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    Chapter 1 - Electric Charges and Fields PDF

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    ELECTROSTATICS Pe atret erence Charge is the property associated with matter due to which itproduces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects, “There exists two types of charges in nature @ Positive charge Gi) Negative charge Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other, and charges with opposite electrical sign altract each other. 1.3 Unit and dimensional formula, : SL. unit of charge is coulomb (C), (ame C.GS, unit of chargeis ¢.s.u.1C=3 10 esu 10°C, IwC= 10°C, InC= 10°C). Dimensional formula [Q] =[4T1. 14 Point Charge Whose spatial size is negligible as compared to other distances, LS Properties of charge @ — Chargeis aScalar Quantity : Charges ean be added or aubtracted algebrically 1) Chargeis transferable : Ifa charged body is put in contact with an uncharged body, uncharged body ‘becomes charged due to transfer of electrons from, ‘one body to the other. wi) Gi) Chargeis always associated with mass, ie. charge can not exist without mass though mass can exist without charge. Chargeis conserved : Charge canneitherbe created nor be destroyed. Invariance of charge : The numerical value of an elementary charge is independent of velocity, (Chargeproduces electric field and magneticfield: charged patticle atrest produces only electric field in the space surrounding it. However, if the charged particle is in unaccelerated motion it produces both lectric and magnetic fields. And if the motion of charged particle is accelerated it not only produces clectric and magnetic fields but alo radiates energy in the space surrounding the charge in the form of electromagnetic waves. Chargeresides onthesurface of conductor : Charge resides on the outer surface of a conductor because like charges repel and try to get as faraway as possible from one another and stay at the farthest distance from each other which is outer surface of the conductor. This is why a solid and hollow conducting sphere of same outer radius will hold ‘maximum equal charge and a soap bubble expands on charging, Quantization of charge: When a physical quantity can have only discrete values rather than any value, the quantity is said to be quantised. The smallest charge that can exist in nature is the charge of an electron. If the charge of an electron (-1.6:10°%C) ita a elementary nit ke. quanta of charge the charge on any body will be some integral multiple ofee., Q=-+newith n=0, 12,3: Charge on abody canneverbe0.5¢,4172e00 10° ete, 1.6 Comparison of Charge and Mass We are familiar with role of mass in gravitation, and we have just studied some features of electric charge. We can compare the two as shown below Charge Mass Electric chargecanbe | 1. Mass of a body isa positive, negative or zero] positive quantity Charge carried by a body | 2 Mass of a body increases does not depend upon with its velocity as ig velocity of the body. where & is velocity of light in vaccum, m is the mass of the velocity v and m, is, rest mass of the body. (Charge is quantized. ‘The quantization of mass is yet to be established Electric charge isalways | 4 Mass is not conserved as conserved, it can be changed into energy and vice-versa Force between charges | 5. The gravitational force can be attractive or between two masses is repulsive, according as always attractive charges are unlike or like charges, 1.7 Methods of Charging A body can be charged by following methods (By friction : In friction when two bodies are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one body to the other. As a result of this one body becomes positively charged while the other negatively charged, eg. when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes positively charged while the silk becomes negatively charged. However, ebonite onrubbing with ‘wool becomes negatively charged making the wool positively charged. Clouds also become charged by fiction. In charging by friction in accordance with ‘conservation of charge, both positive and negative ‘charges in equal amounts appear simultancously due to transfer of electrons from one body to the other (i)__By electrostatic induetion : If a charged body is brought near an uncharged body. the charged body ‘willattract opposite charge and repel similar change present in the unchanged body. As a result of this ‘one side of neutral body (closer to charged body) becomes oppositely charged while the other is similarly charged. This process is called electrostatic induction sal ‘ndueting body neither gains nor loses charge. (Charging by conduction : Take two conductors, one changed and other uncharged. Bring the conductors in contact with each other. The charge (whether—ve ‘or + ve) under its own repulsion will spread over both the conductors. Thus the conductors will be charged with the same sign. This is called as charging by ‘conduction (through contact) Uncharged Charged Bodies in contact Both are positively charged tat A truck canying explosives has a metal chain touching the ground, to conduct away the charge produced by friction 8 Blectroscope It isa simple apparatus with which the presence of electric charge on abody is detected (sce figure). When metal knob is touched with a charged body, some charge is transferred to the gold leaves, which then diverges due to repulsion The separation gives a rough idea of the amount of charge ‘on the body. If a charged body brought near a charged electrascope the leaves will also diverge. If the charge on body is sitnitar to that on electroscope and will usually converge if opposite, Ifthe induction effect is strong enought leaves after converging may again diverge. (1) Uncharged electrascope Charpy conten Sharper intcon 2, COULOMB'S LA\ @) Charged electroscope Ietwvo stationary and point charges Q, and Q, are Kept at a distance 7, then it is found that force of attraction or repulsion between them is Mathematically, Coulomb's law can be written as ga where k is a proportionality constant. In SLunitsk hasthe value, | = 9.0 10°C = 8.988 «10° Nic? (@ —Thedirection of foreeis always along the line joining the two charges. (@) The force is repulsive ifthe charges have the same sign and attractive if their signs are opposite. (©) This force is conservative in nature, @ This is also called inverse square lav. ‘Variation of & Constant & depends upon system of units and medium between the twa charges, 2.1.1 Effect of units (@ CGS. forair = 1, F= VX. Done 2 seo No @) InsLibear a ote xe; tat ® —e, = Absolute permittivity ofair or free space 2.22 Newten ch Newton=10°Dyne) ~assa0" (Bat & Dimensions [LTA] ® —é,Relates with absolute magnetic permeability (is) and velocity of light () according to the 1 ta followingrelation 2.12 Effect ofmedium (@) When a diclectric medium is completely filled in between charges rearrangement of the charges inside the dielectric medium takes place and the force between the same two charges decreases by a factor of K known as dielectrie constant, X is also called relative permittivity ¢, ofthe medium (relative means with respect to free space). ‘Hence in the presence of medium Be 1 QQ Kank Here ok = 2, = (permitivity of medium) Medium Vacuum Water Mica Glass Metal ‘Vector form of coulom’s law eis helpful to adopt a convention for subscript notation, F,,forceon 1 dueto2 force on? dueto 1 Suppose the position vectors of two charges q, and q, are i and %, then, electri force on charge a, dueto charge a, Similarly, electric foree ong, dueto charge q, is #,- 1 am WY ae, Fl (-a) Force isa vector, s0 in vector form the Coulomb's law is written as f,-1 ge a ee Remember convention for F. Here q, and q, are to be substituted with sign. Position vector of charges q, and q, are R=x,i+yj+ak and genyleysiezak respective Where(s,y,.2) and, ¥p 2) are the co-ordinates of charges q, and 4, According to the principle of super position, total force acting on a given charge due to number of charges is the vector sum of the individual forces acting on that charge due to all the charges Consider nuriber of charge Q,, Q,, Q,..are applying force ona charge Q Netforceon Qwill be B= ++. ‘The magnitude of the resultant of two electric force is given by P= RP +E) 42K, cos and the force direction is given by sino coed tan a= 3, ELECTRIC FIELD A positive charge or a negative charge is said to create its field around itself Tims space around a charge in which another charged particle experiences aferce is sad to have electrical field init 3.1 Electric fldd intensity () ‘The electric field intensity at any point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that 2) Where q, -> 0 s0 that presence of this charge may not affect the source charge Q and its electric field isnot changed, therefore expression for electric field intensity can be better written as B= im, 897 (@) Unit and Dimensional formul: it’s SL. unit — Newton volt Jule Coulomb meter coafombxmeer 4 C.GS. unit = Dyne/stat coulomb. ‘Dimension (E)=[MIT? A") {b) Direction of electric field : Electric field (intensity) £ isavector quantity. Blectric field duetoa positive charge is always away from the charge and that dae to a negative charge is always towards the charge In an electric field E a charge (Q) experiences a foree F = QE. Ifcharge is positive then force is directed inthe direction of ficld while if charge is negative force acts on it in the ‘opposite direction of field —_—_ +? ——— +2 +Q0—> F 3.3 Super position of electric fleld ‘The tesultantelectric field atany point is equalto the vector sum of electric fields at that point due to various charges. BB, +E+. ‘The magnitude of the resultant of two electric fields are given by = YB} +E-+26)E; cos0 and the direction is given by Ey sinb E,+E,cm8 Point Charge Point charge produces its electric field ata point P which is distance r from it given by Q (Magnitude) 4 For+ vepoint charge, Bis directed away frem il. 4 For—vepoint charge, E is directed towards it. 3.8 Continuous charge distributions ‘There are infinite number of ways in which we can spread a continuous charge distribution overa region of space. Mainly three types of charge distributions will be used. We define three different charge densities. Definition Charge per unit length Charge per unit area 2 Charge perunit votume Ifatotal charge qis distributed along a line of length ¢, over ‘surface area A or throughout a volume V, we can calculate charge densities from. 1 Electric field lines originate fromapasitive charge & terminate on anegative charge. ‘Thenumber of field lines criginating/terminating on a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge. 3. The number of Field Lines passing through perpendicular unit area will be proportional to the ‘magnitude of flectric Field there. 4, Tangent toa Field line at any point gives the direction of Electrie Field at that point. This will be the instantaneous path charge will ake ifkept there. 5. Two or more field lines can never Intersect each other. [they cannot have multiple directions) 6 Uniform field tines are straight, parallel & uniformity placed. 7. Field ines cannot form alogp. & Electric field lines originate & terminate perpendicular tothe surface of the conductor, Blectric field lines do not exist inside a conductor 9. Field linesalways flow fromhigher potential to lower potential 10, Ifinaregion electric field is absent, there will be no. flelaines 7 Motion of Charged Particlein an Electric Field (@) When charged particle initially atrestis placed in ‘theuniform eld : Let a charge particle of mass m and charge (be intially at rest in an electre field of strength _—_ +73 0 OFF ——— ____,. =e +—O -0 — Fig. (a) Fig. (B) @®)— Forceand acceleration : The force experienced by the charged particle is F = QE. Positive charge experiences force in the direction of electric field while negative charge experiences force in the direction oppositeto the field. [Fig (A)] Acceleration produced by this force is a= Since the field E in constant the acceleration is constant, thus motion of the particle is uniformly accelerated. Gi) Velocity : Suppose at point A particle sat rest and in time g itreachesthe point 3 [Fig (B)] ¥ Potential diference between A and 3; ‘S=Separation between A and B @ — Byasing E veutat, v=04+Q—t, m ® v oul +2a5, v?=042x Eve POR Ey il) Momentum : Momentump =) p=m 22 en m ds) Kinetic energy : Kinctic energy gainedby the particle intime tis ©) When a charged particle enters with an initial ‘velocity at right angleto the uniform field ‘When charged particle enters perpendicularty in an clectrc field, it describea parabolic path as shown @ Equation of trajectory : Throughout the motion particle has uniforin velocity along x-axis and horizontal displacement (2) is given by the equation 7 Since the motion of the particle is accelerated along y-axis, ‘we will use equalion of motion for uniform acceleration to 1 determine displacement y. From S= utr al? ‘We have u=0 (along y-axis) soy = i.e, displacement along y-axis will increase rapidly with time Gineey oe) From displacement along x-axis t= 7 Ley, this is the equation of parabola which shows y ce x? Gi) Velocity at any instant :Atany instants, v, =u and If is the angle made by vwith x-axis than My _ OBL mm tanp y, CRsa set ee etek Its always change in potential energy that is designed as Ww, Ww, Aus Potential energy is defined of a system of charges in a particular configuration Consider a system of two charges q, and g,, Suppose, the charge q, is fixed and the charge q, istaken from apoint Ato ad The electric force cn the charge q is F = rer The total work done asthe charge q, moves ftom B to Cis wh arereapees Regt? oh ‘The change in potential energy Utr;) - UC) is, therefore, gas (41 ey LF ‘The potential eneray of the bvo-charge system is assumed to be zero when they have infinite separation UlE)- VG ‘The potential energy when the separation is ris wet +) ane, (r ©. ‘The potential energy depends essentially on the separation between the charges and is independent of the spatial location of the charged particles. ade U@)=UG) UE!) ane Equation gives the electric potential energy of a pair of charges. Saft * Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity so in the above formula take sign of Q, and Q.. It is the smallest practical unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics. As electron volt is defined as “the energy acquired by a particle having one quantum of charge Le when accelerated by 1valt" ie, 19 LeV = L610 cx = 1610 r= 1.610% ee 3 Potential energy of a system of 1 char ges Inasystem ofr charges electric potential energy is calculated for each pair and then all energies so obtained are added 1 [oe Qs |= algebraically, ze, U=—— in case of continuous distribution of charge. As ate | fp a ev-dq.vsu-[Vvag .g, Hlectric potential energy for a system of three charges Potential energy = [2 2:5 =] 4myl 2 eM Pee aera Suppose, a test charge q is moved in an electric field froma point A to apoint B while al the other charges in question remain fixed. Ifthe electric potential eneray changes by U, —U, due to this displacement, we define the potential diference between the point A and the point B as 4 © B MU ie Ve-Va @ [aKE =o] Conversely, if a charge q is taken through a potential difference V, — V,, the electrie potential energy is increased. by t,-U, =a, -¥,) Also W,,=4(V,—V,) [AKE=0] Potential difference between two points give us an idea about ‘work which has tobe done in moving a charge between those points, $.1 Hleetrie Potential due to apolnt charge Consider a point charge Q placed at a point A. ‘The potential at P is, (oo is taken as 0) The clectric potential due to a system of charges may be obtained by finding, potentials due tothe individual charges ‘using equation and then adding them, Ths, Electric potential isa scalar quantity, hence sign of charges isto taken in expression itis denoted by ‘52 Unit and dlmenstonsl formula s.teunit- 226 voy Coulomb [VJ=[MEeT=a-] 3 Types of electric potenti According to the nature of charge potential is of two types @ Positive potential : Due to positive charge. Gi) Negative potential : Due to negative charge. tate At the centre of two equal and opposite charge V=obmE+0, © Atthe centre of the line joining two equal and similar charge V'+0,E=0. * — IMetttreetomove, Positive charge will always move from higher to lower potential points. Negative charge will always move from lower to higher potential points. (Becansethis motion will decrease potential energy ofa system) 6, RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD & POTENTIAI Tin an electrie field rate of change of potential with distance is known as potential gradient. It is a vector quantity and it’s direction is opposite to that of electric field, Potential gradient relates with electric field according to the following a relation & =—{V ; This relation gives another unit of E=-2 ai volt neler electric field is In the above rleation negative sign indicates that in the direction of electric field potential decreases. 1. Se ae oS In space around a charge distribution we can also write nie gk Vv IV where E, = iW. = Ey mE de ‘Suppose A,B and C arethree points ian unifomm electric field as shown in figure. @ Potential difference between point A and Bis a V5-V, =-[E. dt ‘Since displacement is in the direction of electric field, hence ao So, Vz -V, ‘Equipotential Surface or Lines (1) every point ofa surface is at same potential, then it is said tobe an equipotential surface dark for a given charge distribution, locus of al points having same potential is called “equipotential surface” regarding cequipetential surface following points should keep intnind Q) Thedirection of electric field is perpendlicularto the equipotential surfaces or ines. @) The equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge ot a spherically charge distribution are a family of concentrie spheres, FS ropipeceat nies @)— Forauniformelectric field, theequipoteatial surfaces area family of plane perpendicular tothe field lines, (5) A metallic surface of any shape is an equipotential surface e.g; When a charge is given to a metalic surface, it distributes itself in a manner such that its every point comes at same potential even ifthe object is of imegular shape and fas sharp points on it Metallic charged pre Charged metalic body of incculr shape © Equipotential surfaces can never cross each ether: It is a common misconception thatthe path traced bby apositive test charge is a field line but actually the path traced by a unit positive test charge represents afield ill ine onfy when itmoves along.a straight line. Pa eons 7:1 General information System of two equal and opposite charges separated by a ‘smal fixed distance is called a dipole. Tipale ma @ Dipole axis: Line joiningmegative charge to positive charge of a dipole is called its axis. Ir may ako be termed asits longitudinal axis, Gi) Equatorial axis: Perpendicular bisector of the dipole is called its equatorial or transverse axis as it is perpendicular to length, Dipole length : The distance between two charges is knowin as dipole length (d) >) Dipole moment : It is a quantity which gives information about the strength of dipole. Itisavector quantity and is directed from negative charge to positive charge alons the axis. Its denoted as and is defined as the product of the magnitude of either ofthe charge and the dipole lent. ie ball) Is S.L unit is coutomb-metre or Debye (1 Debye = 3.3% 10m) and its dimensions are MPL!T'A Mo. 4 ‘* ~— Aregion surrounding a stationary electric dipole has electri eld only 4% When a dielectric is placed in an electric field. its toms or molecules are considered as tn dipoles, au), 7.2 Electric field and potential due toan electric dipole (a) Electric Potential dueto a dipole AP BP >> d (distance ‘ris large as compared to d) AP =O'P; OP=r+d/2 Cosa, OP BPH OP —d/2Cose yk KGa) ° @+d/2cos8) (r—d/2c08 8) _—k rd? 20086 =H 1d / 2e08: r+d/2cos0—r+d/2eos0 | -_Kadeos®_ =ky| y, - Keaddeos0 bE F—Leos'o 4 sincer >> d vy, -#eoe8__1_peoso Po ae 8 isangle with the axis of dipole: ris distance from centre of dlpole (b) Electric Field dueto dipole @ For points onthe axis Let the point Phe at distance r fromthe centre ofthe dipole ‘on the side of the charge q, as shou in fig (a. Then 4 array where j isthe unt vector along the dipole acs (from -q to @.Also -— 43 eta Fig (@ a point on the axis. Thetotal field at Forr>>a dqa_ zB ance a) 0 (i) For points on the equatorial plane ‘Themagnitudes ofthe electric fields dueto the two charges + q and -q are given by a 9 aay Fe a1 AR and are equal, (a. point on the equatorial plane of the dipole. p ts the dipole moment vector of magnitude p = q * 2a and directed from -q t0 4, ‘The directions ofE, and F_, are asshiown in ig. (b). Clearly, the components normal to the dipole axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add up, The total electric field is opposite top. Wehave Ea-G,,+EJeod 6 2g Fra ae? Al large distances (r > a), this reduces to 2a Boat Oa) i) rom Eqs. (i) and Gi, itis clear thatthe dipole ield at large distances docs not involve q and a separately ; it depends ‘onthe product qa. This suggests the definition of dipole is defined by Poqx2ap that is, is a veetor whose magnitude is charge q times the separation 2a (between the pair of charges q, ~q) and the direction is alorthe line from-to q.ntarmsofp, the electric field a a dipole at large distances takes simple forms Ata point on the dipole axis, Is = 22 Aner Ea AP (o> al Ata point on the equatorial plane Aneor 3 Electric Dipolein uniform clectric field @® Forcesnd Torque : Ifa dipale is placed ina uniform. field such that dipole (Le. ) makes an angle 8 with direction of field then two equal and opposite force acting on dipole constitute a couple whose tendency is torotate the dipole hence atorque is developed init and dipole resto align itsefin the divection of field. Consideran electric dipole inplaced inaunitforn electric field such that dipole (Le. ) makes an angle © with the direction of electric field as shown @ — Netfereeonelectric dipole Fy <0 t= 5B) pE sine 4) Work: Fromthe above discussion it is clear that in an uniform electric field dipole tries to align itself in the direction of electric field (ie. equilibrium position). To change it’s angular position some work has tobe done Suppose an electric dipoleis kept in an uniform electric field by making anangte 6, with the field, itis again ‘tum so that it makes an angle @ withthe field, work. done inthis process is given by the formula W =pE(¢os0, ~cos@;) Gi) Potential energy : In case of a dipole (in a uniform field), potential energy of dipole is defined as work done in rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicutar to the field to the given direction ie. if 6,90" and 8,=0 then PE cos® pE cos +» [U(@0")=0] or Beat 8.1 Continuous charge distributions kQ +) W+H 8.2Neutral Point A neutral point isa point where resultant electrical field is zero. Thus neutral points can be obtained only at those points where the resultant field is subtractive. @ Ataninternal point along thetine joining twolike charges (Due toa system of ts like point charge) : Suppose two like charges. Q, and Q, ate separated by adistance x ftom each other along. line as shown, infollowing figure inc sin) (cosa. cos8) IPN is the neutral point ata distance x, ftom Q, and at a distancex, (=x —x, fromQ, then for natural pt. atN, JER. dueto Q, | ER duetoQ, lie, 1 [Ql_ 1 jal 1 [al foul _ fx) Tay Am ak IOal Ome Short trick: a + {27712 x= rare: taf Inthe above formula if Q, = Q,, neutral point lies a the centre so remember that resultant field at the midpoint of | tivo equal and like charges is zero. ) — ALamexternalpoint slong theline ining vounlike charges Duetoa system oftwo unlike point charge) + Suppose two unlike charge Q, and Q, separated by a distance.x Som exch other “Here neutral point lies outside the line joining two unlike charges and alsoit lies nearer to charge which is smaller inmagnitude, If (Q)|< [Qthen neutral point will be obtained onthe side of Q,, suppose itis ata distance / from Q, ‘Hence at neutral point ; lal. ale! _, 2 (x+8 Shot trick: # tat In the above discussion if |Q,| = |Q,| neutral point willbeatinginity. (Verial- 3 Equi ‘Charge (8) Definition: Acharge isa to bein equilibrium, ifnet force acting on itis zero. A system of charges is said to bein equilibrium ifeach charge isin equilibrium. (©) Type of equilibrium : Equilibriumcanbe divided in following type (Stable equilibrium : After displacing a charged patticleftom it’s equilibrium position fit retums back then itis said to be in stable equilibrium, 1f is the potential energy then in case of stable equilibrium U is mininmm, ) Unstable equilibrium: Aster displacinga charged particle fromit’s equilibrium position, ifit never retums back then it is said to be in unstable cquilibrium and in unstable equilibrium, U is meson, (ii) Nentral equilibrium :A ter displacing a changed particle from it's equilibrium position if itneither ccomes back, nor moves away but remains in the position in which it was kept i is said to be in neutral equilibrium and in neutral equilibrium, Uis constant. (© Different cases of equilibrium of charge Suppose three similar charge Q,, q and Q, are placed along a straight line as shown below Case 1s Charge qwill bein equiliriumif(F |=[Fie, 2. Q Q This is the condition of equilibrium of charge g. After following the guidelines we can say that charge isin stable ‘equilibrium and this system isnot in equilibrium, tat = and x, = Te yeQ, 21 4Q7@; eg. ito charges-+4 Cand +16 pare separated by a distance of 30 cm from each other then for equilibrium a third charge should be placed between them at a distance 30 — 3016 em orx=20em iio = Case ‘Two similar charge Q, and Q areplaced along a sraight line ‘la distance x from each other and a third dissimilar chargeg is placed in between them as shown below A B QO—#9 = oa, 1 <—_ :__> Charge qwilleincquiltramit IF ie, & (&) Qe Xe taf ‘Same short trick can he used hereto find the position of charge q as we discussed in Case-t Le, x x = Tare, ™ Tare Tt is very important to know that magnitude of charge q eee eer eee re ‘or, isin equilibrium. if Q, isin equilibrium then [al = Q,Cc/x)'and iQ, isinenuiibrinmthen q)= Q(x) should be remember that sign of g is opposite to that of Q,0Q) Case ‘Two dissimitar charge Q, and Q, are placed along a straight line ata distance x from each other, a third charge q should be placed out side the line joining Q, and Q, for it to ‘experience zeronet force. Lele) <12.b Short Trick Forit’s equilibrium. Charge q lies onthe side of change which is smallest in magnitude and VQ/Q-1 @ —Equilibriumof suspended chargein an dectriefield @ Freely suspended charged particle : To suspend a charged a patticle freely in ar under the influence of electric field it’s downward vwcight should be balanced by upward electric force for example if a positive charge is suspended freely in an electric field as shown then Inequilibrium QE=mg = E. tat Inthe above case if direction of electric field is suddenly reversed in any figure then acceleration of charge particle at that instant will be a= 2g. olf (Gi) Chargedparticlesuspended by amassess insulated string (like simple pendulum) : Consider a charged particle dike Bob) of mass m, having charge Q is suspended in an electric field as shown under the influence of electric field. Tttured through an angle ay 8) and comes in equiliorium, So, nthe position of equilibrium (O' position) Tsin0=QE 4) Teose=mg Gi) By squaring and adding equation (i and (i Tale) may Dividing equation by Gi) tan = SE mg > extn SE mg, (Gil) Equilibrium of suspended point charge system : Suppose two small balls having charge +Q on cach are suspended by two strings of equal length? Then ‘for equilibrium position as shown in figure. Tsind=F, Teosé=mg (i) P=Ey + (ep Gs) Equilibrium ofsuspendee point chargesystemin aliquid + In the previous discussion if point charge system is of density p such that © remain, taken into a tig same then fa Voe) In equilibrium Fe'=1'sino and (ma—Vpg) =” eos ‘i 2 (mg- Veg)” 42K (mg—Vpg)x When this system was in air m 1 n(n) ee (ne) Ifo is the density of material of ball then (2) oF ‘8.4 Time Perlod of Osdlation of a Charged Body (@) Sule nendulumbased: Ifa simple pendutumhaving length / and mass of bob m oscillates about it’s mean position than it’s time period of oscillation T=2nftfe Case —1 : If some charge say + (is given to bob and an electric field Eis applied inthe direction as shown in figure then equilibrium position of charged bob (point charge) changes from 0 10.0" (On displacing the bob from its equilibrium position O*. 1. will oscillateunder the effective acceleration , where me’= ying)’ +(Q8)? = a= ya +(Qe/my Haxethenotneportis = anf F Since g'> g, hence, r only conservative forces are there (@.g. aravity / spring / 2 al coulomb force), then W,,=0 AKE+AU=0 or, KE,*+U,=KE+U, Work =aKE+AU IFARE = 0] AU=W = Won sca, Peete ead Ifcharges are assembled ftom infinity : AU= U(r) Ul) = For the expression of total potential energy ofa system of UGE Weknow, AU=W,, [when AE =0] charges consider “("=") umber of pair of charges WMO es UAW > at IW, AKE+AU=00rKE,+U,=KE,+U, ‘Using Work energy theorem, POM Tea Tee 10.1 Potential dueto char ge distribution 0. Using the concept that if we know potential electric field can be calculated we have already calculated pcos eo ll alo, %) (+X) To Calculate net electric field at P we need E, (Radial Component) & F, (tangential component of electric field at P av Tip [When we travel in the radial dircoticn} av ‘ag (When we travel in the tangential direction} kPeos8 — a =d [ kPeose wa [Note isthe anale with the radial direction] ‘We lnow thet, for any enulibriumnet torque and netforce on a particle (or system) should be zero, ‘We already discussed when a dipole is placed in an uniform electric field net force on dipole is always zero, But net torque will be zero only when 8= 0° or 180 ‘When 0=0'ze, dipole isplaced along the electric field itis said to be in stable equilibrium, because after turning it through a small angle, dipole tries to align itself again in the direction of electric field, ‘When 8 = 180° Le. dipole is placed opposite to electric field, itis said to be in unstable equifibriuan, @=190" ‘Unstable equilibrium 0 W,, =2pE U,,.= pe 11.3 Angular SHM Inauniformeteciric field (intensity £) ia dipole (electric) is slightly displaced from its stab leequilibriumposition it executes angular SHM having period of oscillation. If7= ‘moment of inertia of dipole about the axis passing through it’s centre and perpendicular to it’s length. For electic dipole: T= 27./17pE 11.4 Dipole-point charge interaction Ifa point charge is placed in dipole field ata distance r| from the mid point of dipole then force experienced by point charge varies necording tothe relation Fee + 11.5 Electric dipotein non-uniform electric fetd When an electric dipole is placed in a nonaaniform field, the two charges of dipole experiences unequal forces, therefore the net force on the dipole is not equal to zero. Due to two unequal forces, a torque is produced which rotate the dipole 50 as to align it in the direction of field, So innon-uniformelectrie field (Motion of the dipole is translatory and rotatory Gi) Torque onit may be zero, FRO Electric flux is defined as proportional to number of field lines crossing or cutting any area of cross section in space. “The umber of field lines passing through perpendicular unit area will be proportional to the magnitude of Electric Field there” (Theory of Field Lines) Nap 3 webs, HlectrieFhrs, ©, =EA As 0 increases, flux through area decreases. If we draw a vector of magnitude A along the positivenormal, itis called the area vector, A comespondinato the area A. 1.2 Unit and Dimenston Fhocisa scalar quantity. S.L uit: (volt 0,electric field isnormalto the surface outward ; for > 0, electric field isnormal tothe surface inward. ERAT T EL $B.a -S te] alfa @ ¢ — Inthe above expression, charge enclosed is (Q, & Q) ‘Netflus will only depend on Q, & Q, ‘Bot «Q ‘This indicates that all the charge on shell (1) will flow to shell (2). Pt gese nasa 4 Consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius R having a total charge Q. The electric potential energy ofthis sphere is equal fo the work done in bringing the charges from, infinity to assemble the sphere. POMC cha ag ‘The energy stored per unit volume around a point in an u Volume 2 ‘of vacuum somemedium of dielectric constant Kis present 1 lectric field is givenby , 1,,87. Hinplace KEE’ then SPR oll 11.1 Charged Condueting Plate ‘Net electric field at point P, near a conducting surface, ‘To find charge distribution on each surface of plates ‘Two conducting plates having area ‘A’ (area is large as compared to distance, so that field is uniform) and the thickness of plates io small so that charge only appears on parallel Faces. Since the field lines are parallel the net flux through the _guussian surface will be zero, surface (1) & (2) be inside the ‘material ofthe conductor, Hence it can be said that net charge enclosed will be zero ‘which implies the charges appearing on the facing surfaces are equal & opposite to each other, ‘Net electric field at any point ‘P” or ‘R’ has tobe zero. Eh ‘There ared distributions, the net field at P should be zero. S40) hs O PAG a &ta =O) B= SO = [Ce Mle |(@ohl = eel +18 a +4 2Ac, 2Ar, 2AE, a= 2%] so final dstrbotions would be in ‘When charged conducting plates are placed parallel to each other, the two outermost surfaces get equal charges tnd the facing surfaces get equal and opposite charges. 11.3 Force on a charged conductor ‘To find force on a changed conductor (due to repulsion of | like charges) imagine a small part XY to be cut and just separated from the res ofthe conductor MLN. The field in the cavity due to the rest of the conductor is E, while field due tosmall partis E,. Then Inside the conductor Outside the conductor E=E,+E,=*. Thus, & To find force, imagine charged part XY (having charge ‘dA placed in the cavity MN having field B.). Thus force Ey aF=(@4A)B,or dF = dA. The force perunitareaor dF ooo ee ee The force is always outwards as (t 0)" is positive ie, whether charged positively or negatively, this force will try to expand the charged boy. A soap bubble or rubber balloon expands on given charge to it(charge of any kind + or CAPACITORS We know thet charge giventoa conductor increases it's potential ie, Qe V > Q-CV Where Cis a proportionality constant, called capacity or capacitance of conductor, Hence capacitance is the ability of conductor to hold the charge (and associated electrical energy). Coulomb SJ. unitis =Farad ®) Smaller S.1_ units are mE, uf nF and pF (i 10°F, uF =10F, nF =10°F, pF =10-°R) CGS. unitis Stat Farad, 1F = 9+ 10" Stat Parad, Dimension -[C) MALAY Pao NCL el 2.1 Definition A capacitor is a device that stores electric energy. Itis also named condenser, or A capacitor isa pair of wo conductors of any shape, which are closeto each other and have equal and opposite charge ‘The symbol of capacitor are shown below The capacitance ofa capacitor is defined asthe magnitude of the charge ( on the positive plate divided by the magnitude ofthe potential difference I between the plates ie, C=QV taf Capacitance ofa capacitor is constant forthe given dimensions & medium. 24 marge on capacitor Net charge ona capacitor is alway’ zero, but when we speak of the charge Q on a capacitor, we are referring to the ‘magnitude of the charge on each plate Parallel Plate Capacitor Spherical Capacitor 2.5 Energy stored ‘When a capacitor is charged by a voltage source (say battery) it stores the electric energy. oe Energy density - a IfC = Capacitance of capacitor; @ = Charge on capacitor and ’ = Potential difference across capacitor zg thn energy sredinupciter U= Levi = Ly Jat ‘Inccharging capacitor by battery half the energy supplied is stored in the capacitor and remaining half enetgy (1/2 QP) is lost inthe form of heat 2.6 Types of capacitors Capacitors are of mainly three types as described in given table It consists of two parallel metallic plates (may be circular, rectangular, square) sepanited by a small distance| A=areaofplate Q= Magnitude of charge I +9 <2 It consists of two concentric conducting, spheres of radii a and b (a o 2 A A No pad. across vertical branch soit is removed CT+LE we) Hence equivalent capacitance between A and B is SCI. (ern Rac. > a . “ charge for storing, ‘Thus equivalent capacitance of this circuit is zero, ‘Thus, entire charge will prefer to flow along path APB, It means that the capacitors connected in the circuit will not receive any MUN CESaa aca miNen enn} 1. Symmetry is always defined between 2 points. 2 Equivalent (symmetric) paths have same number, value and order of circuit elements along it, 3 When two or more paths in any network are equivalent, then charges flowing through those paths will be sume. ‘This technique makes the circuit easy to comprehend. Jour =—§— @ ng @ — TOR Paths (1) & (3) are symmetric between A & B thus equal charge will flow in them. 4. Ifthe combination of elements in the network is symmetric wert. battery ends, then the distribution of charge at one end will be same as is on the other end. arog 7] rs Ls —— urs 8 a8 ‘ 8 Ba r | [3 2 2H easter) Combined etect Ima circuit involving rmaltiple batteries, the charge flowing, a ‘ill be the superposition effect ofeach baer. ae eT ar av i Bel oi in mC ut th _y_._] 2H th Tov Inc 2 we Zp Effet of 1 battery hts ‘Wen more than 2 batteries are present, take nv Le cileet of battery, assuming other batteries absent. Aud awe dae then superimpose to ast otal effet poe Se uae we | caudate 16.1 Series and Parallel (with dielectrics) (a) When dielectric is partially filled between theplates Ifa dielectric slab of thickness (Ld) is inserted between the plates as shown below, then E = Main electric field between the plates, E'=Induced electric field in dielectric E'=(E~E)=The reduced value of electric field in the dielectric, Potential difterence between the two plates of capacitor is given by V=E(Q-1)+Et=EO-I+ Et vez(aveg]=S(a-re |= ‘Now capacitance of the capacitor Capacitance >—— | C'= & (nthiscase capacitor is saidtobe shorteireuited) (© Advance ease of compound dielectris several dielectric medium illed between the plates ofa parallel plate capacitor in different ways as shown, @ — Thesystemcanbeassumed tobemade up oftwo capacitors C, and C, which may be said to connected in series @, ye Gi) Inthis case C, and C, are in series while this combination 4s imparallel with C, t = he + RE QZ SSE A A Sieg Kea ¢ S7 _KyeA Gg ep eg 2 2 A Kat ad ¢,-—— 2. - BoA ad 2d 162 When separation between the plates is changing If separation between the plates charges then it's capacitance also changes according to C ce + The effect on other variables depends on the fact that whether the charged capacitor is disconnected from the battery or battery is still connected. @ Separation is increasing Battery sremoved Battery remains connected Ld Decreases because C5 ie, Cee ‘Remains constant because a battery isnot presentie, Q'=Q. battery Potential difference | Increases because -y difference) ‘Ramains constant because 2. hhavaesbecase U=2 = Uel 26 © ie, BE ieUeU ul Decreases ie, C'C Charge Remains constant because battery is Increases beemuse battery is present ie, Q>Q not present ie, Q’=Q Remaining charge (Q' — Q) supplied from the battery Potential difference | Decreases bevause v8 = velievev | v'=v (Since Battery maintains the potential difference) Blectrc fed Inerenesbecase p= > B

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