1

Adderall and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Elle McMahon

Biochemistry

Mr. Keith

March 9, 2020
 2

Abstract

Adderall is a combination of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, the two are stimulants that

contribute to the central nervous system to improve an individual's impulse control and

hyperactivity. The main usage of adderall is to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

which is a disorder that can be described as an individual’s inability to maintain concentration

for a prolonged period of time and to maintain one's impulse controls or actions. The brains of

diagnosed ADHD patients contain abnormally low levels of dopamine and noradrenaline.

Adderall is scientifically shown to increase the production of dopamine and noradrenaline in the

central nervous system which speeds up the activity of the brain. Dopamine and noradrenaline

are mainly found in the frontal lobe of the brain. The frontal lobe controls a person’s emotions,

judgements, and behaviors when making decisions in their daily life. That is why people without

ADHD are able to deal with problems adequately and can enable concentration whenever needed

and why people with the learning disability have trouble dealing with problems at hand because

of the decreased brain activity. Adderall increases the activity of the brain; the increased

production causes a calming and focusing effect. The calming and focusing effect can help a

patient who is having symptoms such as impulsiveness, low frustration tolerance, problems

focusing on task, trouble multitasking, and excessive restlessness. The dosage to alleviate these

symptoms differs based on the patient and how their body reacts to the medication as well as

what form of release is suggested.

Keywords: a​ dderall, learning disability, ADHD, dopamine, noradrenaline, improved

concentration, amphetamine, dextroamphetamine,

 3

Adderall and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Adderall is commonly prescribed for the treatment of attention-deficit attention order

(ADHD) in children and adults. Adderall is sufficiently supplied to the brain by alternating the

levels of catecholamine in the central nervous system for increased stimulation​. Also being

classified as a psychostimulant, it contains the ability to increase improved function of the

central nervous system. Psychostimulants are known to be able to lessen the severity of

symptoms such as inattention​, impulsive decision making, and hyperactivity in individuals who

have been diagnosed (“An analysis of ADHD Drugs: Ritalin and Adderall”).

Chemical Makeup of Adderall

Adderall, also known as amphetamine, is a synthetic substance that is in relation to

producing physiological effects of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) by inducing the

stimulation of sympathetic nerves. When organic bases with low molecular weights are exerted

into the central nervous system, they affect the sensory receptors throughout the body. Once the

sensory receptors are affected, psychological dependence may be experienced by having an

elevated mood, improved concentration and physical performance, and alertness (​Amphetamine​)

The molecular formula for amphetamine is known as ​C9H13​N and has a molecular

weight of 135.21 g/mol. Amphetamine, chemically known as 1-phenylpropan-2-amine, is a

chiral compound and the parent compound of its own class of structure. It is a racemic mixture

​ evo- and
consisting of levo-amphetamine and dextro-amphetamine (​Amphetamine). L

devo-amphetamine are central nervous system stimulants, and once they are delivered to the

brain they mimic the naturally occurring neurotransmitters like dopamine, epinephrine, and

norepinephrine (Sumners, C.) (See Appendix A).

 4

The major chemical affected by adderall is dopamine, scientifically known as

4(2-Aminoethyl)benzene-1,2-diol, is a monoamine compound with positive inotropic activity

with a molecular weight of 153.18 g/mol and a molecular formula of C8H11NO2. Positive

inotropic agents increase the strength of the contraction of muscles in the body. Classified as

catecholamine that is formed from the decarboxylation of dihydroxyphenylalanine, once it is

binded to specific receptors it is successful in increasing cardiac output for the user. This is

created from blood vessel dilation, sodium excretion, and urine output. The chemical is first

synthesized in the body by adrenal glands and nervous tissue, it is then hydrated by tyrosine to

dopa by tyrosine hydroxyl. Being a major role in the motor activity center of the brain, the

receptors control the action of the brain, which then contributed to the reward-motivation center

of the brain (​Dopamine​). Dopamine is a chemical in the brain associated with the “feel good”

centers of the brain. This is the reasoning behind why people who use the drug illicitly,

experience a feeling of euphoria. When the levels of dopamine are abnormally low, it is the

reasoning behind why individuals have difficulty staying on task (Sumners, C). (See Appendix

A).

The second chemical associated with adderall is epinephrine, chemically known as

I-Adrenaline, has a molecular formula of C9H13NO3 and a molecular weight of 183.2 g/mol.

This specific chemical increases the rate of myocardial contraction and relaxes the smooth

muscle of the bronchus. It is also categorized as a catecholamine, chemically services from the

amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. Once it is excreted from the inner part of the adrenal

gland, it will allow the intestinal muscles to relax, stimulate cardiac muscles and dilated vessels

​ pinephrine increases the action of the sympathetic nervous

throughout the body (​Epinephrine). E
 5

system, which puts the body into “fight-or-flight” mode when dealing with complex situations

(Summers, C) (See Appendix A).

Lastly, the chemical norepinephrine also known as noradrenaline, with the molecular

formula of C8H11NO3 and the molecular weight of 169.18 g/mol. It is classified as a

catecholamine that functions as a neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system, It directly

stimulates receptors contained within the adrenal glands, once these glands are stimulated,

constriction occurs of the arteries, veins, urinary bladder, and the iris. Naturally, this chemically

can be elected by the consumption of bananas (​Norepinephrine​). Pure adrenaline only lasts

throughout the human body for a specific period of time, adderall will continue to keep

norepinephrine in the system longer. This enhances and maintains the “flight-or-fight” response

and increases focus (Sumners, C) (See Appendix A).

Background Information

Adderall/ amphetamine was discovered over a century ago in 1910 and first synthesized

in 1927. After being used for a large variety of psychiatric conditions without knowing the

addictive properties, addiction started to arise throughout the public. Restricted use and

consumption was authorized in order to decrease the amount of addicts throughout the country. It

was proven by Smith, Kline, and French in 1935 that amphetamine induced local anesthetics and

produced arousal and insomnia in human beings, it was then later approved in 1976 by the FDA

to allow doctoral and patient use. In WWII amphetamine was a vital drug in promoting

wakefulness in soldiers, once used throughout the war and brought into the pharmaceutical

industry, overproduction occurred and a surplus of the medication ended up being sold in the

black market illicitly (​Amphetamine)​ .

 6

ADHD

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is not a learning disability, meaning that it has

no correlation to low intelligence or to lacking the ability to be successful in school. ADHD is

related to the brain chemistry within a child or adult and how it is biologically organized

(Capaccio 10). In other words, ADHD is described by the inability of an individual to maintain

an attention span to carry out daily tasks which commonly leads to impulsive decision making

and an overactive life. An individual’s brain that has ADHD has difficulty processing and

sharing information across neural networks. The achievement of neurotransmitters transferring

nervous stimuli across a junction between nerve cells to other cells is an essential part of the

brain functioning normally. The disorder is associated with abnormally low levels of the

neurotransmitters transmitting between the part of the brain that contributes to personality

development (prefrontal cortical area) and the part of the brain that controls motor movements

and emotion (basal ganglia). These two areas of the brain control the amount of dopamine and

noradrenaline that is produced throughout the person’s brain each and everyday. The prefrontal

cortex controls a human’s emotional and behavioral responses which determines what the

individual seeks to be the appropriate response to situations and how they act upon those

responses. The basal ganglia controls impulsive behavior, leading to automatic responses to

stimuli from social interaction and personal thoughts. When the prefrontal cortex is having

difficulty functioning correctly, it may result in decreased alertness, shortened attention span,

lack of motivation, short term memory, difficulty starting and maintaining activities, and not

being able to recognize when to ignore distractions. This is the explanation for why patients
 7

diagnosed with ADHD have a hard time sitting in the same place or focusing on things that they

lack an interest in (Thomas, L).

A large study that has been conducted at Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre

scanned the brains of those with ADHD and noted that people with ADHD had smaller brain

volume in five subcortical areas in the brain and the size of their brains were smaller in size as

well. Due to the smaller brain size of these individuals, they mature at a slower pace than a

normal brain capacity of about 1 to 3 years slower. Another interesting find in this study was that

the amygdala and hippocampus are smaller in the brains of those with ADHD, these specific

regions in the brain are responsible for emotional processing and impulsivity (Sinfield, J) (See

Appendix B).

How is ADHD Diagnosed?

ADHD is diagnosed in children and adults in a clinical interview with a psychiatrist,

neurologist, or psychologist that is trained to do so. The lack of advancement in technology has

not yet allowed for ADHD to be diagnosed through scans such as an MRI, PET, or CT

Stimulants, such as adderall, are shown to be one of the most effective treatments for treating

individuals with ADHD (Hulvershorn, L). The reason being is that they increase the availability

of certain chemicals in the brain which allows the pathways throughout the brain to work

70%-80% more efficiently. The human brain is made up of nerve cells, called neurons. These

neurons are conjoined together by bridges between the nerve cells called synapses, and the

ability of the neurons to travel in and out of the synapses can determine how well information is

processed within the human mind. For information to be processed correctly, the neuron must

produce and release enough of the neurotransmitter and it must stay contained inside the synapse
 8

long enough for it to bind the receptor site. Once the neurotransmitters are released, the

remaining portion is reabsorbed by the original neuron that produced it. For people with ADHD,

the neurotransmitter is reabsorbed faster than it should be and that specific area of the neural

network can’t communicate messages in a timely fashion. A series of clinical questions can

determine whether or not your brain is communicating the neurotransmitters correctly or not. It

must be diagnosed by the individual having at least 6 symptoms of the disorder that have lasted

longer than 6 months, difficulty in social settings such as school, work, or at home, and must

cause a significant impairment in their productivity of life in order to receive an official

diagnosis. The symptoms of inattention are difficulty maintaining concentration, the inability to

follow instructions correctly, making thoughtless mistakes, avoiding tasks that require substantial

focus, forgetting things easily, getting distracted easily and losing items consistently. They may

also have difficulty waiting their own turn to talk, not being able to interact in quiet activities,

restlessness, and talking excessively. If the patient experiences at least six of these symptoms,

they are able to be diagnosed with ADHD (Hulvershorn, L).

Treatment

While there is no cure for ADHD, the symptoms can still be managed and treated in order

to improve symptoms. Medications, like adderall, can successfully reduce hyperactivity and

impulsivity in the patient by regulating the amount of dopamine, epinephrine, and

norepinephrine throughout the brain. The regulation of increasing the specific chemicals, allows

for the brain to stay on task by stimulating non functioning neurotransmitters (Sinfield, J).

While medications can be effective in treating these symptoms, there are other behavioral

strategies that may help as well. An individual’s environment plays a significantly large role in
 9

managing the symptoms of ADHD. Having an unorganized setting can worsen the symptoms by

not being able to focus on the correct ideas. Creating a structured, uncluttered, and predictable

environment can impact the symptoms in a beneficial way. Strategies that will greatly improve

ADHD symptoms would be by establishing a routine so that there are no setbacks to

accomplishing daily tasks, creating checklists to stay organized and on time, using timers to train

your brain to focus for a period of time with using breaks after the timer has set off, creating

charts to reward the patient when a task has been complete or by using planners to mark

deadlines and to see what is mapped out for the day (Sinfield, J).

Prognosis

While ADHD currently does not have a cure, it can have a long life lasting impact on an

individual’s way of life. Their symptoms may never go away or improve but once an individual

learns to manage them, the quality of life will improve drastically. Once they are dealt with

correctly, their confidence will increase and so will their motivation making it easier to go

throughout their day. If left untreated it can negatively impact a person's home, work, and school

life. This may lead to impulsive decision making and behavioral issues throughout their life. If

medication is taken as directed, symptoms will improve vastly over a period of time creating an

improved quality of life (Gulf Bend MHMR Center).

Interview

A woman from Harrogate, named Michelle Beckett, explained how she has always felt

out of place throughout her life and very different from the rest. She wasn’t able to meet her

academic expectations, had two failed marriages and had mental health problems. It was when

she decided to see her local neurologist that she found out she had ADHD. At first, she dismissed
 10

it and thought that it was foolish to think that she could have ADHD at the age of 36. Later on,

she said she had experienced “mood swings so dramatic that any criticism could cause her to go

from feeling happy to contemplating suicide.” It was almost a decade later that she decided to

see a psychiatrist where she was informed that she had ADHD once again. She described the

visitation as an experience that changed and saved her life completely by quoting “Everything

fell into place. I wasn’t crap because I found VAT returns painful, blurted out stuff and was

messy. I wasn’t crap at all. I have a neuro difference, which gives me many advantages.” She

happens to be one of the very many adults that are failed to be diagnosed with ADHD in their

childhood and are left to deal with the symptoms later throughout their life (Lavelle, D).

Conclusion

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is an incurable disorder that if left untreated can

impact an individual’s life in negative ways. It affects the way in which a person perceives and

incorporates information, communicates with others, and how they deal with situations

throughout their life. With the prescription of adderall, life becomes more clear to those with

ADHD by balancing the input of specific chemicals in the brain. A correct course of treatment

can alter a patient’s life positively so that they are able to accomplish daily tasks without

distractions. With the treatment of stimulants, distractions and complications are no longer an

obstacle keeping an individual diagnosed with ADHD from living their best life.
 11

References

Amphetamine.​ (n.d.). Retrieved March 7, 2020, from

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Amphetamine

An Analysis of ​ADHD Drugs: Ritalin and Adderall.​ (n.d.). Retrieved March 7, 2020, from

http://scholarspace.jccc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=honors_journal

Capaccio, G. (2008). ​Add and Adhd.​ New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.

Dopamine.​ (n.d.). Retrieved March 2, 2020, from

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dopamine

Dopamine.​ (n.d.). Retrieved March 7, 2020, from

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/dopamine

Gulf Bend MHMR Center. (n.d.). Retrieved March 8, 2020, from https://www.gulfbend.org/

Hulvershorn, L. (n.d.) Retrieved March 6, 2020, from

​https://www.bbrfoundation.org/ask-an-expert/how-is-adhd-diagnosed

Lavelle, D. (2017, September 5). 'I assumed it was all my fault': the adults dealing with

undiagnosed ADHD. Retrieved March 8, 2020, from

https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/05/i-assumed-it-was-all-my-fault-the-adul

ts-dealing-with-undiagnosed-adhd

Norepinephrine​. (2019, September). Retrieved March 4, 2020, from

……...​https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-h​ormones-a-to-z/hormo

……...​nes/norepinephrine

Norepinephrine.​ (n.d.). Retrieved March 7, 2020, from

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/norepinephrine
 12

​ etrieved March 6, 2020,

Sinfield, J. (2019, November 24). ​The ADHD vs. Non-ADHD Brain. R

from ​https://www.verywellmind.com/the-adhd-brain-4129396

Sumners, C. (2018, October 11). You Asked: What does Adderall do to your body? Retrieved

March 7, 2020, from

https://vitalrecord.tamhsc.edu/you-asked-what-does-adderall-do-to-your-body/

​ etrieved March 2, 2020,

Thomas, L. (2019, February 26). ​How does ADHD Affect the Brain? R

from https://www.news-medical.net/health/How-does-ADHD-Affect-the-Brain.aspx
 13

Appendix A

Amphetamine Structure

Sourced from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Amphetamine

Dopamine Structure

Sourced from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Dopamine

 14

Norepinephrine Structure

Sourced from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Norepinephrine

Epinephrine Structure

Sourced from ​https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Epinephrine

 15

Appendix B

Normal Brain Compared To ADHD Brain

Sourced from http://www.sydneydevelopmentalclinic.com.au/brain_scanning.htm