CUNTAPAY, Rica Jane B.

GED01202- Sec. 1 (T, F 3:00-4:30 PM)

1. Illustrate and explain the following sensory processing mechanism:

 Vision- The main sensory organ of the visual system is the eye, which takes in
the physical stimuli of light rays and transduces them into electrical and chemical
signals that can be interpreted by the brain to construct physical images. The eye
has three main layers: the sclera, which includes the cornea; the choroid, which
includes the pupil, iris, and lens; and the retina, which includes receptor cells
called rods and cones. The human visual system is capable of complex color
perception, which is initiated by cones in the retina and completed by impulse
integration in the brain.
 Audition- The ear can be divided into the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear,
each of which has a specific function in the process of hearing. The outer ear is
responsible for the collection and amplification of sound. The air-filled middle ear
transforms sound waves into vibrations, protecting the inner ear from damage.
The fluid-filled inner ear transduces sound vibrations into neural signals that are
sent to the brain for processing. The cochlea is the major sensory organ of
hearing within the inner ear. Hair cells within the cochlea perform the
transduction of sound waves.
 Gustation- Taste sensations are transduced by taste cells located in bunches
called taste buds. They are found throughout the entire mouth but are most
highly concentrated on the tongue, the major sensory organ of the gustatory
system. While taste buds may differ slightly in location and sensation, they react
to all five different types of tastes. Taste serves to create either an appetite for or
an aversion to a substance.
 Olfactory- Olfaction is a type of chemoreception. Like gustation, this sensory
system uses the molecular chemical compounds in substances (in this case, in
odorants) to discern information about the environment. The main sensory organ
responsible for the human sense of smell is the nasal cavity, which contains
olfactory receptors that perform the transduction of odors into neural impulses.
 Human beings can detect a large and diverse number of smells due to the vast
number of features and combinations of odor molecules. Olfaction is the sense
most closely tied to memory because of its close neural connections to areas of
the brain responsible for emotion and place memory.
 Tactile- The tactile system allows the human body to experience pressure,
texture, temperature, and pain, and to perceive the position and movement of the
body’s muscles and joints. The receptor cells in the skin can be broken down into
three functional categories: mechanoreceptors that sense pressure and texture,
thermoreceptors that sense temperature, and nociceptors that sense pain.
Mechanoreceptors come in four different types based on their speed of
adaptation (fast or slow) and their receptive field size (large or small).
Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature using two types of receptor
cells: warm and cold. Nociceptors detect pain that ranges from acute and
tolerable to chronic and intolerable. Proprioceptors allow our bodies to have a
sense of kinesthesia, or position and movement in physical space.

2. Briefly explain the control of movement and the brain mechanisms of movement.

The frontal lobe is primarily responsible for planning a movement specifically the
primary motor cortex which is located the rear portion of the frontal lobe, just before the
central sulcus (furrow) that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The role of
the primary motor cortex is to generate neural impulses that control the muscles through
axons that are extended to the brainstem and spinal cord. Signals from the primary
motor cortex cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side
of the body which explains why the right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of
the body and the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body. Other
regions of the motor cortex which is involved in producing movement includes parietal
cortex, the premotor cortex, and the supplementary motor area. The posterior parietal
cortex is involved in transforming visual information into motor commands. It sends
information to the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area about the position
of an object in space. The premotor cortex is involved in the sensory guidance of
movement and controls the more proximal muscles and trunk muscles of the body. It
receives information about the target to which the body is directing its movement as well
as the current position of the body. The supplementary motor area is involved in the
planning and organizing of rapid and complex movements as well as in coordinating
two-handed movements. The supplementary motor area and the premotor regions both
send information to the primary motor cortex as well as to brainstem motor regions.
Neurons in the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area and premotor cortex
activates the fibers of the corticospinal tract which serves as the only direct pathway
from the cortex to the spine which controls humans’ voluntary movements. These fibers
descend through the brainstem where the majority of them cross over to the opposite
side of the body and continues to the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels.
There are other motor pathways which originate from subcortical groups of motor
neurons (nuclei). These pathways control posture and balance, coarse movements of
the proximal muscles, and coordinate head, neck and eye movements in response to
visual targets. Subcortical pathways can modify voluntary movement through interneural
circuits in the spine and through projections to cortical motor regions. Signals generated
in the primary motor cortex travel down the corticospinal tract through the spinal white
matter to synapse on interneurons and motor neurons in the spinal cords ventral horn.
Ventral horn neurons in turn send their axons out through the ventral roots to innervate
individual muscle fibers. Information from muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs and
other sensory organs are directed to the cerebellum which is involved in the timing and
coordination of motor programs. The actual motor programs are generated in the basal
ganglia. The basal ganglia are several subcortical regions that are involved in
organizing motor programs for complex movements.

3. Cite and explain at least 3 movement disorders and elaborate about the treatment
available for each disorder.

 Parkinson’s Disease- It is a progressive neurological disorder that affects a

person’s capacity to move. Symptoms of this disorder includes tremor, slowed
movement, rigid muscle, impaired posture and balance, loss of automatic
movements, speech and writing changes. Although this is an uncurable disease,
medical interventions are needed to control the symptoms. These prescriptions
may include Carbidopa-levodopa, the most effective Parkinson's
 disease medication, is a natural chemical that passes into the
brain and is converted to dopamine. Levodopa is combined with
carbidopa (Lodosyn), which protects levodopa from early
conversion to dopamine outside the brain. Side effects may
include nausea or lightheadedness (orthostatic hypotension).
After years, as the disease progresses, the benefit from levodopa
may become less stable, with a tendency to wax and wear off.
Also, a patient may experience involuntary movements
(dyskinesia) after taking higher doses of levodopa. Doctors may
lessen a patient’s dose or adjust the times of doses to control
these effects. In some later cases, surgery is recommended.
 Ataxia- Patients with this disorder experiences lack of muscle control or
coordination of voluntary movements and can affect various movements and
create difficulties with speech, eye movement and swallowing. It is the result of
the damage to the part of the brain that controls muscle coordination
(cerebellum). Symptoms of this disorder involves poor coordination, unsteady
walk and a tendency to stumble, difficulty with fine motor tasks, change in
speech, involuntary back-and-forth eye movements (nystagmus) and difficulty
swallowing. There is no treatment for ataxia however, doctors may recommend
adaptive devices or therapies to manage the patient’s symptoms. If the ataxia is
caused by conditions such as multiple sclerosis or cerebral palsy, patients are
suggested to have adaptive devices such as hiking sticks or walkers for walking,
modified utensils for eating and communication aids for speaking. Benefits from
therapies include developing coordination and enhanced mobility (physical
therapy), helping with a patient’s daily living tasks (occupational therapy) and
improving speech and aid swallowing (speech therapy). More is yet to be known
in treating this disorder, but some studies show that transcranial magnetic
stimulation may help improve gait and postural control in people with ataxia.
 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis- This disorder is a progressive nervous system
disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, causing loss of
muscle control. Signs and symptoms vary depending on the neuron which is
greatly affected. Signs and symptoms might include difficulty walking or doing
 normal daily activities, tripping and falling, weakness in your leg, feet or ankles,
hand weakness or clumsiness, slurred speech or trouble swallowing, muscle
cramps and twitching in your arms, shoulders and tongue, inappropriate crying,
laughing or yawning and cognitive and behavioral changes. Medications cannot
reverse the damage of this disorder however it can make the progression of
symptoms slow and help prevent complications. The Food and Drug
Administration has approved two drugs for treating ALS: Riluzole (Rilutek) which
is taken orally, this drug has been shown to increase life expectancy by three to
six months. It can cause side effects such as dizziness, gastrointestinal
conditions and liver function changes. The doctor will monitor your blood counts
and liver functions while taking the drug. The second is Edaravone (Radicava)
which is given by intravenous infusion, has been shown to reduce the decline in
daily functioning. Its effect on life span is not yet known. Side effects can include
bruising, headache and shortness of breath. This medication is given daily for
two weeks a month.

4. Cite and explain the different stages of sleep.

Phase-1 nonREM  Transition period between

wakefulness and sleep; takes
approximately 5-10 minutes.
 Heart and breathing rates begin to
slow, eye movements also slow,
muscles relax, body temperature
decreases, and brain waves
becomes slow.
Phase-2 nonREM  First stage of the real sleep; takes
about 10-25 minutes.
 Eye movement stops, heart rate
slows, brain waves become slower
and muscles relax even further.
Phase-3 nonREM  Deepest sleep; takes about 20-40
minutes.
  Brain becomes less responsive to
external stimuli
 Heart rate and breathing slow to
their lowest levels, blood pressure
falls, body temperatures drops
even slower, muscle activity
decreases, and there is no eye
movement.
 Sleepwalking; sleep-talking;
snoring and bedwetting generally
occurs at this stage.
REM Sleep  A person enters REM sleep about
90 minutes after falling asleep and
going through all three stages of
non-REM sleep.
 Eyes move rapidly from side to
side beneath closed eyelids.
 Active dreaming (people more
likely to recall some aspects of a
dream if awakened from REM
sleep).
 Heart rate increases and blood
pressure rises slightly, and body
temperature falls to its lowest
point.
 Arm and leg muscles deeply relax
to the point of being almost
immobile.
 Breathing becomes fast and
shallow, and the brain may be
even more active during this stage
 of sleep than during wakefulness.

5. Cite and explain at least 3 sleep disorders and elaborate about the treatment
available for each disorder.

 Jet Lag Disorder- This is a temporary sleep problem that can affect anyone who
quickly travels across multiple time zones. Symptoms of this disorder include
disturbed sleep, daytime fatigue, difficulty concentrating or functioning at your
usual level, stomach problems, constipation or diarrhea, a general feeling of not
being well and mood changes. Symptoms are likely to be worse or last longer the
more time zones that a person have crossed. Doctors may prescribe
nonbenzodiazepines, such as zolpidem (Ambien), eszopiclone (Lunesta) and
zaleplon (Sonata) and Benzodiazepines, such as triazolam (Halcion) which are
often known as sleeping pills. It may help a person sleep during a flight and for
several nights afterward. Side effects are uncommon, but may include nausea,
vomiting, amnesia, sleepwalking, confusion and morning sleepiness.
 Idiopathic Hypersomnia- This is an uncommon sleep disorder that causes a
person to be excessively sleepy during the day even after sleeping at night. A
person can be sleepy at any time of the day which makes it potentially
dangerous. Since the cause of this disorder is not yet known, medications are
prescribed to relieve symptoms. Stimulant medication, such as modafinil
(Provigil), might be prescribed to help a person stay awake during the day. In
addition, doctors might recommend a patient to develop a regular nighttime sleep
schedule and avoid alcohol and medications that can affect sleep.
 Narcolepsy- This disorder is a chronic sleep disorder characterized by
overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep. Symptoms of
this disorder involve excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden loss of muscle tone,
sleep paralysis, changes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and hallucinations.
Narcolepsy can be accompanied by a sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy),
which can be triggered by strong emotion. Narcolepsy that occurs with cataplexy
is called type 1 narcolepsy while narcolepsy that occurs without cataplexy is
known as type 2 narcolepsy. This is an uncurable disease and doctors prescribe
 medicines to manage the symptoms. Drugs that stimulate the central nervous
system are the primary treatment to help people with narcolepsy stay awake
during the day. Doctors often try modafinil (Provigil) or armodafinil (Nuvigil) first
for narcolepsy. Modafinil and armodafinil are not as addictive as older stimulants
and do not produce the highs and lows often associated with older stimulants.
Side effects are uncommon, but may include headache, nausea or anxiety.
Some people need treatment with methylphenidate (Aptensio XR, Concerta,
Ritalin, others) or various amphetamines. These medications are highly effective
but can be addictive. They may cause side effects such as nervousness and
heart palpitations. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or serotonin
and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are often prescribed medications,
which suppress REM sleep, to help alleviate the symptoms of cataplexy,
hypnagogic hallucinations and sleep paralysis. They include fluoxetine (Prozac,
Sarafem, Selfemra) and venlafaxine (Effexor XR). Side effects can include
weight gain, insomnia and digestive problems. Tricyclic antidepressants such as
protriptyline (Vivactil), imipramine (Tofranil) and clomipramine (Anafranil), are
effective for cataplexy, but many patients complain of side effects, such as dry
mouth and lightheadedness. Sodium oxybate (Xyrem) which is highly effective
for cataplexy. Sodium oxybate helps to improve nighttime sleep, which is often
poor in narcolepsy. In high doses it may also help control daytime sleepiness. It
must be taken in two doses, one at bedtime and one up to four hours later.
Xyrem can have side effects, such as nausea, bed-wetting and worsening of
sleepwalking. Taking sodium oxybate together with other sleeping medications,
narcotic pain relievers or alcohol can lead to difficulty breathing, coma and death.

REFERENCES:

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https://brainconnection.brainhq.com/2013/03/05/the-anatomy-of-movement/

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