An Assignment On

Managerial Communication

Submitted By

Sajjal Ghimire

First Semester

Nepal Business College

Author Note

This assignment was prepared for Business economics, MGT 513

Department of Management, taught by Mr. Samir S.S. Rai

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 Acknowledgement
This assignment is a wonderful experience for me because it gives us knowledge of different

conceptual and practicable curriculum of our study. There is very vast in saying and doing.

Every study has curiosity about their conceptual studies.

I would like to express my special thanks to my Faculty Mr. Samir S.S Rai who gave me

such a golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “History of Human

Communication, Writing &Printing Press” which also helps me in doing lots of research

and I come to know about so many things. I really thanks to them from my inner heart who

helps in this project.

I’m making this project not only for the marks but also for increasing my knowledge.

I also apologies for weakness, spelling, grammatical error or any kinds of mistake in this
project

With Regards
Sajjal Ghimire

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Contents
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................5
1.1 Context Information....................................................................................................................5
1.2 Purpose of the study....................................................................................................................5
1.3 Significance of study...................................................................................................................5
1.4 Research Methodology................................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Research methods.................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER II: ANALYSIS AND DATA PRESENTATION............................................................6
2.1 Introduction of Human Communication…………………………………………………………………………………...6

2.1.1 Forms of Communication................................................................................................…......7

2.1.2 Barriers of Human Communication…………………………………………………………………………………….9

2.2 Brief History of Human Communication ..........................................................................…......11

2.3 Importance and Impact of development of writing………………………………………………………………...19

2.3.1 Introduction of Writing………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..19

2.3.2 Development of Writing…………………………………………………………………………………………………….20

2.3.3 Importance of development of writing……………………………………………………………………………….22

2.4 Importance and Impact of development of Printing Press……………………………………………………….25

2.4.1 Introduction of Printing Press………………………………………………………………………………………….…25

2.4.2 Development of Printing Press……………………………………………………………………………………………25

2.4.3 Importance of Printing press……………………………………………………………………………………………....28

2.4.4 Impact of Printing Press……………………………………………………………………………………………………..29

CHAPTER III: CONCLUSION......................................................................................................30

Bibliography........................................................................................................................................31

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 ABSTRACT

The main aim of this research is to study about the history of Human communication.

Research Method under the data sources. Second paper has defines as business economics

along with its basic concept and principles and their figures also explain figures. Then third

paper has conclusion and bibliography.

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 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Context Information

Human communication, or anthroposemiotics, is the field dedicated to understanding

how humans communicate. Human communication is grounded in cooperative and shared

intentions. Humans have communication abilities that other animals do not. Being able to

communicate aspects like time and place as though they were solid objects are a few

examples. It is said that humans communicate to request help, to inform others, and to share

attitudes as a way of bonding. Communication is a joint activity which largely depends on the

ability to keep common attention, to share the relevant background knowledge and joint

experience in order to get the content across and make sense in the exchanges.

1.2 Purpose of the study

 To get better understanding about the history of Human Communication.

 To get better Understanding about the importance and impact of writing & Printing

Press.

1.3 Significance of study

Human communication, or anthroposemiotics, is the field dedicated to understanding

how humans communicate.

1.4 Research Methodology

1.4.1 Research methods

Researcher has applied only secondary method of research to collect data and information.

All data and information are collected from different secondary sources like documentary

video, internet etc.

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CHAPTER II: ANALYSIS AND DATA PRESENTATION

2.1 Introduction of Human Communication

Communication is sending and receiving information between two or more people. The

person sending the message is referred to as the sender, while the person receiving the

information is called the receiver. The information conveyed can include facts, ideas,

concepts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, instructions and even emotions.

Human communication is both social and cognitive because it is a process by which

individuals exchange information and influence one another through a common system of

symbols and signs. Compared with the study of language more generally, the study of

the psychology of language is relatively new, and, when it did emerge as a field in the middle

of the twentieth century, more attention was paid to understanding the psychology of

grammar than to understanding language use or communication per se. Moreover, what

attention was paid to understanding communication reflected mostly a cognitive perspective

rather than a social perspective. The social psychological perspective on communication,

then, is a very recent development within the study of language. Human communication is

strikingly different from any other known natural communication system. From an

evolutionary perspective, this is particularly striking because, biologically, humans are

primates whose communication system has evolved during a long and shared phylogenetic

history. One way to investigate the roots of human language is with comparative studies of

primate cognition, particularly the basic processes required for language production and

perception. A key feature of any language definition is that, during acts of communication,

signalers draw their recipients’ attention to what they consider relevant entities, both real and

imagined. Linguistically, this is achieved with arbitrary acoustic conventions, but referring

can also happen non-linguistically, for example with iconic gestures or pointing.

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2.1.1 Forms of Communication

The forms of human communication, which can vary from intra person communication, with

mass communication, and computer mediated communication).

1. Intrapersonal Communication: Intra personal communication is communication

with ourselves. Through interpersonal communication we talk with, learn about, and

judge ourselves. We persuade our self of this or that, reason about possible decisions

to make, and rehearse messages that we plan to send to others. In intra personal

communication we might, wonder how we will do our Visual communication studies

and what we could have done differently. It is increasing our self-awareness, our

mindfulness, and our ability to think critically about all types of messages will aid us

greatly in improving our own intra personal communication.

2. Interpersonal Communication: Interpersonal communication is communication

between two persons or among a small group of persons. Most often, the

communication emphasized in the study of interpersonal communication is

communication of a continuing personal nature; it’s communication between or

among intimates or those involved in close relationships—friends, family, and

coworkers, for example. These relationships are interdependent, meaning that the

actions of one person have some impact on the other person; whatever one person

does influences the other person. Sometimes interpersonal communication is pleasant,

but sometimes it erupts into conflict—making each person’s communication

especially significant for the other.

3. Mass Communication: Mass communication is communication from one source to

many receivers, who may be scattered throughout the world. Mass communication

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 takes place via media outlets: newspapers, magazines, television, radio, film, and

video. Through newsgroups, blogs, or social networks, for example, we can post a

“speech” for anyone to read and then read their reactions to our message. And with

the help of the more traditional mass media of radio and television, we can address

audiences in the hundreds of millions as they sit alone or in small groups scattered

throughout the world.

4. Computer-Mediated Communication: Computer-mediated communication (CMC)

is a general term that includes all forms of communication between people that take

place through some computer, electronic, or Internet connection, for example, e-mail,

texting, blogging, instant messaging, tweeting, or chatting on social network sites

such as Facebook or Myspace or on our phone. All of these computer mediated forms,

like their face-to-face counterparts, are used both socially and in the world of

business. Some CMC (such as e-mail or blogging) is asynchronous, meaning that it

does not take place in real time. We may send our message today, but the receiver

may not read it for a week and may take another week to respond. Consequently,

much of the spontaneity created by face-to-face real-time communication is lost in

asynchronous communication. Other forms of CMC (such as tweeting, chatting on

social network-sites, interactive websites, and instant messaging) are often

synchronous—they occur at the same time and are similar to phone communication

except that CMC is largely text-based rather than voice-based.

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2.1.2 Barriers to Effective Human Communication

Communication is the key factor in the success of any organization. When it comes to

effective communication, there are certain barriers that every organization faces. People often

feel that communication is as easy and simple as it sounds. No doubt, but what makes it

complex, difficult and frustrating are the barriers that come in its way. Some of these barriers

are mentioned below. Barriers to successful communication include message overload (when

a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity

Physical barriers: Physical Barriers are often due to the nature of the environment.

Thus, for example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in different

buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the

failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems. Staff

shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficulties for

an organization. Whilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an

environment which is too hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration,

which in turn interfere with effective communication

System design: System Design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems

in place in an organization. Examples might include an organizational structure which

is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know who to communicate with. Other

examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a lack of

supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can

lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.

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Attitudinal barriers: Attitudinal Barriers come about as a result of problems with

staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as

poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which

can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of

individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at

work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular

tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.

Physiological barriers: May result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for

example, by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties

Individual linguistic ability: It is also important. The use of difficult or inappropriate

words in communication can prevent people from understanding the message. Poorly

explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. We can all think of

situations where we have listened to something explained which we just could not

grasp.

Ambiguity of Words/Phrases: Words sounding same but having different meaning

can convey a different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure that

the receiver receives the same meaning. It would be better if such words can be

avoided by using alternatives

Presentation of information: It is also important to aid understanding. Simply put,

the communicator must consider the audience before making the presentation itself

and in cases where it is not possible the presenter can at least try to simplify his/her

vocabulary so that majority can understand.

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2.2 Brief History of Human Communication

Communications is fundamental to the existence and survival of humans as well as to an

organization. It is a process of creating and sharing ideas, information, views, facts, feelings,

etc. among the people to reach a common understanding. Communication is the key to the

Directing function of management. The first means of communication was, of course, the

human voice but about 3,200 BC writing was invented in Iraq and Egypt. It was invented

about 1,500 BC in China. Other civilizations in Central America like the Mayans also

invented systems of writing. The next big step was the invention of the alphabet in what is

now Israel and Lebanon about 1,600 BC. In the Ancient World many civilizations including

Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Rome and China had efficient postal systems to deliver messages to

parts of their empires using relays of horses. In the ancient world people wrote on papyrus or

parchment. However the Chinese invented paper about 200 BC. The knowledge of how to

make paper passed to the Arabs and in the middle Ages it reached Europe.

The history of communication begins with the human ability to talk and share ideas and

experiences with each other. It is the foundation of the evolution of human society. Although,

some non-verbal systems of communication like; symbols, signs and body gestures were used

to communicate even before the development of language. But with language, humans were

able to communicate even the most complex of messages. However, communication was

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over a limited distance because the communicators had to be close to each other. To

overcome this drawback, an alternative method of ‘running with the message’ was developed,

now the message could travel far and wide. But again, it was only reliable when the message

was delivered by the sender, oneself. Thus, after the defeat of the distance, a more reliable,

accurate and efficient system of communication was developed, which was ‘writing’. Now,

messages could be written on portable materials like, ‘leather’ ‘Papyrus’ or ‘clay and

wooden tablets’ and sent over long distances. However, there was some long distance

communication methods not based on written words; such as, smoke and fire signals as well.

Communication during the 6th century to 14th century BC

Sending written messages became the standard mode of communication in early civilizations.

In fact, our knowledge about them comes from the archives of such messages discovered by

archeologists. One of the first to use this mode of communication successfully, were the

Persian emperors, Cyrus and Darius. They had the most efficient postal service in the ancient

world; their postal network of roads stretched from Persia to India and covered more than

3000 kilometers. With fresh horses and men, Persian postal messengers could travel 200

miles a day. This ability made the Persian official language of Aramaic, the lingua franca of

the ancient middle-east, India and parts of Europe. By this time the mode of communication

had become more reliable, efficient and long range. But, it still lacked speed .However; the

speed of communication was vastly improved when pigeons- post was introduced in the 11th

century in Baghdad. A rapid one-way system of postal service was possible through the use

of domesticated homing pigeons by selective breeding of suitable pigeons. Genghis Khan

used this method to carry the news of his victories back home in Mongolia, swiftly.

Nevertheless, widespread dissemination of information and message was still waiting for the

development of printing. Interestingly, the arrival of printing coincides with the arrival of

‘renaissance’ in Europe.

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Communication from the 15th century to the modern times

Johan Gutenberg of Germany invented printing machine and changed the face of

communication forever. His first printed work was the ‘Bible ‘and then in 1457 ‘Mainz

psalter’ was also printed. This was the beginning of the printing press which spread so rapidly

that by 1483; it was spread all over Europe. It soon replaced the manuscript writing of earlier

generation. These new printed books were known as ‘incunabula’ (Latin, for “cradle” of

printing) were cheaper than handwritten books but, still they were expensive in their time.

The rapid and mass printing of single sheets began, known as ‘pamphlets’. They were used

for dissemination of news, messages and propaganda, especially during war. The true

potential of this type of printing became apparent when Martin Luther King challenged the

Roman Catholic Church regarding the Christian faith. The printing presses fanned the flames

by printing pamphlets and spreading them all over Europe. This single sheet of printed page,

made possible the birth of ‘The Press’ and the beginning of mass communication. In a few

decades time, newspapers were developed. Germany once again became the first in the field

when in the towns of Augsburg and Strasburg, newspapers known as ‘news sheets, were

printed on a regular basis. Within decades, now ‘news sheets or newspapers were published

all over Europe.

The most important changes in communication were; transport and printing. Now,

information and messages could travel faster, further and quicker than ever before. The first

war to be covered by the newspaper or the media was the Crimean war 1854 – 1856, between

England and Russia. The reporter was William Howard Russell; his true reporting of the war

made him a hero. However Russell, while covering the Crimean war, was horrified to witness

the poor conditions of the hospitals and the wounded English soldiers. His passionate pleas to

come out of England and tend to these wounded soldiers brought in many volunteer women,

among them; one devoted woman was to become more famous than Russell, whose pleas had

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brought her there. She was Florence Nightingale, known all over the world as, “The lady with

the lamp”. She was Florence Nightingale. Mass communication and the media had arrived.

FROM RUNNING MESSENGERS TO E-MAILS &BLOGGING

Nations of the world need communication to survive and rule over people. The advent of

communication began with the advent of humans with, only sounds, symbols, gestures used

for communication. The real history of communication begins with the human ability to use

language and interact with others. This allowed them to share their experience and knowledge

with each other. Sending of information and experience, begins among an assembly or group

and in a room, cave or across a short open space. There were special “town criers” shouting

out the information, news and messages. In order to overcome the short range of

communication, a method of running with the message was developed. But, it was unreliable.

The next important development in communication was the development of writing. Now,

messages were carved on stone pillars and they were accurate and reliable but, the receivers

had to go there or be there at the place of the writings. Travelling towards the message was

not very efficient and appropriate. Efficiency would be, if the messages travelled. Thus, a

portable writing method and material was developed, first in the forms of ‘clay, wooden, and

bamboo tablets’ and later, papyrus and finally paper. Now, humans were able to send,

information, messages and news from one place to another with messengers, delivering

messages on foot and horse backs. However, the speed of the delivery of messages in this

type of communication depended upon the speed and condition of the messengers, horses,

and roads. One major improvement was recorded in the speed of communication during the

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11th century in Baghdad with the use of domesticated homing pigeons. This was a successful

and swift, but one-way postal service.

Throughout history, attempts have been made to improve the reliability and speed of the mail

(messages) travelling from one place to another. Some success was achieved with pigeon post

in the 11th century, which continued until the 13th century. In the 17th century English king

commissions, Thomas Withering to improve postal communications between England and

France. He achieves this by placing boatmen under contract to make regular crossings with

the mails, between Dover (English side of the channel) and Calais. (French side of the

channel) .He establishes a permanent basis but, ancient system of ‘posts’ whose jobs was to

keep fresh horses and couriers and in the case of the channel, the boats and boatmen, at

readiness at all times. Withering adds a new element by making it commercial, enabling even

private mails to be carried upon payment, which depended according to the distance

travelled. This postal system continues on .Very soon this system spreads all over Europe and

even to American colonies, barely ten years in the making.

With the invention of telescope, a wide range of optical signalling system is developed in

England in 1653 for the Navy to be used at sea. Signalling system is fairly easy, a man with

flags in both hands signals with certain angles made by the movement of his hands with flags,

and the flags are themselves coded or printed. By the end of the 17th century and beginning

of the 18th, use of 28 coded or printed flags used in combination can either form single words

or whole sentences; much is use during Napoleonic wars between England and France. After

the wars, both sides are stimulated to develop similar techniques for land as well. French man

Claude Chappe responsible for coining the word ‘telegraph’ develops the idea of using hilltop

towers with two hinged mechanical arms that can form 49 different signals. The towers are

placed six miles away from each other with two telescopes for each tower. In this way,

messages could be passed on from tower to tower very quickly to greater distances. This

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system also spreads far and wide and in some countries, human take positions on tower tops

and replace the mechanical arms, for shorter distances. Meanwhile in England, Lord George

Murray upgrades Chappe’s mechanical arms with six sections and 64 signalling positions,

signalling 64 different vocabularies. By the end of 18th century there are signalling towers all

over England and France. Both sides claim to transmit messages within two minutes halfway,

around England and France respectively. Nonetheless, these new methods certainly deliver

messages faster than a runner, a galloping horse or even a flying pigeon. During this time one

other system of postal communication was in use; it was ‘the mail coach’. In 1782, an

English man by the name of John Palmer proposes the government a scheme, by which only

the mails could be carried in special coaches with good horses and armed guards, with no

outside passengers. Initially opposed but supported by the chancellor of exchequer, his

system becomes a huge success.

Meanwhile, evolution of telegraph from signalling with flags with the help of telescopes, to

electrostatically generated signals through a wire, has made great progress. In America,

Samuel F.B. Morse develops the telegraphic coding machine. An Englishman named William

Watson devises a way to send messages via telegraph in 1747.The revolution of telegraph

allowed for instant communication across longer distance than ever before. The first

telegraphic stations were set up along the railroads as the necessary poles were already

erected. For the first time in history, instant personal communication over long distances

could take place, but it was limited to the upper class only, as it was still very expensive. In

this way, communication could happen instantly and reliably but only written communication

was possible. Telephone changed all of this, now people could talk to each other from

hundreds of miles away from each other, thanks to Alexander Graham Bell. However, this

technology at first did not generate much excitement as the telegraph. This may have been

because of the fact that Americans love novelty and telephone was not entirely new,

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telegraph was doing the same thing, minus the sound. It was also because the cost of

telephone service was very high at the beginning. All this was to change in the coming years.

During the early years of the 20th century, a new form of communication took the world by

storm, it was the radio. This short-wave communication system was developed during the

WW-I for military purpose but, after the war, it became the hottest technology of the era.

This technology truly ushered in the mass communication, entertainment and the media age.

Radio broadcasting began from 1914 and by the year 1925 it had spread all over the world,

several hundred radio stations broadcasting hundreds of programme. Radio technology was

changing every 3-6 months. Meanwhile, there was another technology that played a crucial

role in the development of mass communication and the media, it was photography. There’s a

saying,” a picture is worth thousand words. The most important difference between

photography and other forms of communication is that; a photo can be interpreted in different

ways by different people, whereas, in other forms of communication, only one message is

conveyed or delivered. Photography remained unchanged for hundreds of years until the age

of digital technology. Man’s desire to depict and see himself has been apparent since the first

cave paintings. Thus, it will always hold a special place in history as the pioneer of capturing

human image for eternity. By the middle of the 20th century, humans were capable of doing

written and spoken forms of communication, instantly anywhere in the world. Then,

television made it possible to even see or watch people, live. Which meant, people could

now see each other from anywhere in the world. It made its first appearance in the New York

world fair in 1939, seen at first as an amusing but unnecessary appliance. Radio remained

popular as a source of information and entertainment from WW-I, until the end of WW-II. In

the late 1940s and beginning of the 50s, television really took off. Viewed as a luxury item

first, gradually it became a necessity. In fact, it soon became a part of family life. No any

other forms of communication have had the kind of impact it has, over the human society.

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Humans are heavily reliant upon TV for constant information and entertainment. Even the

news, which was considered serious business, has been turned into entertainment by many

television networks. Hard to believe but, cell phone research began in 1843 by Michael

Faraday. In 1973, Dr. Martin Cooper invented the first portable hand-held phone. The rest, as

they say is history. Meanwhile, about the same time, another information and communication

technology was being developed that would change the world and usher in the age of

information technology or communication age. It was the internet and computers. It was

invented in 1967 for military purposes, in simple words, it is a group of computers able to

connect to each other and share information. This includes electronic mails and websites. It

was primarily used by corporations for collaborative purposes but, today it is available for

everyone everywhere. It is used for variety of reasons like; communications, information,

socializing, conducting research and advertising etc.

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2.3 Importance and Impact of development of Writing
2.3.1 Introduction of Writing
"Writing" is the process of using symbols i.e. letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces

to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. Writing is a medium of human

communication that involves the representation of a language with symbols. While not all

languages utilize a writing system, those with systems of inscriptions can complement and

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extend capacities of spoken language by enabling the creation of durable forms of speech that

can be transmitted across space e.g., correspondence and stored over time e.g., libraries or

other public records. It has also been observed that the activity of writing itself can have

knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms

that are easier to reflect on and potentially rework

Writing was very important in the development of civilization. Civilization is, of course,

possible without writing, but writing makes it much easier. It does so because it allows

people to keep records and it allows them to transmit and store information relatively easily.

Once a civilization reaches any really decent size, it needs a government. In order to

function, governments need to tax the people they govern. Writing is very helpful for

taxation purposes. If you know how to write, you can write down who has how much

property and how much tax they have paid. You can have these records that allow you to

make sure you collect all the taxes that are due. You can also write down laws so that people

can easily remember what they are from generation to generation. Thus, writing is very

helpful to governments, and governments are necessary for civilization. Writing also helps

develop civilization in other ways. Businesses can benefit from writing. They can keep

records of who they have bought from and how much they have paid. They can keep records

of who they have sold to and how much, if any, money is owed to them. Businesses, and

people in general, can benefit from writing because writing can help them transmit and store

information. Imagine that one business owner wants to make a deal with another. He can

write a note to the other owner outlining the deal so the other owner can look it over and

think about it. When the two of them agree, they can write out a contract. This contract

stores the knowledge of what the deal was so they can both refer back to it and know exactly

what they agreed to. People can also write other things down. They can write down ideas

that they have had about science and technology. They can write out their religious

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scriptures. By doing these things, they make sure that they do not forget ideas that they have

already had. This allows them to build their civilization as well. In these ways, we can see

that writing is very helpful in the development of a truly complex society. It helps allow

government to exist and it makes it easier for people to do business and to pass down their

laws, religious beliefs, and other ideas, thus helping to build their society.

2.3.2 Development of Writing

The three writing systems that developed independently in the Near East, China and

Mesoamerica, shared a remarkable stability. Each preserved over millennia features

characteristic of their original prototypes. The Mesopotamian cuneiform script can be traced

furthest back into prehistory to an eighth millennium BC counting system using clay tokens

of multiple shapes. The development from tokens to script reveals that writing emerged from

counting and accounting. Writing was used exclusively for accounting until the third

millennium BC, when the Sumerian concern for the afterlife paved the way to literature by

using writing for funerary inscriptions. The evolution from tokens to script also documents a

steady progression in abstracting data, from one-to-one correspondence with three-

dimensional tangible tokens, to two-dimensional pictures, the invention of abstract numbers

and phonetic syllabic signs and finally, in the second millennium BC, the ultimate abstraction

of sound and meaning with the representation of phonemes by the letters of the alphabet.

Writing is humankind’s principal technology for collecting, manipulating, storing, retrieving,

communicating and disseminating information. Writing may have been invented

independently three times in different parts of the world: in the Near East, China and

Mesoamerica. In what concerns this last script, it is still obscure how symbols and glyphs

used by the Olmecs, whose culture flourished along the Gulf of Mexico ca 600 to 500 BC,

reappeared in the classical Maya art and writing of 250-900 AD as well as in other

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Mesoamerican cultures (Marcus 1992). The earliest Chinese inscriptions, dated to the Shang

Dynasty, c. 1400–1200 BC, consist of oracle texts engraved on animal bones and turtle shells

(Bagley 2004). The highly abstract and standardized signs suggest prior developments, which

are presently undocumented.

Of these three writing systems, therefore, only the earliest, the Mesopotamian cuneiform

script, invented in Sumer, present-day Iraq, c. 3200 BC, can be traced without any

discontinuity over a period of 10,000 years, from a prehistoric antecedent to the present-day

alphabet. Its evolution is divided into four phases:

(a) Clay tokens representing units of goods were used for accounting (8000–3500 BC);

(b) The three dimensional tokens were transformed into two-dimensional pictographic signs,

and like the former tokens, the pictographic script served exclusively for accounting (3500–

3000 BC);

(c) phonetic signs, introduced to transcribe the name of individuals, marked the turning point

when writing started emulating spoken language and, as a result, became applicable to all

fields of human experience (3000–1500 BC);

(d) With two dozen letters, each standing for a single sound of voice, the alphabet perfected

the rendition of speech. After ideography, logography and syllabaries, the alphabet represents

a further segmentation of meaning.

2.3.3 Importance of development of Writing

Writing was very important in the development of civilization. Civilization is, of course,

possible without writing, but writing makes it much easier. It does so because it allows

people to keep records and it allows them to transmit and store information relatively easily.

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Once a civilization reaches any really decent size, it needs a government. In order to

function, governments need to tax the people they govern. Writing is very helpful for

taxation purposes. If you know how to write, you can write down who has how much

property and how much tax they have paid. You can have these records that allow you to

make sure you collect all the taxes that are due. You can also write down laws so that people

can easily remember what they are from generation to generation. Thus, writing is very

helpful to governments, and governments are necessary for civilization. Writing also helps

develop civilization in other ways. Businesses can benefit from writing. They can keep

records of who they have bought from and how much they have paid. They can keep records

of who they have sold to and how much, if any, money is owed to them. Businesses, and

people in general, can benefit from writing because writing can help them transmit and store

information. Imagine that one business owner wants to make a deal with another. He can

write a note to the other owner outlining the deal so the other owner can look it over and

think about it. When the two of them agree, they can write out a contract. This contract

stores the knowledge of what the deal was so they can both refer back to it and know exactly

what they agreed to. People can also write other things down. They can write down ideas

that they have had about science and technology. They can write out their religious

scriptures. By doing these things, they make sure that they do not forget ideas that they have

already had. This allows them to build their civilization as well. In these ways, we can see

that writing is very helpful in the development of a truly complex society. It helps allow

government to exist and it makes it easier for people to do business and to pass down their

laws, religious beliefs, and other ideas, thus helping to build their society. Writing is an

extremely versatile tool that can be used to accomplish a variety of goals (Graham, 2006). It

provides a medium for maintaining personal links with family, friends, and colleagues, even

when we are unable to be with them. People use writing to create imagined worlds, tell

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stories, share information, explore who they are, combat loneliness, and chronicle their

experiences. In fact, writing about one’s feelings and experiences can be beneficial

psychologically and physiologically (Smyth, 1998). Writing provides a powerful tool for

influencing others. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense, inflamed revolutionary

passions in colonial America, while books like Uncle Tom’s Cabin provided a catalyst for

anti-slavery beliefs in nineteenth century America. The persuasive potential of writing is so

great, that many governments ban ‘‘subversive’’ documents and even jail the offending

authors. Writing is also an indispensable tool for learning. We use it to gather, preserve and

transmit information widely. The permanence of writing makes ideas readily available for

review and evaluation; its explicitness encourages establishing connections between ideas

and its active nature fosters the exploration of unexamined assumptions (Applebee, 1984).

The impact of writing on learning was captured in two meta-analyses (Bangert-Drowns,

Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004; Graham & Perin, 2007a), which found that writing about content

material enhanced students’ learning Of particular importance to this special issue of Reading

and Writing is the impact of writing on reading. In a recent meta-analysis, Graham and

Hebert (2010, 2011) reported that text comprehension improved when students in grades 2–

12 wrote about the material they were reading. This was the case for students in general and

for students who were weaker readers/writers in particular. This also was the case when

students wrote about text in a various subjects (language arts, science, social studies) or

genres (expository and narrative). Four specific types of writing activities were found to be

effective: extended writing, summary writing, note taking, and answering/generating

questions. The meta-analysis by Hebert, Gillespie, and Graham in this special issue of

Reading and Writing extends Graham and Hebert’s review by directly examining if any one

of these four writing activities is more effective than the other. Two additional advantages of

writing were identified in the Graham and Hebert (2010, 2011) review. First, teaching writing

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had a positive impact on how well students read. Multi-component writing instruction (e.g.,

process writing, skills based writing programs) improved the reading comprehension of

students in grades 4–12. Teaching spelling and sentence construction skills enhanced the

reading fluency of students in grades 1–7, whereas spelling instruction improved the word

reading skills of students in grades 1–5. Second, increasing how much students’ Writing:

importance, development, and instruction wrote improved their ability to read text. Graham

and Hebert (2010, 2011) found that when students in grades 1–6 wrote more, there was a

corresponding improvement in their reading comprehension skills

2.4 Importance and impact of development of Printing Press

2.4.1 Introduction to Printing Press

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The printing press is a device that allows for the mass production of uniform printed matter,

mainly text in the form of books, pamphlets and newspapers. Created in China, the printing

press revolutionized society there before being further developed in Europe in the 15th

Century by Johannes Gutenberg and his invention of the Gutenberg press. It is a mechanical

device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper

or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing

methods in which the cloth, paper or other medium was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to

achieve the transfer of ink, and accelerated the process. Typically used for texts, the invention

and global spread of the printing press was one of the most influential events in the second

millennium.

2.4.2 Development of Printing Press

When someone mentions the printing press most will instinctively think of Johannes

Guttenberg and his revolution 15th Century (1440 AD) technology. Whilst his invention was

revolutionary in its own right it wasn't in fact, the first printing press to be developed. Not by

a long shot. In fact, the history of the printing press stretches back to the 3rd Century (the

technique of woodblock printing but on textiles) with its adaptation for printing text in wide

use during the Tang Dynasty of China (6th-10th Century AD). Despite this fact, Guttenberg

rightfully deserves his place in history for producing a machine that allowed for the mass-

production of books for the first time in history. Before his invention books were transcribed

by hand or 'printed' using wooden blocks. Both were a painstakingly slow and laborious

process that effectively meant access to the printed word was limited to those who could

afford their high price tags.

In Germany, around 1440, goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press, which

started the Printing Revolution. Modelled on the design of existing screw presses, a single

Renaissance printing press could produce up to 3,600 pages per workday, compared to forty

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by hand-printing and a few by hand-copying. Gutenberg's newly devised hand mould made

possible the precise and rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities. His two

inventions, the hand mould and the printing press, together drastically reduced the cost of

printing books and other documents in Europe, particularly for shorter print runs.

From Mainz the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a

dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe

had already produced more than twenty million volumes. In the 16th century, with presses

spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.

The operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of printing, and lent its

name to a new medium of expression and communication, "the press".

In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of

mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively

unrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders,

captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious

authorities. The sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on

education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the

increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto-nationalism, and

accelerated by the development of European vernacular languages, to the detriment of Latin's

status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-

style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale.

Johannes Gutenberg built his printing press sometime around 1440. Gutenberg’s printing

press wasn’t the first method of printing, however. Woodblock printing began around AD

200, and movable type came to be around AD 1040.

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Gutenberg first printed the Gutenberg Bible sometime in the 1450s. While not his first work,

the Gutenberg Bible is certainly his most famous and influential work. Within three decades,

there were over one hundred printing presses throughout Europe.

The printing press wasn’t the first method of printing, but it may have had more of an impact

on civilization than any other type of printing. Thanks to Gutenberg’s printing press, the

global population had access to written material. No longer was literature reserved for monks

and clergymen. The printing press sparked the first information age. People could have books

in their homes for the first time ever. The printing press made it possible to spread ideas and

information on a large scale.

We live in the digital age. Businesses, schools, and homes are increasingly choosing digital

content over printed paper. Printing is still an important part of manufacturing, however

packaging is key to marketing and also to consumer safety, and brands grow every more

demanding in this area.

Of course, the printing presses of today are quite different from Gutenberg’s original printing

press. They’re more sophisticated, they work better, and they’re automated. Indramat servos

are ideal for printing, among other applications. Call us today if you need Indramat repair, or

service for your Indramat servos.

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2.4.3 Importance of Printing Press

The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg, in full Johann Gensfliesch zur laden

Gutenberg. He was born in 14th century Germany and died on February, 3, 1468. Johannes

Gutenberg was a craft smith and inventor, famous for originating a method of moveable type.

The genius of Gutenberg’s invention was to the text into its individual components like upper

and lower case letters and punctuation marks. These items were then cast in quantity as

mirror images and assembled to form words, lines and pages. Then the master for each letter

was cut in steel and used as a punch. The next step was to create a matrix by placing the

punch on a block of softer metal and striking it with a hammer. The resulting matrix was

straightened to form a true reading image.

Before the printing press, books were written by hand. Books were expensive and only very

popular texts of universal appeal were copied. Wood cut printing was used but a new block

had to be carved in reverse for every page so, few works justified the intensity of labour

required to print this way. With the movable type each page no longer had to be separately

carved. The immediate effect of the printing press was to multiply the output and cut the cost

of books. The printing press made information available for a larger portion of the population

and that increased literacy among the population. The invention of the printing press was also

very important to the advance of science and technology. It is said that the invention of the

printing press initiated an "information revolution" similar to the internet today.

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2.4.4 Impact of Printing press

Gutenberg’s invention made a dramatic impact when it reached the public. At first, the noble

classes looked down on it. To them, hand-inked books were a sign of luxury and grandeur,

and it was no match for the cheaper, mass-produced books. Thus, press-printed materials

were at first more popular with the lower classes. When word spread about the printing press,

other print shops opened and soon it developed into an entirely new trade. Printed texts

became a new way to spread information to vast audiences quickly and cheaply. Academics

benefited from this dissemination of scholarly ideas and even politicians found that they

could garner the public’s interest through printed pamphlets.

An important side effect was that people could read and increase their knowledge more easily

now, whereas in the past it was common for people to be quite uneducated. This increased the

discussion and development of new ideas. Another significant effect was that the printing

press was largely responsible for Latin’s decline as other regional languages became the

norm in locally printed materials. The printing press also helped standardize language,

grammar, and spelling. The printing press played a major role in shaping the Renaissance,

which has interesting correlations to today’s Information Age.

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CHAPTER III : CONCLUSIONS

Communication may break down as a result of many communication barriers that may be

attributed to the sender or receiver. Therefore, effective communication requires familiarity

with the barriers. Choosing the right channel for communication is also important, because

choosing the wrong medium undermines the message. When communication occurs in the

cross-cultural context, extra caution is needed, given that different cultures have different

norms regarding nonverbal communication, and different words will be interpreted

differently across cultures. By being sensitive to the errors outlined in this chapter and

adopting active listening skills, you may increase your communication effectiveness.

 Over all, the printing press is a revolutionizing invention. First, the printing press

was invented during a crucial time period. In this time period, there was a lot

of chaos and distress, because of the Black Death. The printing press had a huge a effect on

spreading ideas, thoughts, news, education, and being informed. By printing books and

newspapers, we have learned how to communicate and spread ideas throughout the world.

The printing press is one of basis invention for the creations and inspiration of many other

newer inventions which also revolutionized the world.  Although the printing press was a

magnificent invention, some people had different views. People believed maintenance would

be too difficult, that writing in Chinese would be impossible due to

the intricate Chinese writing system, and that the churches and religious groups wouldn't be

able to censor what was being printed. Without the printing press, we don't know how we

could have possibly spread our thought and evolve over time mentally, socially,

economically, politically, and religiously without the printing press. 

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students/

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.seeken.org/importance-of-writing/

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication

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(n.d.). Retrieved from https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html

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