such as inter-diffusion of wire into the mating surface and mechanical
interlocking, also contribute to the joining process [18]. UWB can be used for joining of dissimilar
materials and the bonded wire can be used as a fuse to protect the battery pack against extreme
thermal and mechanical impact or internal defects. However, because transfer of ultrasonic energy
into Electric
World the material to be 2018,
Vehicle Journal joined is critical for welding, any significant lateral movement of the welding
9, 22 5 of 13
substrate will be detrimental as it will decrease the vibration amplitude, thereby diminishing the
power of the welding operation. Consequently, the cells and the bus bar in the battery module need
technology
to be fixed to be applied.
rigidly to allowInthemany cases, adhesives
technology or glues
to be applied. have
In many to beadhesives
cases, used to enhance
or glues the
haverigidity
to
ofbecells.
used to enhance the rigidity of cells.

(a) (b) Clamping Force

Ar gas Electrode
flow (-ve)
Ultrasonic Wedge
Insulator Vibration
Copper
Nozzle Arc
Wire
(+ve)
External First
Cell busbar bond Cell Second
terminal terminal bond
Fixture

Fixture

(Casing) (Casing) External

Fixture

Application of pulsed arc welding for
cylindrical cell terminal (i.e. case)-to-bus
bar (i.e. current collector) connection
Schematic of pulsed arc welding (adapted from Sunstone Welders)
Fixture
busbar
Application of ultrasonic wedge bonding
for cylindrical cell terminal (i.e. case)-to-
bus bar (i.e. current collector) connection
(adapted from EV West)
Schematic of ultrasonic wedge bonding

Figure 3. Schematic of working principles and applications of (a) pulsed arc welding and (b)
Figure 3. Schematic of working principles and applications of (a) pulsed arc welding and (b) ultrasonic
ultrasonic wedge bonding. EV—electric vehicle.
wedge bonding. EV—electric vehicle.

2.5. Micro-Clinching
2.5. Micro-Clinching
Clinching or micro-clinching is a mechanical interlocking mechanism of sheet metal parts,
Clinching
especially usedor for
micro-clinching is a mechanicaldomestic
automotive body-in-white, interlocking mechanism
appliances, of sheet metal
or electronics joiningparts,
especially
applications used
[19].for automotive
Clinching body-in-white,
is a joining process indomestic
which a appliances, or electronics
mechanical interlock joining
(i.e., local
applications
deformation[19]. Clinching
without use of is
anya joining process
additional in which
joining elements)a mechanical interlock
is created by (i.e.,
a tooling setlocal deformation
(a punch and
without useas
a die) [20], ofshown
any additional
in Figure joining elements)
4a. Clinching is created
is a simple by a tooling
technique setjoining
for point (a punch and asheets
of metal die) [20],
astypically
shown in Figure
from 4a. to
0.2 mm Clinching is ato
4 mm thick, simple
a totaltechnique for point
joint thickness joining
of about 6mm.of Using
metal the
sheets typically
clinching, tab-from
0.2 mm to 4 mm thick, to a total joint thickness of about 6 mm. Using the clinching, tab-to-tab joints
are feasible. The feasibility of clinching as an alternative method of joining for pouch cell tab joining
has been reported. Clinching may not be feasible for cylindrical/prismatic cells joining as access to
the both sides of the assembly is required. Further, clinch joints are prone to becoming loose under
vibration, moisture ingress, and so on.

2.6. Soldering
Joining of dissimilar materials using this method is an established and tested technology within
the electronics industry. Soldering of a tab to a terminal of a cylindrical cell may be feasible. Soldering
directly to a cell is not recommended as it is easy to melt or disturb the safety vent, compromise
seals, or cause internal shorting if the heat is too high (i.e., heat input is the key soldering parameter).
Further, it is feasible to solder pouch cell tabs if additional filler metal is used between the tabs.
Special aggressive fluxes are required for joining aluminium, which is typically considered unattractive
because of the potential for corrosion, reduction of joint strength under vibration, and creating debris.
Therefore, soldering is unlikely to be of widespread interest for battery joining applications.

2.7. Laser Welding

Laser welding uses a focused laser beam as a point source of energy to create localised heating to
join parts together. Because of the small cross section of the laser beam and its energy concentration,
narrow and deep welds can be made with a high welding speed [21]. Also, because of the narrow
welds and high welding speed, the process generates a low level of heat in the assembly during
welding [22], which is important for battery tab welding, as the chemicals inside the batteries are very
heat sensitive. A schematic of fillet laser welding and application for prismatic cell-to-bus bar joining
are shown in Figure 4b. When welding a tab to a terminal, generally, the tab should be thinner than
the battery cell casing terminal. Process parameters need to be controlled to provide weld strength
and conductivity without penetrating the battery case/can. Other applications include sealing of the
battery casing for prismatic cells, and joining of tab-to-bus bar and bus bar-to-bus bar [23]. As the
weld pool from laser welding is very small, it has a very small gap tolerance, subsequently, during tab
 the narrow welds and high welding speed, the process generates a low level of heat in the assembly
during welding [22], which is important for battery tab welding, as the chemicals inside the batteries
are very heat sensitive. A schematic of fillet laser welding and application for prismatic cell-to-bus
bar joining are shown in Figure 4b. When welding a tab to a terminal, generally, the tab should be
thinner than the battery cell casing terminal. Process parameters need to be controlled to provide
weld
World strength
Electric Vehicle and conductivity
Journal 2018, 9, 22 without penetrating the battery case/can. Other applications include
6 of 13
sealing of the battery casing for prismatic cells, and joining of tab-to-bus bar and bus bar-to-bus bar
[23]. As the weld pool from laser welding is very small, it has a very small gap tolerance,
welding, it may be necessary to clamp the tab to the battery [11]. For oxidisation sensitive materials,
subsequently, during tab welding, it may be necessary to clamp the tab to the battery [11]. For
such as Al,
oxidisation gassensitive
shielding is also required.
materials, such as Al, gas shielding is also required.

(a) (b)
Punch
Laser
beam
Step 1
Die

Step 2
External Cell Application of laser
busbar welding for prismatic cell-
terminal
(Casing) to-bus bar connection
Step 3 Application of clinching for pouch cell tab- (adapted from
to-tab connection (adapted from AVL Fraunhofer Institute for
Schematic of clinching (adapted
Battery Solutions) Schematic of laser welding Laser Technology ILT,
from Tox Pressotechnik Ltd)
BMW i3)

Figure
Figure 4.4.Working
Workingprinciples
principlesand
andapplications
applications of
of (a)
(a) clinching
clinchingand
and(b)
(b)laser
laserwelding.
welding.

2.8. Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW)/Electromagnetic Pulse Technology (EMPT)

2.8. Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW)/Electromagnetic Pulse Technology (EMPT)
Magnetic pulse welding is a solid state welding process that uses a magnetic pulse to accelerate
Magnetic pulse welding is a solid state welding process that uses a magnetic pulse to accelerate one
one part into another, creating a high speed (up to 500 m/s) collision that results in bonding (See
part into another,
Figure 5a). Thecreating a high
advantages ofspeed (up to 500
this process m/s) low
include collision
heat that
input,results
highinjoint
bonding (See and
strength, Figure
the5a).
The advantages of this process include low heat input, high joint strength, and the capability
capability to join dissimilar materials [24]. However, as the technology has the potential to create an to join
dissimilar
induced current in the cell, because of the pulsed magnetic field necessary for the joining process, in
materials [24]. However, as the technology has the potential to create an induced current
thedamage
cell, because of thewhich
may occur, pulsed magnetic
renders field necessary
it unsuitable for joining.
for battery the joining process,
However, damage may
MPW/EMPT has occur,
the
which renders
potential for it unsuitable
joining pouchfor
cellbattery joining.
tab-to-tab However,
or tab-to-bus barMPW/EMPT
[25]. Furthermore,has the potential
detailed for joining
investigation
pouch cell tab-to-tab
is required or tab-to-bus
as induced bar [25].
eddy currents mayFurthermore, detailed investigation is
affect the electrochemistry/physical required
parts as induced
(e.g., potential
eddy currents
cracks may affect
or internal thebetween
joining electrochemistry/physical partslead
current collectors, which (e.g.,topotential cracks or
battery internal internal joining
short-circuit) of
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
between current collectors, which lead to battery internal short-circuit) of the pouch cell. To mitigate
the risk of damaging the pouch cell or module sensors, a specially designed weld head and shielding
the pouch cell. To mitigate the risk of damaging the pouch cell or module sensors, a specially
plate may beweld
designed required during
head and welding.
shielding plate may be required during welding.

(a) (b)

Upper
part Magnetic
Field

Application of MPW/EMPT for tab-to-

Lower
Part
bus bar, tab-to-tab and bus bar-to-bus Prismatic cell nut & bolt Prismatic Cell interconnection using
bar connection (adapted from PST configuration (adapted from nut and bolt assembly (adapted from
Schematic working principle of MPW/EMPT
Products) Panasonic and Hitachi) Toyota Prius)

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Working
Working principlesand
principles andapplications
applications of
of (a)
(a) magnetic
magnetic pulse
pulse welding/electromagnetic
welding/electromagnetic pulse
pulse
technology (MPW/EMPT) and (b) nut and bolt assembly.
technology (MPW/EMPT) and (b) nut and bolt assembly.

2.9. Mechanical Assembly

2.9. Mechanical Assembly
Various mechanical fastening methods can be used for battery joining, including nut and bolt,
Various
spring mechanical
clasp, fasteningand
screws or snap-fits, methods canNut
so on [26]. be used for battery
and bolt joints may joining, including
be either nutdistinct
physically and bolt,
spring clasp,
nut and screws
bolt or snap-fits,
assemblies and so feature,
or a threaded on [26]. for
Nutexample,
and boltelectrode
joints may andbenut.
either
Forphysically distinct
battery module
nutlevel
andconnections,
bolt assemblies or a threaded feature, for example, electrode and nut. For battery
nut and bolt joints are mainly limited to prismatic cells, as shown in Figure 5b, andmodule level
connections, nut and bolt joints are mainly limited to prismatic cells, as shown
have been used to join electric and hybrid vehicle battery modules. Another example of using in Figure 5b, and have
been used to join
mechanical electric
fastening is and hybrid
spring loadedvehicle battery
prismatic cellsmodules. Another
into a custom example
designed of using
container. mechanical
Permanent
fastening
joining,issuch
springas loaded
welding,prismatic
may not cells
beinto a custom
suitable for designed
large packcontainer. Permanent
level joining becausejoining, such as
of battery
welding, may not
maintenance andbeservice
suitable for large
concerns pack
[13]. level joiningmechanical
Consequently, because ofnut battery maintenance
and bolt assembly and service
has been
widely adopted
concerns at the pack level.
[13]. Consequently, mechanical nut and bolt assembly has been widely adopted at the
pack level.
Table 1. Summary of joining technologies.
Joining
Id Advantages Disadvantages Issues and Concerns
Technology
Fast process, high strength and
Only suitable for pouch Access of anvil and
low resistance, able to join
1 Ultrasonic welding cells, two sided access, sonotrode needs to be
dissimilar materials, low energy
slow joining well designed
consumption
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 7 of 13

3. Evaluation, Applicability and Feasibility of Joining Technologies

Continuous advances are being made by battery manufacturers to improve battery pack safety,
weight, cost, size, durability, and energy density. Addressing these requirements, this section focuses
on cell types and different joining technologies to reflect pack construction and connectivity at their
hierarchical levels (i.e., cell, module and pack levels).

3.1. Battery Pack Hierarchical Joining

3.1.1. Joining of Cylindrical Cell Based Battery Pack

Cylindrical cells consist of a tubular cylindrical can and incorporate safety mechanisms that will
interrupt current flow and/or enable venting of gas to avoid overpressure of the can. Cylindrical
cells have better thermal management efficiency because of small size, but low packaging efficiency
because of their round cross-section. However, their relatively small size results in a large number of
cells and connections compared with modules composed of pouch/prismatic cells. The suitability of
available joining techniques to build battery packs using cylindrical cells at cell, module or pack levels
is described as follows:

• Cell level joining: The assembly process for cylindrical cells requires joining methods at two
levels, which are (i) electrode foil-to-tab joining and (ii) terminal welding (i.e., tab-to-case/can).
Ultrasonic and resistance spot welding are the most commonly used joining methods for electrode
foil-to-tab and terminal welding, respectively [27]. Laser welding is also feasible for electrode
foil-to-tab joining, however, tight part-to-part tolerance has to be maintained for satisfactory joints.
Terminal welding is not be feasible by laser welding if line of sight is obscured.
• Module and pack level joining: Because of the physical size and form of a cylindrical cell, external
current collectors are added to connect cells. Physical projections reduce the contact area in
projection welding, allowing concentrated heat generation at the point of contact, and formation of
the weld nugget faster and at a lower current level compared with conventional spot welding [28],
reducing potential damage to the RSW-electrode. Similar to resistance welding, advances in
high-frequency power supplies, increased low-current control, and arc stability, have enabled
much finer TIG welding, such as pulsed arc welding. Pulsed arc welding offers excellent copper
to copper joining with a fairly relaxed process window with respect to part fit-up and positioning
tolerances of the electrode to the parts [29]. As ultrasonic welding exerts high frequency vibration
under locally applied force, there is a risk that a cell may suffer internal damage to the electrode.
Therefore, ultrasonic welding of cylindrical cells at module level may not be appropriate without
steps to mitigate the possibility of damage. However, ultrasonic wedge bonding has been used
for cell-to-cell connections. In the Tesla battery pack [30], each of the cells has two wires that act
as fuses (one each for the anode and cathode) and are connected using ultrasonic wedge bonding.
Laser welding is emerging as an efficient alternative for forming joints between cylindrical cell
terminals and external current collectors, that is, bus bars. However, part-to-part fit-up needs to
be carefully controlled to achieve satisfactory joints using laser welding. By designing proper jigs
and fixtures, a large number of cylindrical cells can be connected to produce a battery module.
Permanent joining, such as welding, may not be suitable for large pack level joining because of
battery maintenance and service requirements [13]. As a consequence, mechanical nut and bolt
assembly has been widely adopted at the pack level.

3.1.2. Joining of Pouch Cell Based Battery Pack

In Pouch cells, the internal electrode stack is contained within a soft plastic-aluminium laminate
package. Current collectors are welded internally to terminal tabs that protrude through seals to
allow external connection [5]. Use of plastic-metal laminates for the cell pouch allows reduction of cell
packaging material, higher energy densities, for the same chemistry type (i.e., compared with prismatic
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 8 of 13

cells), but typically requires a more complex module structure to constrain the cells. The suitability
of joining methods to build battery packs using pouch cells at cell, module, or pack levels can be
summarised as follows:

• Cell level joining: During fabrication of pouch cells, the joining operations are (i) electrode current
collectors to positive and negative terminal tabs, and (ii) case sealing of pouch cell—an automated
and standard process under vacuum [31]. Electrode-to-tab welds are conventionally made using
ultrasonic technology because of the need to create a joint through a stack of foils. RSW is not
appropriate as RSW-electrodes are prone to picking-up highly conductive cell terminal/electrode
and tab materials [32]. However, fibre laser welding technology may be used for increased weld
quality and strength [33]. The key to successful application of laser welding is to ensure that
(a) the foils are in close contact, and (b) a pulsed laser is used to avoid overheating. In the case
of pouch cell case sealing, typically, a compact heat sealer is used to seal aluminium–polymer
laminate films.
• Module and pack level joining: Module designs typically position positive and negative terminal
tabs either at opposite ends or the same end of the cell based on series or parallel connection
requirements. Therefore, the cells are joined either by tab-to-tab or tab-to-bus bar connections.
Ultrasonic welding has received significant attention for module level joining as a result of its
ability to produce good welds for dissimilar materials and multiple thin layers. RSW or projection
welding, pulsed arc welding, and clinching of tab-to-tab or tab-to-bus bar joints are feasible.
However, process stability, joint characteristics, thermal input, and process control require further
investigation. However, feasible soldering of pouch cell interconnects is not recommended as
it raises concerns of joint strength under vibration, neutralisation of fluxes, risk of localised
heat damage, and creation of debris in the joint area. As an alternative, MPW/EMPT has the
potential for joining pouch cell tab-to-tab or tab-to-bus bar [25]. However, detailed investigation
is required for MPW/EMPT application, as induced eddy currents may affect the physical
parts/electrochemistry (e.g., potential cracks or internal joining between current collectors that
leads to battery internal short-circuit) of the pouch cell. To mitigate the risk of damaging the pouch
cell, or module sensors, a specially designed weld head and shielding plate may be required
during EMPT welding. Laser welding is another alternative solution for pouch cell tab-to-tab
or tab-to-bus bar joining. Fibre lasers are able to weld many material combinations including
aluminium to aluminium, aluminium to steel, copper to steel, and copper to aluminium. Further
investigations are required for fixture design, process parameter optimisation and process control.
Generally, pack level (i.e., module-to-module) connections are made with mechanical fasteners.

3.1.3. Joining of Prismatic Cell Based Battery Pack

Aluminium or steel cans are typically used for the housing of solid container-encased prismatic
lithium-ion cells, more commonly called prismatic cells. The metal can ensure structural stability,
mechanical robustness, and humidity protection. In addition, it allows for the use of safety features
such as pressure relief vents, which are not possible in pouch cells. In some cases, prismatic cells may
allow packaging to be more efficient than cylindrical cells because of their form factor [5]. The suitability
of available joining methods to build battery packs using prismatic cells at cell, module, or pack levels
is described as follows:

• Cell level joining: The fabrication of prismatic cells involves similar joining operations to cylindrical
and pouch cells (i) between current collector tabs and electrode foil(s), (ii) between collector
tab and battery terminal, and (iii) case sealing. Ultrasonic welding is most commonly used for
joining current collector tabs with electrode foil(s) [31]. Resistance spot welding is used to connect
current collector tabs with the case or with the top cap of the case [27]. Typically, prismatic cell
positive and negative terminals are based on mechanical nut and bolt assembly. Laser welding
is also used for cell level joining and traditionally case sealing. As reported by Shannon [12],
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 9 of 13

laser welding has potential for a number of manufacturing applications, such as case sealing [34]
and terminal welding.
• Module and pack level joining: As a result of the stackable form of prismatic cells, battery pack
modularity and various design configurations for parallel or series connections are readily
achievable. Module and pack level joining is mainly performed with mechanical nut and bolt
fasteners or clip fitting. Mechanical nut and bolt assembly has the advantage of easy disassembly
and higher joint strength compared with other reported joining techniques. However, there are
issues with high contact resistance and maximum torque (to avoid internal damage) that can be
sustained by the cell stud. In some cases, laser welding has also been used for connecting cell
terminal with bus bar [35]. Ultrasonic wedge bonding and micro-TIG between terminal and bus
bar may be feasible for prismatic cells. However, design changes may be required for UWB since
cell terminals are not directly connected with bus bars. Application of these methods requires
investigation of wire thickness, heat input, current carrying capacity, and so on.

3.2. Joining Technology Recommendation for Battery Manufacturing

This section maps joining technologies with manufacturing readiness levels (MRLs) to indicate
options and development status of battery joining from a manufacturing perspective (as illustrated
in Figure 6). Manufacturing readiness levels (MRLs) are used to provide a relative measure of
technology maturity, risk level, and extent of application. Ultrasonic welding, ultrasonic wedge
bonding, and mechanical assembly are frequently used in battery pack manufacturing (used by battery
manufacturers, original equipment manufacturers, and tier 1 suppliers) and have been demonstrated
at the highest level of production (MRLs 8–10). RSW, micro-TIG, micro-clinching, and soldering have
demonstrated their capability under laboratory conditions (MRL 4) to produce joints for low or batch
volume during module manufacture (MRL 6/7). In contrast, laser welding exhibits a broad range of
capability from MRL 4 to MRL 10. For example, laser welding applications for module level joining of
cylindrical or pouch cells are in MRL 4–6, whereas laser applications for case sealing or module level
joining of prismatic cells have been demonstrated at MRL 10. Another joining technology, MPW/EMPT,
has a low MRL as it has only demonstrated limited capability under laboratory conditions to produce
tab-to-tab joining. Recommendations for further investigation are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Recommendations for further investigation based on manufacturing readiness levels

(MRLs). RSW—resistance spot welding; MWP/EMPT—magnetic pulse welding/electromagnetic
pulse technology.

MRL
Module Level Joining
Low (1–3) Medium (4–6) High (7–10)
Investigate pouch module level joining MPW/EMPT
Cylindrical and pouch module level, Laser Welding,
further extend to prismatic module level Micro-TIG, RSW
Cylindrical module level, further extend to Ultrasonic Wedge
prismatic module level Bonding

The Pugh matrix has been employed to evaluate different technologies that are suitable for
joining cylindrical, pouch, and prismatic cell types, identifying technologies that are likely to be
feasible and have favourable risk/benefit characteristics. It is a scoring matrix used for concept
selection in which technology options are assigned scores relative to their fulfilment of explicit criteria.
The Pugh matrix in Figure 7 identifies three joining technologies, ultrasonic wedge bonding, laser
welding (highlighted as “green” as they are in production), and micro-TIG (highlighted as “amber”
as it has potential for production application), that would merit further investigation for cylindrical
cell battery pack manufacturing. Figure 8 shows current and potential candidates for pouch cell
based battery packs, namely, ultrasonic welding, laser welding, micro-TIG, and clinching. Figure 9
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 10 of 13

demonstrates that mechanical assembly, laser welding, micro-TIG, and ultrasonic wedge bonding have
potential for industrial application and warrant further investigation for prismatic cell based battery
pack manufacturing.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Major Phases in Assessing MRLs

Major Phases in Assessing MRLs
Material Solutions Technology Manufacturing Deployment and
Material Solutions
Analysis Technology
Development Manufacturing
Development Deployment and
Operation
Analysis Development Development Operation
8 9 10
Basic Manufacturing Manufacturing Capability Prototype in Prototype Pre-production Pilot8 line 9 rate
Low 10rate
Full
Manufacturing
Basic Concept Manufacturing
Manufacturing proof of to produce
Capability Production
Prototype in system in Pre-production
Prototype system in capability
Pilot line Production
Low rate Production
Full rate
Manufacturing Concept concept
proof of in Lab
to produce Environment
Production Production
system in Production
system in demonstrated
capability demonstrated Production
Production demonstrated
concept in Lab Environment Environment
Production Environment demonstrated demonstrated demonstrated
Production
Environment Environment
Manufacturing Readiness Levels (MRLs)
Manufacturing Readiness Levels (MRLs)
•
Micro-Clinching • Ultrasonic Welding
•  Pouch module level
Micro-Clinching • Ultrasonic
 Pouch cell
Welding
& module level
• Soldering
Pouch module level  Pouch
Prismatic cell
cell & level level
module
• Soldering •  Prismatic Wedge
Ultrasonic cell levelBonding
• Ultrasonic
 Cylindrical
Wedge Bonding
module level
• Resistance Spot Welding
• Resistance
 Cylindrical
Spot Welding
& pouch module level
•  CylindricalAssembly
Mechanical module level
• Mechanical
 All cell types
Assembly
at pack level
• Micro-TIG
Cylindrical & pouch module level
welding
 All cell types at pack level
• Micro-TIG
 Cylindricalwelding
& pouch module level
 Cylindrical & pouch module level • Laser Welding
• Electromagnetic • Laser Welding •  Prismatic
Laser Weldingmodule level
• Electromagnetic
Pulse Technology •  Cylindrical
Laser Weldingand pouch  Prismatic module level
Pulse Technology
 Pouch module level  Cylindrical
module level
and pouch
 Pouch module level module level

Figure6. 6.MRLs
Figure MRLsfor forassessing
assessing technology
technology maturity
maturityofofcurrent
currentjoining
joiningtechnologies forfor
technologies module level
module level
Figure
joining6. MRLs for assessing
(e.g.,terminal-to-tab, technology
terminal-to-tab,tab-to-tab, maturity
tab-to-tab, or of
or tab-to-bus current joining technologies for module level
joining (e.g., tab-to-busbar).
bar).
joining (e.g., terminal-to-tab, tab-to-tab, or tab-to-bus bar).
Joining technologies - Cyclindrical Cell
Resistance spot Joining technologies - Cyclindrical Cell
Micro-TIG
Factor Weight Ultrasonic wedge Mechanical
Resistance
welding/ spot
Projection Micro-TIG
Welding/ Pulsed Laser welding Soldering
Factor Weight Ultrasonic wedge
bonding Mechanical
joining
welding/ Projection Welding/
Welding Pulsed
Arc Welding Laser welding Soldering
bonding joining
Total Welding
377 Arc Welding
397 403 390 352 348
Joint resistance Total 377 397 403 390 352 348
JointJoint
resistance
resistance-similar materials 5 4 4 4 5 5 2
Joint
Jointresistance-similar materials
resistance-dissimilar materials 55 42 44 45 53 55 22
Joint strength
Joint resistance-dissimilar materials 5 2 4 5 3 5 2
JointJoint
strength
strength-similar materials 3 4 4 3 5 3 5
Joint
Jointstrength-similar materials
strength-dissimilar materials 33 41 43 32 53 33 55
Joint transfer
Heat strength-dissimilar
from processmaterials 35 13 33 25 34 31 55
Heat transfer
Potential from process
mechanical damage 55 34 34 54 45 15 52
Potential mechanical
Joint current capacitydamage 55 43 43 42 55 54 25
Joint
Jointcurrent
durabilitycapacity 55 34 34 23 54 44 53
Joint durability
Potential vibration damage 55 45 45 34 45 45 35
Potential vibrationresistance
Joint corrosion damage 54 54 54 45 54 52 52
Joint corrosion
In process resistance
quality control 45 44 44 55 42 22 23
InCycle
process timequality control 54 44 44 54 25 22 31
Cycle time
Sensitivity 44 44 44 45 54 23 15
Sensitivity
Repeatability 44 43 44 54 44 34 55
Repeatability
Cost per battery connection 44 35 45 44 44 43 52
Cost per battery connection
Investment 43 54 54 44 42 35 25
Investment
Easy recycling 32 42 42 42 22 52 55
Easy
Easyrecycling
automation 25 24 24 25 25 21 51
Easy automation
Delivery time 53 44 44 54 53 15 13
Delivery
Standard time
Equipment 33 43 43 45 33 55 33
Standard
Flexibility Equipment
ie easy to adapt 33 33 33 52 33 55 34
Flexibility
Used foriesimilareasy to adapt
applications elsewhere 34 34 34 25 33 51 42
Used
Safetyfor similar applications elsewhere 45 44 44 54 33 14 25
Safety
Cost of ownership 52 45 45 43 34 45 55
Technique
Cost of ownershipsupport 25 55 55 34 44 54 54
Technique support 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
Figure 7. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of cylindrical cell based
Figure 7. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of cylindrical cell based
module.
Figure 7. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of cylindrical cell
module.
based module.
World Electric
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Vehicle Journal
Journal 2018,
2018, 9,
9, 22
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
11 of 13
13

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13

Joining technologies - Pouch Cell
Resistance Spot / Micro-TiG / Mechanical
Factor Weight Ultrasonic Joining Laser
Projection Pulsedtechnologies
Arc - PouchClinching
Cell Soldering Assembly (Nut
Welding Resistance Spot / Micro-TiG / welding Mechanical
Factor Weight Ultrasonic Welding Welding Laser & bolt)
Projection Pulsed Arc
Total 413
Welding 359 379 401 Clinching
welding 361 Soldering
357 Assembly 356
(Nut
Welding Welding & bolt)
Joint resistance
Total 413 359 379 401 361 357 356
Joint resistance-similar materials 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 2
Joint resistance
Joint resistance-dissimilar materials 5 5 1 4 3 5 5 2
Joint resistance-similar materials 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 2
Joint strength
Joint resistance-dissimilar materials 5 5 1 4 3 5 5 2
Joint strength-similar materials 3 4 4 4 5 3 3 5
Joint strength
Joint strength-dissimilar
Joint materials
strength-similar materials 33 34 41 43 5 3 3 3 3 3 5 5
Heat Joint
transfer from process materials
strength-dissimilar 53 43 13 33 3 4 3 5 3 2 5 5
Potential mechanical
Heat transfer from damage
process 55 54 35 35 4 5 5 4 2 5 5 2
Joint currentmechanical
Potential capacity damage 55 55 52 52 5 5 4 3 5 4 2 5
Joint durability
Joint current capacity 55 45 24 24 5 4 3 2 4 4 5 3
Potential vibration damage during welding
Joint durability 55 34 45 45 4 5 2 5 4 5 3 5
Joint corrosion
Potential resistance
vibration damage during welding 45 43 53 53 5 4 5 4 5 2 5 2
In process quality resistance
Joint corrosion control 54 44 34 34 4 2 4 3 2 2 2 3
In process
Cycle time quality control 45 44 44 43 2 5 3 2 2 2 3 1
Cycle time
Sensitivity 44 54 43 33 5 4 2 4 2 3 1 5
Sensitivity
Repeatability 44 45 34 34 4 4 4 4 3 4 5 4
Repeatability
Cost per battery connection 44 54 45 45 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 2
Cost per battery connection
Investment 34 45 54 55 4 2 4 5 3 5 2 5
Investment
Easy recycling 23 24 42 52 2 2 5 4 5 2 5 5
Easy
Easy recycling
automation 52 42 24 24 2 5 4 3 2 1 5 1
Easy automation 5 4 4 4 5 3 1 1
Delivery time 3 4 4 4 3 3 5 5
Delivery time 3 4 4 4 3 3 5 5
Standard Equipment 3 4 4 4 4 3 5 5
Standard Equipment 3 4 4 4 4 3 5 5
Flexibility i.e. easy to adapt 3 2 3 3 3 3 5 4
Flexibility i.e. easy to adapt 3 2 3 3 3 3 5 4
Used for similar applications elsewhere 4 5 2 2 5 3 1 2
Used for similar applications elsewhere 4 5 2 2 5 3 1 2
Safety
Safety 55 44 44 33 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5
Cost of ownership
Cost of ownership 22 44 33 33 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5
Technique
Technique support
support 55 44 55 55 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Figure
Figure8.8.Pugh
Pughmatrix
matrix for
for evaluation
evaluation of joining
joining methods
methodsfor
formanufacturing
manufacturingof of pouch
pouch cellcell based
based
Figure 8. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of pouch cell based module.
module.
module.

Joining
Joiningtechnologies - Prismatic
technologies Cell
- Prismatic Cell
Micro-TIG
Micro-TIG Resistance spot
Resistance / /
spot Mechanical
Mechanical
Factor
Factor Weight
Weight Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic Laser
Laser
Welding/
Welding/Pulsed
Pulsed Projection
Projection welding Assembly Assembly
Wedge Bonding
Wedge Bonding Arc Welding welding(Nut & bolt)
Arc Welding Welding
Welding (Nut & bolt)
Total
Total 389
389 380
380 367
367 398398 381381
Joint
Joint resistance
resistance
Joint resistance-similar materials 5 4 4 4 5 2
Joint resistance-similar materials 5 4 4 4 5 2
Joint resistance-dissimilar materials 5 5 4 2 3 2
Joint resistance-dissimilar materials 5 5 4 2 3 2
Joint strength
Joint strength
Joint strength-similar materials 3 3 4 4 5 5
Joint strength-similar materials 3 3 4 4 5 5
Joint strength-dissimilar materials 3 3 3 1 3 5
Joint
Heat strength-dissimilar
transfer from processmaterials 35 53 33 13 4 3 5 5
Heat transfer from process
Potential mechanical damage 55 45 43 34 5 4 2 5
Potential mechanical
Joint current damage
capacity 55 14 24 42 5 5 5 2
Joint current
Joint capacity
durability 55 31 42 24 4 5 3 5
Joint durability
Potential vibration damage 55 43 54 45 5 4 5 3
Potential vibrationresistance
Joint corrosion damage 54 54 45 54 4 5 2 5
Joint corrosion
In process resistance
quality control 45 55 44 44 2 4 3 2
In Cycle
process quality control
time 54 45 44 44 5 2 1 3
Sensitivity
Cycle time 44 54 44 44 4 5 5 1
Repeatability
Sensitivity 44 45 44 44 4 4 5 5
Cost per battery connection
Repeatability 44 44 54 45 4 4 3 5
Investment
Cost per battery connection 43 44 45 54 2 4 5 3
Easy recycling
Investment 32 24 24 42 2 2 5 5
Easy
Easy automation
recycling 25 52 42 24 5 2 1 5
Delivery
Easy time
automation 53 45 44 44 3 5 5 1
Standard Equipment 3 5 3 4 3 5
Delivery time 3 4 4 4 3 5
Flexibility ie easy to adapt 3 2 3 3 3 4
Standard Equipment 3 5 3 4 3 5
Used for similar applications elsewhere 4 2 1 1 5 5
Flexibility ie easy to adapt 3 2 3 3 3 4
Safety 5 4 4 4 3 5
Used for similar applications elsewhere 4 2 1 1 5 5
Cost of ownership 2 3 5 5 4 5
Safety
Technique support 55 44 54 45 4 3 5 5
Cost of ownership 2 3 5 5 4 5
Technique9.support
Figure Pugh matrix for evaluation 5 4
of joining methods5 for
of cell 5
manufacturing 4
pouch 5
based
module.
Figure 9. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of pouch cell based
Figure 9. Pugh matrix for evaluation of joining methods for manufacturing of pouch cell based module.
module.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 22 12 of 13

4. Conclusions
This paper focuses on the applicability of joining technologies for automotive battery system
manufacturing. It identifies and reviews suitable joining technologies based on battery pack
construction and connectivity requirements for the dominant cell types in use.
• Cylindrical, pouch, and prismatic cells based battery pack construction are discussed in detail,
with limitations of the specific technologies identified where their use is infeasible. Further,
applicability of joining methods is discussed with hierarchical levels of battery manufacturing.
• Key joining challenges are identified for battery systems manufacture, including electrical, thermal,
material, metallurgical, and mechanical challenges.
• Joining techniques are described with respect to MRLs and suitability of the identified joining
technologies is quantified. Recommendations for further investigation of joining technologies are
made based on Pugh matrix scores, MRLs, and application potential.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, A.D.; Funding acquisition, D.G.; Investigation, A.D. and D.L.;
Methodology, A.D.; Project administration, D.W. and D.G.; Resources, D.G.; Supervision, D.W.; Writing—original
draft, A.D.; Writing—review & editing, D.W.
Funding: This research has been supported by EPSRC Institutional Grant for the APC Spoke and WMG Centre
High Value Manufacturing (HVM) Catapult.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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