2.

9 Laminar Flowmeters FI

Flow Sheet Symbol

R. SIEV (1969) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995) J. B. ARANT (1982, 2003)

Design Pressure Up to 5000 PSIG (34 MPa)

Design Temperature Up to 300°F (150°C) normally, but can be higher with special designs

Material of Construction Stainless steel, aluminum, or any alloy available in small bore tubing

Fluids Liquids and gases

3 3
Flow Range 0.0001 to 2000 scfm for gases (3 cm /min to 57 m /min)
3
0.0003 to 10 GPM for liquids (1 cm /min to 38 l/min)

Inaccuracy 0.5% to 1% of actual flow for commercial gas flow elements, if calibrated

Flow Turndown 10:1 minimum

Flow Characteristic Linear to approximately linear

Costs A 1/2-in. (13 mm) stainless-steel laminar flow element costs $700, a 2-in. (50 mm)
unit costs $1500, and a 16-in. (300 mm) all-stainless unit costs $11,000. The differential-
pressure readout devices are additional to the above element costs.

Partial List of Suppliers Aalborg Instruments & Controls (www.aalborg.com)

Alicat Scientific, ATC (www.alicatscientific.com)
Chell Instruments Ltd. (UK), Hastings (www.chell.co.uk)
CME, A Division of Aerospace Control Products (www.cmeflow.com)
Matheson Tri-Gas (www.matheson-trigas.com)
Meriam Instrument Division of Scott Fetzer (www.meriam.com)
National Instruments (www.ni.com)
Universal Flow Monitors Inc. (www.flowmeter.com)

Laminar flowmeters fill a special need in flow measurement
where the requirements might include low to extremely low
flow rates, linear calibration and low noise, the ability to
measure high-viscosity liquids, or steady low-flow repeat-
ability and control accuracy. Laminar flowmeters are
intended for very low flow rates where other types of meters
are either marginal in performance or cannot be used at all.
Laminar flowmeters can be constructed by various methods,
but the most common is with capillary tubes. Hence, the
terms laminar flowmeter and capillary flowmeter are virtually
synonymous. Proprietary commercial units use other matrix
shapes and are intended for use with gases (Figure 2.9a).
Where gas is metered, it is preferable to use calibrated com-
mercial units instead of undertaking the design of a laminar
flowmeter.
The flowmeter consists of the laminar flow element and
a differential-pressure measuring instrument. While the flow
is theoretically linear with pressure drop, in practice, some
nonlinearities are often encountered. In most cases, these are
of little consequence.
The theory for laminar flowmeters is based on the
Hagen–Poiseuille Law for laminar flow and the Reynolds
number as a means of defining the type of flow. Both are
required to investigate and design a laminar flow element.
More detailed explanations and discussions of theory can be
found in any standard textbook on fluid mechanics.
THEORY
Fluid flow in pipes and tubes is characterized by a nondi-
mensional number called the Reynolds number (Re). Up to
approximately Re 2000, the flow is called laminar, viscous, or
streamline. Above 10,000, the flow is called fully developed

201
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
202 Flow Measurement

FIG. 2.9a
The laminar flowmeter and its matrix element with miniature triangular duct passage with under 0.1-mm effective diameters. (Courtesy of
Meriam Instrument Div. of Scott Fetzer Co.)

turbulent. The region between 2000 and 10,000, where the

flow is shifting from laminar to turbulent, is not clearly TABLE 2.9b
Gas Properties under the Standard Conditions of 29.92 in
defined but is called transitional. Generally, laminar flow
of Mercury and 70°F (760 mm of Mercury and 21°C)
elements are restricted to numbers under 2000 and, most
commonly, well below 1200. Certain methods will enable a µ Viscosity, Specific
3
Gas Density (lb/ft ) Micropoise Gravity
capillary element to be used satisfactorily up to Re 15,000
with a modest sacrifice in error and linearity. Air 0.0749 181.87 1.000
Reynolds number is defined by the following equations: Argon 0.1034 225.95 1.380
Helium 0.0103 193.9 0.138
For liquid flow, Hydrogen 0.0052 88.41 0.0695
Nitrogen 0.0725 175.85 0.968

50.7ρ Q 6.32W Oxygen 0.0828 203.47 1.105

Re = or Re = 2.9(1)
Dµ Dµ Carbon dioxide 0.1143 146.87 1.526

where where
Re = Reynolds number SG = specific gravity relative to air (Table 2.9b)
ρ=
3
density (lb/ft ) at flowing temperature P = flowing gas pressure in inches of mercury absolute
Q= flow rate (gal/min) ∆P = differential pressure in inches of water
D= internal tube diameter (in.) mµ = viscosity of the flowing gas in micropoise
µ= viscosity of flowing temperature (centipoise) (Table 2.9b)
W= flow rate (lb/h)
Hagen–Poiseuille Law
For gas flow,
Once the tube inside diameter required to give laminar flow
according to the Reynolds number calculation has been
6.32 ρ Q 6.32W defined, the length of the capillary has to be determined to
Re = or Re = 2.9(2)
Dµ Dµ design the laminar flowmeter system. These equations are as
follows.
where
For liquid flow,
ρ = density at standard conditions (lb/ft )
3

Q = flow rate (scfh)

Other units = as defined for liquid ∆PD4
L = 1.5876 × 103 2.9(4)
µQ
For the laminar flowmeter shown in Figure 2.9a, the
Reynolds number is limited to a range of 150 to 300 and is or
calculated as
∆PD4 ρ
L= 2.9(5)
Re = 228( SG)( P)( ∆P)/ mµ 2.9(3) 7.86 × 10 5 µW

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.9 Laminar Flowmeters 203

where Capillary
L = length of tube (in.) Temperature
∆P = differential pressure drop (in water) Control
D = tube internal diameter (in.)
µ = viscosity at flowing temperature (centipoise) Low
ρ
3
= density at flowing temperature (lbm/ft ) Pressure
Q = flow rate (gal/min) Steam
W = flow rate (lbm/h) Overflow Jet
to Drain Mixer

Equation 2.9(5) can also be used for calculating a gas

flow capillary element if the value of ∆P is no greater than
Tempering
10% of the inlet pressure. Otherwise, changes in gas density, Coil
Filter Differential
specific volume, and flow velocity cause too many compli- Pressure Transmitter
cations in the calculations. While the calculation is in
weight units, this can be easily converted to any desired FIG. 2.9c
scale units. Typical capillary with constant temperature bath.

Design Calculations for Liquid Service

Design Parameters
There are a number of guidelines for successful design of a
laminar flowmeter.
1. The differential pressure drop can range from 5 to 800
in. of water (1.24 to 200 kPa).
2. (L/D)/Re should be a minimum of 0.3; for best linear-
ity, a value of 0.6 or greater is preferable. Large L/D
ratios and/or lower Reynolds numbers contribute to
accuracy. For example, the entrance effect for laminar
flow is negligible if (L/ D)/Re > 0.3 and Re < 500.
3. The area of the flow conduit preceding the capillary
should be a minimum of 20 times the capillary area.
4. The differential-pressure instrument’s pressure con-
nections should be located 100 to 200 capillary diam-
eters from the capillary ends.
5. A filter capable of removing particles 0.1 in. (2.54
mm) or larger than the capillary internal radius should
be installed upstream of the system.
6. The metering system should be sloped up for liquids
to permit gas venting and sloped down for gases to
permit liquid draining.
7. Examination of the Hagen-Poiseuille equation shows
that viscosity is a primary variable; changes in viscos-
ity can result in large flow measurement errors. With
a known fluid or composition, the only thing that
affects viscosity is temperature. For this reason, the
temperature must be known and held essentially con-
stant. This can be done by immersing the metering
system and measuring capillary in a constant temper-
ature bath as shown in Figure 2.9c. If the flow is mea-
sured in weight units such as pounds per hour, then
fluid density must be known. Fluid density also varies
with temperature, but controlling the temperature to
Based on the flow rate and the viscosity of the fluid, select
a tube internal diameter that will result in a Reynolds number
within the laminar range and preferably less than 1200. Cal-
culate the length of tubing required using the selected tube
diameter to ensure that it is a reasonable length and that it
meets the (L/D)/Re criteria. By working back and forth
between the various equations, the system can be tailored to
meet almost any design criteria. For example, let us assume
that it is desired to design a capillary flowmeter to measure
a small liquid catalyst stream, and the basic data for the
catalyst flow is as follows:
Maximum flow capacity: 50 lbm/h
Viscosity: 20 cP at 100°F
3
Density: 53.8 lbm/ft
Desired instrument ∆P: 100 in of water
Small-diameter, standard stainless-steel tubing is readily
available and should be used. To design as linear and accurate
a flowmeter as possible, a tube bore that provides a large
(L/D)/Re is desirable. To minimize plugging problems and to
enable the use of a filter that won’t clog easily, start by looking
at a 3/16 × 0.032-in. wall thickness tubing with a nominal
internal diameter of 0.1235 in. From Equation 2.9(1),
6.32W 6.32 × 50
Re = = = 128 2.9(6)
Dµ 0.1235 × 20
This is well into the laminar range, so the length of the flow
element can be calculated to determine if it will make a
reasonable design. From Equation 2.9(5),
∆PD4 ρ 100 × 0.12354 × 53.8
L= = = 15.7 in.
7.86 × 10 µW 7.86 × 10 −5 × 20 × 50
−5

fix viscosity will also fix density. With some fluids, 2.9(7)
cooling may be required instead of heating, but the
overall principle is the same. ( L / D) Re = (15.7 / 0.1235)/128 = 0.993 2.9(8)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

204 Flow Measurement

This is an easy length to work with in fabricating a meter When the fluid exits the capillary, the flow path enlarges.
element and a constant temperature bath, and it looks like a If the piping is similar to that described under inlet loss, the
reasonable design based on the criteria. loss can be calculated by

5.6 × 10 −7 W 2
∆Pe = 2.9(10)
ERROR SOURCES D4 ρ

Changes in viscosity and density can result in flow measure- Entrance loss occurs in addition to the normal capillary
ment errors. Viscosity changes in liquid as a result of tem- pressure drop in the initial fluid path distance or, to state it
perature can be substantial, while density changes are more in another way, for a short distance the pressure drop is higher
2,3
moderate. With gases, the reverse is usually true, with tem- than that predicted by the Poiseuille Equation. The addi-
perature having more influence on density and less on vis- tional loss is due to the work expended in the formation of
cosity. The need for careful control of the operating temper- the parabolic velocity distribution profile characteristic of
ature to minimize these effects must be emphasized. laminar flow. It can be expressed in terms of an equivalent
From Equations 2.9(4) and 2.9(5), it can be seen that length of capillary, Leq, added to that calculated by the Poiseuille
internal diameter of the tube is very important, because it is equation. Refer to Figure 2.9d for determining the Leq.
multiplied to the fourth power. While high-quality tubing will The following equation can be used for the pressure drop:
be very close to published specifications, manufacturing tol-
erances will result in variations from these dimensions, both
laterally and longitudinally. If the actual effective internal 1.96 × 10 −7 W 2
∆Pen = 2.9(11)
diameter of the capillary tube differs by 1% from the value D4 ρ
used in the calculation for a given ∆P, an error of about 4%
will result. Therefore, the laminar flowmeter should be cali- Table 2.9e can be used as a quick guide for judging the
brated on a known fluid before use, and appropriate design design factors that will minimize overall entrance effects. For
adjustments should be made as necessary. the conditions given in the table, the error involved will be
To measure the true capillary differential pressure drop less than 1%. In general, the effect of all of the above errors
according to the Poiseuille equation, it would be necessary will be minimized if the Reynolds number is low, the laminar
to put the pressure taps into the capillary at the calculated L flow element is long, and the pressure drop is high. The overall
dimension. This is impractical because of the small tubing.
A pressure tap must be perfectly flush with the inside of the
tube and must be clean with no burrs or other projections Leq /D
into the tube. Otherwise, considerable differential-pressure
measurement error will result. Using practical methods of Reference 3
0.40
constructing a capillary flowmeter, there are three additional
sources of pressure drop in addition to the capillary loss.
These are all additive and will give a greater indicated pres- 0.35
sure drop than the capillary flow alone. These three sources
of error are inlet loss, exit loss, and capillary entrance loss. 0.30
These losses also contribute to nonlinearity. Recommended for Recommended for
Re < 800 Re > 1000
There is very little loss from the entrance fitting into the 0.25
capillary tube if laminar flow conditions exist. But if the
piping cavity ahead of the capillary is extremely large relative
0.20
to the capillary (approximating a reservoir) and the fluid
velocity is thus extremely low (approaching zero), there can
1
be an inlet effect and pressure loss. This is a result of the 0.15
100 Re 1000 10,000
sudden contraction from the large reservoir to the small tube
bore, forming a bell-mouth shape approach flow. This loss FIG. 2.9d
can be expressed as Equivalent length of capillary (Leq).

2.8 × 10 −7 W 2
∆Pi = 2.9(9)
D4 ρ TABLE 2.9e
L/D Ratio to Minimize Entrance Effect
Re 10 50 100 500 1000 2000
This equation is derived from Bernoulli’s equation for flow
out of a reservoir. L/D> 15 75 150 750 1500 3000

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.9 Laminar Flowmeters 205

error can be calculated by this equation as

TABLE 2.9f
Critical Reynolds Number vs. Coil Curvature
∆Pi + ∆Pe + ∆Pen × 100 0.367W × 100 Ratio
Percent error = =
∆P µL Coil Critical
2.9(12) Curvature Ratio (Dc/D) Reynolds Number (Re)c
Straight Pipe 2100
2000 2700
1000 2900
RANGE EXTENSION TECHNIQUES
500 3200
Two techniques are used to expand the range capability of 100 4600
laminar flow elements. One is to use a number of capillary 50 5700
tubes in parallel. The other is to use a tight helical coil cap- 10 10,000
illary. The choice of technique depends on such factors as 9 15,000
desired flow rate, nonlinearity requirements, Reynolds num-
ber, capillary length, and system space design limitations.
If the amount of flow desired is greater than can be 10
conveniently handled by a single capillary, the flow can be 8
4 6
split into many smaller units as necessary. Units with matrix
elements (Figure 2.9a) or with more than 900 individual cap- Le /L
4
illary tubes have been built and used successfully. The 3
mechanical construction of multiparallel capillaries can be a 2
problem. Tube packing voids may not affect meter operation
but add considerable difficulty to calculating the meter range. 1
Normally, it is best to eliminate the voids by filling the spaces 10 2 3 4 6 8 102 2 3 4 6 8 103 2 3 4
with solder, braze material, or plastic resin; the filler material Re/(Dc/D)1/2
chosen will depend on fluid compatibility and operating con- FIG. 2.9g
ditions. Overall, it is a tricky mechanical design. Equivalent lengths for curved pipe.
Coiling a length of straight capillary results in a flow
phenomenon called the Dean effect. When a fluid flows 1/2
number, or Re(DC /D) , as shown in Figure 2.9g. This curve
through a curved pipe or coil, a secondary circulation of fluid,
is accurate to about ±5%.
known as a double eddy, takes place at right angles to the
The equation for calculating the length of a coiled capillary
main direction of flow. This circulation accounts for the fact
required to meet a specific metering design is expressed by
that the pressure drop in curved pipe is greater than in a
corresponding length of straight pipe. The Dean effect stabi- ∆PD4 ρ
lizes laminar flow and raises the Reynolds number at which L= 2.9(13)
7.86 × 10 −5 µWC
turbulent flow starts. It has been established that this will
allow properly designed coiled capillaries to be operated up where C = the coil factor correction.
5
to a Reynolds number of 15,000. The Reynolds number at The coil factor correction is a function of the term
1/2 1/2
which laminar flow can be sustained for various coil curva- Re(D/DC) . Refer to Figure 2.9h for C vs. Re(D/DC) or to
ture ratios is called the critical Reynolds number. It is a Figure 2.9i for C versus Re for various D/Dc ratios. In very
function of the internal diameter of the tube and the coil small capillaries, the coil diameter can be the nominal value,
tightness or diameter. Table 2.9f gives the approximate crit- since exact centerline measurement is insignificant.
ical Reynolds number at which laminar flow can be sustained In laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of Reynolds
for various coil curvature ratios. number only and is independent of surface roughness.
In this table, D is the tube inside diameter, and Dc is the The friction factor can be expressed as
mean coil diameter, centerline to centerline. From a practical
viewpoint, the ratio of D/Dc = 1/9 is equivalent to the max- f = 16/Re 2.9(14)
imum allowable critical Reynolds number of 15,000 and can
be used as a safe design in most cases. Therefore, the Fanning equation 2.8(15) can be used as an
The pressure drop of laminar flow through coils can be alternate means of calculating the capillary element as
expressed in terms of an equivalent length, Le, of straight shown by
pipe of the same diameter and shape which will have the
2 ∆Pgc D
same friction loss as the curved pipe. The ratio of the equiv- L= 2.9(15)
alent to actual coil length, Le /L is a function of the Dean 4 fρV 2

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

206 Flow Measurement

8 equipment to semi-conductor manufacturing, leak testing,

and fan or blower calibration. Standard units are available in
7 several materials, including stainless steel. They can be pro-
vided with a variety of connections and in sizes ranging from
6 0.25 to 16 in. (6 to 400 mm).
In terms of airflow capability, these units range from 5
5 cc/min to approximately 65 cubic meters/min (2285 SCFM).
C Pressure differentials generated by the laminar flow elements
4 are usually under 20 in. of water (510 mm of water). The
recommended installation practice is to provide 10 to 15
3
diameters of straight pipe upstream of the flow element.
Installation of a filter is also recommended at the meter inlet.
2
In engine testing, a backfire trap is also desirable to prevent
1 carbon deposits on the matrix element.
10 100 1000 10,000 The measurement error is usually between 0.5 and 1%
N Re(D/Dc)1/2 of actual flow within a 10:1 range. However, this performance
is a function of both the quality of calibration of the system
FIG. 2.9h and of the precision of the d/p detector.
Correction factors for coiled capillary flowmeter (data adapted from
reference 5).

8 0.10
CONCLUSION
0.08
7
0.06 Laminar flowmeters are highly useful in measuring low flow
D
Dc rates of liquids and gases. Design of the elements is based
0.04
6 on the use of the Reynolds number and Poiseuille’s law.
C Design for most units is relatively simple, but fabrication of
5 0.02 a complete unit and system can be complex. Simple capillary
units can be fabricated by the user, but most require manu-
4 facturers’ skills and design knowledge.
It is highly recommended that the final system be cali-
3 brated with the same type of fluid as the fluid upon which
the sensor will operate, such as air or nitrogen for gas services
2 and water for liquid services. After such calibration, the con-
version is easily made to the actual fluid. The critical con-
1 sideration is to calibrate the unit under conditions that will
100 1000 10,000
NRe approximate the actual in-service Reynolds number of the
application. Some sources of calibration services, other than
FIG. 2.9i the manufacturers, are the National Institute of Standards and
Correction factors for coiled capillary flowmeters (data adapted
Technology (NIST), Edison ESI, and the Colorado Engineer-
from reference 5).
ing Experiment Station, Inc. (CEESI).
where
L = capillary length (ft) References
2
∆P = pressure drop (lbf/ft )
2
gc = gravity constant 32.17 (ft/sec ) 1. Kreith, F. and Eisenstadt, R., Trans. ASME, 1070–1078, 1967.
D = capillary internal diameter (ft) 2. Willoughby, D. A. and Kittle, P. A., Industrial and Eng. Fundamentals,
6(2), 304–306, 1967.
ρ = fluid density (lbm/ft) 3. Rivas, M. A. Jr. and Shapiro, A. H., Trans. ASME, 489–497, April 1956.
V = fluid velocity (ft/sec) 4. Greef, C. E., and Hafckman, J. R., ISA J., 75–78, August 1965.
5. Powell, H. N. and Browne, W. G., Rev. Sci. Instr., 28(2), 138–141, 1957.

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE UNITS

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© 2003 by Béla Lipták


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