Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems The International Symposium On Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems Held in Narita Japan August 26 29 1996 PDF

PLANT PRODUCTION IN CLOSED ECOSYSTEMS
PLANT PRODUCTION IN
CLOSED ECOSYSTEMS
The International Symposium on
Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems
held in Narita, Japan, August 26-29, 1996
Edited by
E.GOTO
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering,
University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan
K.KVRATA
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering,
University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan
M.HAYASHI
School of High-Technology for Human Welfare,
Tokai University,
Shizuoka, Japan
and
S. SASE
National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering,
Ibaraki, Japan
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

A C.LP. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-4798-4 ISBN 978-94-015-8889-8 (eBook)

DOl 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved

© 1997 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1997.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1997
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
Dedicated
to Dr. Tadashi Takakura
CONTENTS
Preface IX
List of Contributors and Editors XI
Part A: GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY
Food Production in Greenhouses

M. H. Jensen
Controlled Flowering of Herbaceous Perennial Plants 15

R. D. Heins, A. C. Cameron, W. H. Carlson, E. Runkle,
C. Whitman, M. Yuan, C. Hamaker, B. Engle, and P. Koreman
Greenhouse Thermal Environment and Light Control 33

L.D. Albright
The Present Status and Future Outlook of the Use of Natural Enemies
and Pollinators in Protected Crops 49
M. Dissevelt and W. 1. Ravensberg
R&D Research/Demonstration Greenhouse using Methane Gas from

a Landfill for Co-generation 67
W.1. Roberts
Nutrient Management in Closed Growing Systems for Greenhouse Production 83

W. V oogt and C. Sonneveld
Monitoring and Control of Water and Nutrient Supply in Closed Growing

Systems 103
Th. H.Gieling, 1. Bontsema and E. A. van Os
Recent Advances in Photoselective Films with Interference Effects 123

T. L. F. Daponte
Greenhouse Technology for Saving the Earth in the 21st Century 139
T. Kozai, C. Kubota, and Y. Kitaya
Recent Advances in Environment Control in Micropropagation 153

C. Kubota, K. Fujiwara, Y. Kitaya, and T. Kozai
viii
Part B: CELSS AND SPACE AGRICULTURE
Automation and Systems Analysis 171

K. C. Ting
Food Production in Space: Challenges and Perspectives 189

T. W. Tibbitts and D. L. Henninger
Concepts, Components, and Controls for a CELSS 205

1. C. Sager and A. E. Drysdale
Gas Turnover and Gas Conditions in Hermetically Closed Plant

Production Systems 225
H. -1. Daunicht
CELSS Research: Interaction between Space and Terrestrial Approaches

in Plant Science 245
M. Andre and P. Chagvardieff
BIOSPHERE 2: A Closed Bioregenerative Life Support System,

An Analog for Long Duration Space Missions 263
1. Poynter and D. Bearden
Environmental Control for Plant Production in Space CELSS 279

E. Goto
Optimal Structure of Plant Conveyor for Human Life Support

in a Closed Ecosystem "BIOS-3" 297
1. 1. Gitelson, G. M. Lisovsky, and A. A. Tikhomirov
Growth Monitoring of Green Vegetables Cultured in a Centrifuge Phytotron 305

H. Murase, A. Tani, Y. Nishiura, and M. Kiyota
Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF) in Closed Ecology Experiment

Facilities (CEEF) and Preliminary Studies on CPEF Operation 321
Y. Tako
Subject Index 339

Preface
The International Symposium on Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems was held
in Narita, Japan on August 26-29, 1996. The Symposium was organized by the
Commission for Horticultural Engineering of the International Society for Horticultural
Science (ISHS) and the Japanese Society of Environment Control in Biology. It also
was held as the commemorative event to celebrate Dr. Tadashi Takakura's retirement
from the University of Tokyo. Dr. Takakura is a leading researcher in environmental
engineering and horticultural engineering as well as other related fields, and has greatly
contributed to academia and industry. He currently is the president of the Japanese
Society of Environment Control in Biology and was the chairman of the organizing
committee for this Symposium.
The Symposium covered various technologies and latest research related to plant
production in closed and semi-closed systems. Closed and semi-closed systems are
defined as any type of environment in which plants or parts of a plant (cells, tissues,
organs, etc.) are cultured and/or maintained under artificially controlled conditions, in a
restricted space, where free exchange of energy and mass between the system's interior
and exterior are restricted. Examples are: CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life
Support Systems), space farming, greenhouses, plastic tunnels, factory-style plant
production systems, nursery and transplant production systems, tissue culture vessels,
and postharvest systems. There were over 300 participants from 23 countries in
attendance at the Symposium. They were able to present their latest research and
exchange information and ideas with some of the foremost researchers in the world.
The accepted papers from the oral and poster sessions will be published in a book of
Acta Horticulturae, the proceedings ofISHS.
The first two days of the Symposium were devoted to the special lecture sessions, in
which distinguished researchers gave invited lectures. The special lecture sessions
focused on two main topics: greenhouse technology and CELSS/space agriculture.
This book, "Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems", contains all of the text and
material of the 17 lecturers that were presented. Three additional papers by Dr.
Murase et aI., Dr. Kubota et al. and Dr. Tako have been added to this volume to
complement the special lectures. All of the papers were collected in advance of the
Symposium, reviewed, and edited.
We hope that the information contained in this book will benefit readers and
provide future directions in this and related fields. We wish to express our sincere
appreciation to all of the contributors to this volume. They have all completed
informative and insightful articles in a very limited amount of time. Special thanks
go to Mr. Masashi Komine, Mr. Joey H. Norikane, and Ms. Nancy K. Okamura, all
graduate students of University of Tokyo, for their voluntary assistance.
Tokyo, October 1996

Eiji Goto Kenji Kurata
Makio Hayashi Sadanori Sase
ix
List of Contributors and Editors
Contributors
L. D. Albright
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
M. Andre
Department d'Ecophysiologie Vegetale et de Microbiologie,
Centre de CADARACHE, F-13108 Saint Paullez Durance, France
D. Bearden
Paragon Space Development Corporation, 810 East 47th Street, Suite #104
Tucson, Arizona, 85714, USA
J. Bontsema
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Physics
Wageningen Agricultural University
Bomenweg 4,6703 HD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
A. C. Cameron
Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
W. H. Carlson
P. Chagvardieff
Centre de CADARACHE, F -13108 Saint Paullez Durance, France
T. L. F. Daponte
Daponte & Co, Dorp West 141,2070 Zwijndrecht, Belgium
H. -J. Daunicht
Institute for Horticultural Science, Humboldt University Berlin
Konigin-Luise-Str. 22, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
M. Dissevelt
Koppert Biological Systems B.V., P.O. Box 155
2650 AD Berkel & Rodenrijs, The Netherlands
A. E. Drysdale
McDonnell Douglas Space and Defense Systems, Kennedy Space Center,
FL 32899. USA
B. Engle
K. Fujiwara
Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, Matsudo, Chiba 271, Japan
xi
xii
Th. H.Gieling
IMAG-DLO, Monitoring and Control Department
POBox 43,6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
1. I. Gitelson
Institute of Biophysics (Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch)
Krasnoyarsk 660036, Russia
E. Goto
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, University of Tokyo
1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan
C. Hamaker
R. D. Heins
D. L. Henninger
NASA Johnson Space Center, Mail Code EC3, 2101 NASA
Houston, TX 77058-3696, USA
M. H. Jensen
School of Agriculture, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Y. Kitaya
College of Agriculture, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka 593, Japan
M. Kiyota
P. Koreman
T. Kozai
C. Kubota
G. M. Lisovsky
H. Murase
Y. Nishiura
J. Poynter
Paragon Space Development Corporation, 810 East 47th Street, Suite #104
Tucson, Arizona, 85714, USA
xiii
W. J. Ravensberg
Koppert Biological Systems B.V., P.O. Box 155
W. 1. Roberts
Department of Bioresource Engineering, Rutgers University-Cook College
P.O. Box 231, New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0231, USA
E. Runkle
1. C. Sager
NASA, Mail Code MD-RES, Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899, USA
C. Sonneveld
Research Station for Floriculture and Glasshouse Vegetables
P.O. Box 8, 2670 AA Naaldwijk, The Netherlands
Y. Tako
Department of Environmental Simulation, Institute for Environmental Sciences
1-7 Ienomae, Obuchi, Rokkasho, Kamikita, Aomori 039-32, Japan
A. Tani
T. W. Tibbitts
Department of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706-1590, USA
A. A. Tikhomirov
K. C. Ting
Department of Bioresource Engineering, Rutgers University-Cook College
P.O. Box 231, New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0231, USA
M. Yuan
E. A. van Os
IMAG-DLO, Monitoring and Control Department
POBox 43, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
W. Voogt
P.O. Box 8, 2670 AA Naaldwijk, The Netherlands
C. Whitman
xiv
Editors
E. Goto, chief
K. Kurata
M. Hayashi
School of High-Technology for Human Welfare, Tokai University
Nishino 317, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-03, Japan
S. Sase
National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, Japan
FOOD PRODUCTION IN GREENHOUSES
Merle H. Jensen
University of Arizona
School of Agriculture
Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
ABSTRACT. Growing greenhouse vegetables is one of the most exacting and

intense forms of all agricultural enterprises. In combination with greenhouses,
hydroponics is becoming increasingly popular, especially in the United States, western
Europe, and Japan. It is high technology and capital intensive. It is highly
productive, conservative of water and land and protective of the environment. For
production of leafy vegetables and herbs, deep flow hydroponics is common. For
growing row crops such as tomato, cucumber, and pepper, the two most popular
artificial growing media are rockwool and perlite. Computers today operate hundreds
of devices within a greenhouse by utilizing dozens of input parameters, to maintain the
most desired growing environment. The technology of greenhouse food production is
changing rapidly with systems today producing yields never before realized. The
future for hydroponic/soilless cultured systems appears more positive today than any
time over the last 50 years.
1. Introduction
The technology for food production in greenhouses has advanced a great deal in the.
last 20 years. Greenhouse food production often termed controlled environment
agriculture (CEA) usually accompanies hydroponics. Hydroponic culture is possibly
the most intensive method of crop production in today's agricultural industry. In
combination with greenhouses, it is high technology and capital intensive. Yet, for
most of its employees, hydroponic culture requires only basic agricultural skills.'
Since regulating the aerial and root environment is a major concern in such agricultural
systems, production takes place inside enclosures designed to control air and root
temperatures, light, water, plant nutrition and adverse climate.
There are many types of controlled environment/hydroponic systems. Each
component of CEA is of equal importance, whether it be the structural design, the
environmental control or the growing system. Not every system is cost effective in
every location. All too often, importance is given to only one or two of the key
components but fails due to the lack of attention given to anyone of the components.
E. Goto et al. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 1-14.

© 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2
If improper attention is given to the greenhouse structure and its environment, no

hydroponic system will prove economically viable. Since CEA usually accompanies
hydroponics, their potentials and problems are inextricable.
2. History
The earliest food production in greenhouses was possibly the growing of off-season
cucumbers under "transparent stone" for the Roman Emperor Tiberius during the first
century. The technology was rarely employed, if at all, during the following 1500
years.
During the 1600's, several techniques were used to protect horticultural crops
against the cold. These included glass lanterns, bell jars, cold frames and hot beds
covered with glass. In the seventeenth century, low portable wooden frames covered
with an oiled translucent paper were used to warm the plant environment much as
plastic row covers do today (Dalrymple 1973). In Japan, straw mats were used in
combination with oil paper to protect crops from the severe natural environment
(Takakura 1988). Greenhouses in France and England during the same century were
heated by manure and covered with glass panes (Gibault 1912). The first glass house
in the 1700's, used glass on one side only, as a sloping roof. Later in the century,
glass was used on both sides. This glasshouse was used for fruit crops such as melons,
grapes, peaches, and strawberries and only rarely for vegetable production (Dalrymple
1973). It would seem that the developers of this new technology kept market
profitability in mind: they produced crops which appealed to the wealthy and
privileged, the only people who could afford the luxury of fresh fruit produced out of
season in greenhouses.
Greenhouse food production was not fully established until the introduction of
polyethylene. In the U.S., the first use of polyethylene as a greenhouse cover was in
1948, when Professor Emery Myers Emmert at the University of Kentucky, used the
less expensive material in place of more expensive glass. Professor Emmert is
considered the father of plastics in the U .S., because he developed many principles of
plastic technology for agricultural purposes through his research on greenhouses,
plastic mulches and row covers.
The development of hydroponics has not been rapid. In the U.S., interest began
to develop in the possible use of complete nutrient solutions about 1925, for large scale
crop production.
Greenhouse soils had to be replaced at frequent intervals or else be maintained in
good condition from year to year by adding large quantities of commercial fertilizers.
As a result of these difficulties, research workers in certain U.S. agricultural
experiment stations turned to nutrient solution culture methods as a means of replacing
the natural soil system with either an aerated nutrient solution or an artificial soil
composed of chemically inert aggregates moistened with nutrient solutions (Withrow
and Withrow 1948).
3
Between 1925 and 1935, extensive development took place in modifying the
methods of the plant physiologists to large scale crop production. Workers at the
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station improved the sand culture method (Shive
and Robbins 1937). The water and sand culture methods were used for large scale
production by investigators at the California Agricultural Experiment Station
(Hoagland and Arnon 1938). Each of these methods involved certain fundamental
limitations for commercial crop production which partially were overcome with the
introduction of the subirrigation system initiated in 1934 at the New Jersey and Indiana
Agricultural Experiment Station (Withrow and Withrow 1948). While there was
commercial interest in the use of such systems, hydroponics was not widely accepted
due to the high cost in construction of the concrete growing beds.
After a period of approximately 20 years, interest in hydroponics was renewed with
the advent of plastics. Plastics were used not only in the glazing of greenhouses, but
also in lining the growing beds rather than beds made of concrete. Plastics were also
important in the introduction of drip irrigation. Numerous promotional schemes
involving hydroponics became common with huge investments made in hydroponic
growing systems.
Unfortunately, escalating oil prices, starting in 1973, substantially increased the
costs of CEA heating and cooling by one or two orders of magnitude. This along with
fewer chemicals registered for pest control caused many bankruptcies and a decreasing
interest in hydroponics.
Almost another 20 years have passed since the last real interest in hydroponics.
There is again a renewed interest in growers establishing CEA/hydroponic systems.
This is especially true in regions where there are environmental concerns in controlling
any pollution of groundwater with nutrient wastes or soil sterilants. Today growers
appear to be much more critical in regard to site selection, structures, the growing
system, pest control and markets.
3. Greenhouse Area
The total world area of glasshouses is estimated to be 40,700 ha (Wittwer and Castilla
1995), with most of these found in northwestern Europe.
In contact to glasshouses, plastic greenhouses have been readily adopted on all five
continents, especially in the Mediterranean region, China and Japan. Most plastic
greenhouses operate on a seasonal basis, rather than year round, as is the case with
most glasshouses. The estimated area of plastic greenhouses is shown in Table 1.
PVC film for greenhouses is still dominant in Asia, especially in Japan (35,200 ha),
and low density polyethylene is also used in Italy (500 ha) and Greece. LDPE films
cover a total of 149,000-162,000 ha; the average consumption is 1.5 MTIha/year, with
a total world tonnage of over 250,000 MT/year.
4
Table 1. Estimated world use of plastic greenhouses (1995).

Region Area (ha)
Northern Europe 16,700
Mediterranean 95,300
Americas 15,600
Asia l38,200
World Total 265,800
Source: Wittwer and Castilla 1995
In Japan, the area covered by plastic film greenhouses increased 35,000 ha. in just
20 years (1965-85). In Korea, their greenhouses increased 6.3 times, from 3,099 ha.
in 1975 to 21,061 ha. in 1986. The People's Republic of China showed equally
dramatic growth: 5,300 ha. in 1978 to 34,000 ha. in 1988. The combined growth
for both greenhouses and row covers, in China exceeded 96,000 ha. in just ten years.
Undoubtedly, China is one of the largest users of agricultural plastics in the world,
where over one billion people - 29 percent of the world's population - are being fed
from only 5 percent of the earth's cultivated land.
Since 1960, the greenhouse has evolved into more than a plant protector. The
greenhouses of today can best be seen as plant or vegetable factories. Almost every
aspect of the production system is automated, with the artificial environment and
growing system under nearly total computer control. In a research setting, such a
totally enclosed system, with artificial light, is called a growth chamber or a phytotron.
In the United States and Japan, such systems may cover large areas.
Controlled environment agriculture has gained in horticultural importance not only
in vegetable and ornamental crop production but also in the production of plant
seedlings, either from seed or through tissue culture procedures.
In the last 15 years there has been increasing interest in the use of soilless or
hydroponic techniques for producing greenhouse horticultural crops. The future
growth of greenhouse or controlled environment agriculture, where hydroponics is
used for vegetable production, will depend greatly on the development of production
systems that are competitive, in terms of costs, with open field agriculture.
4. Economics of Food Production in Greenhouses
Balanced against the high capital and operational costs of greenhouses is the
significantly higher productivity of such systems in comparison with open field
agriculture (OF A). Yield data have been reported in the literature for years; typical
yields for crops grown hydroponically in desert greenhouses in the American southwest
are compared with typical "good" yields for open field crops in Table 2.
As the data indicate, the yield per crop is higher in greenhouses than in OF A
5
because of the optimal growing conditions, balanced plant nutrient, etc., provided in
controlled environments.
Because of the controlled environment, year-round production can be achieved.
whereas in the open field crop production is only seasonal.
Table 2. Yields of vegetable crops grown hydroponically in desert

greenhouses (CEA) and in open fields (OF A)
Hydroponic CEA OFA'
Crop Yield/Crop No. Total Yield Total Yield
(MT/ha) Crops/yr MT/ha/yr MT/ha/yr
Cucumber 300.0 2 600.0 30.0
Eggplant 28.0 2 56.0 20.0
Green bell peppers 57.0 2 114.0 16.0
Colored bell peppers 45.0 2 90.0 10.0
Lettuce 31.0 10 313.0 52.0
Tomato 550.0 IY 550.0 100.0
=Source: Knott (1966)
'Tomato crop grown in greenhouse cover 11 month period.
Gross returns from greenhouse vegetables must be high. This is accomplished by

high prices for the product and/or high yields. There is little room for error, therefore,
it is imperative that there be no shortcuts in environmental control, competent
management, or any other factor of production. Today, in the United States, retailers
commonly double their sale prices over the wholesale price to the grower. Such a
high mark up can cause great consumer resistance.
In the United States, new tomato varieties from Holland, have good flavor even
when grown during the winter in the high light regions of the desert southwest.
Consumers are showing much less resistance to higher prices providing the tomatoes
are of good appearance and flavor.
5. Structures and Environmental Control
The European glass structures, which today are commonly being built for vegetable
production in the southwestern part of the United States, are very different from the
polyethylene/fiberglass houses used in hydroponic production between 1965 and 1990.
The height of the European structures is much greater.
To achieve a more uniform growing environment, without rapid temperature
fluctuations, more total volume of space is being allotted within a given area of a
greenhouse, where today it is common for the gutters of greenhouse structures to reach
a height of over 5 m above ground level.
6
For polyethylene greenhouses, the types of polyethylene sheet films are much the
same except those introduced, over a decade ago, which retard the loss of infrared heat.
These films are reported to reduce 20% of the heat loss from the greenhouse and have
become common in today's industry, especially in Europe. Other glazing materials
such as a fiberglass, polyvinyl chloride, Mylar and Tedlar have proven either more
inappropriate, inconvenient or in most cases, much more expensive than polyethylene,
even though the latter may have to be replaced more frequently. Newer materials,
such as polycarbonates and acrylics have become much more common, but their
popularity has been offset by high costs.
Newly developed polyethylene film in Israel has been designed to allow very low
levels of UV light to be transmitted. There is good evidence that UV blocking films
have an adverse effect on flying insects such as Bemisia tabacci, aphids and thrips.
Greenhouses are expensive, however, and controlling the environment within a
greenhouse requires considerable energy. Starting twenty years ago, there was major
research emphasis on the use of solar energy and reject heat from large industrial units.
Although solar energy as a greenhouse heat source is technically feasible, it has not
proven economical because of the collection and storage costs. The economics of
using waste heat from generating plants favors incorporating the heat-use system into
the overall plans for new plants, rather than modifYing existing ones. While such
designs have been proposed, none were ever actually initiated in the United States.
In the last ten years, there has been interest in the development of co-generation
plants, where small electrical plants have received government assistance if there is
design to use the waste heat from the electrical generators. Several such facilities
have been established where the waste heat was used either to heat greenhouse
vegetables or water for fish production. While such opportunities are inviting, excess
U.S. government regulation and red tape have discouraged many investors from taking
advantage of such opportunities.
Whatever the source of energy, it is important to conserve the energy, once it is in
the greenhouse. In regions of cold winter weather, thermal curtains of porous
polyester or an aluminum foil fabric are installed to reduce night heat loss by as much
as 57%. In the deserts of the southwest, winter temperatures are not severe enough to
warrant curtains. While curtains will provide energy savings, it is not enough to
warrant the high investment cost of the curtains plus the shade from the curtains, even
when rolled up and stored during the day, can be a factor.
In the future, greenhouses will have retractable roofs allowing full light and
ventilation if desired.
6. ComputerslData Acquisition Systems
Today, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation throughout

Europe, Japan, and the United States. Computer systems can provide fully integrated
control of temperature, humidity, irrigation and fertilization, carbon dioxide, light and
7
shade levels for virtually any size growing facility. Precise control over a growing
operation enables growers to realize savings of 15 - 50% for energy, water, chemicaL
and pesticide applications. Computer controls normally result in greater plant
consistency, on-schedule production, higher overall plant quality, and environmental
purity.
A computer can control hundreds of devices within a greenhouse (vents, heaters,
fans, hot water mixing valves, irrigation valves, curtains, lights, etc.) by utilizing
dozens of input parameters, such as outside and inside temperatures, humidity, outside
wind direction and velocity, carbon dioxide levels and even the time of day or night.
Computer systems interrogate all sensors, evaluate all conditions, and send
appropriate commands every minute to each piece of equipment in the greenhouse
range thus maintaining ideal conditions in each of the various independent greenhouse
zones defined by the grower.
Computers collect and log data provided by greenhouse production managers. A
computer can keep track of all relevant information, such as temperature, humidity,
C02, light levels, etc. It dates and time tags the information and stores it for current
or later use. Such a data acquisition system will enable the grower to gain a
comprehensive understanding of all factors affecting the quality and timeliness of the
product.
A computer will produce graphs of past and current environmental conditions both
inside and outside the greenhouse complex. Using a data printout option, growers can
produce reports and summaries of environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity, and the C02 status for a given day, or over a longer period of time.
Scientists are currently developing plant growing models in which computers
actually make decision for the greenhouse growers. These "artificial intelligence"
systems integrate the latest knowledge about greenhouse growing theory, actual
management practices, and environmental conditions inside and outside the greenhouse.
The computer will be taught to assess all the variables, make a decision, and give
instructions for application. The decisions made by the computer in climate control
can provide the grower 24 hour-a-day assistance in the management and production of
greenhouse crops. A system can be so reliable that, even if it should fail, it will not
only call the grower on the telephone but will also turn key components over to local
control.
Unfortunately, such computer systems are expensive and mainly limited to large
greenhouse facilities operating year-round. The crops grown are usually of high value
and are those that respond to precise control over the environment. Computers are
not economically feasible for protected agriculture situations that are seasonal: the
added costs outweigh the economics benefits unless used throughout the year.
Despite the attraction of computer systems, it is well to remember that the success
of any production system is totally dependent on the farmer's knowledge and his
management skills. Computers only assist by adding precision to these skills. A
computer is only as effective as the person who feeds it the data.
As computer costs continue to decrease and as farmers become computer literate,
8
computers will become increasingly popular in greenhouse agriculture. In developing

countries, where farmers lack formal education, financial resources, and the skill to
operate computers, the utilization of these systems in greenhouse food production is
remote.
7. Hydroponic/Soilless Culture
The standard method of growing greenhouse vegetable throughout the world is in soil.
A successful grower who grows in soil usually has a good knowledge of horticulture,
soils, plant pathology, entomology, and plant physiology, as well as the engineering
capability to provide an environment best suited for plant growth. Many persons who
establish a greenhouse operation fail because they lack the education and training in
one or more of the above disciplines.
A major problem in growing crops in soil are soil-borne diseases. Growing plants
continuously, without crop rotation or interruption in production as in open field
production during northern winters, can lead to an excessive build up of soil pathogens.
Because of environmental and health restrictions, there is currently a lack of soil
fumigants available for greenhouse use. This problem, added to the high cost of fuel
to steam sterilize, is focusing attention on methods of hydroponic controlled
environment agriculture.
During the last 12 years, there has been increasing interest in hydroponics or
soilless techniques for producing greenhouse horticultural crops. The future growth
of hydroponics depends greatly on the development of production systems that are cost
competitive with open field agriculture.
There are many types of hydroponic systems, as well as many designs for
greenhouse structures and many methods of control of the environment. Not every
system is cost effective in each location. While the techniques of hydroponic culture
in the tropics may get quite similar to those used in temperate regions, greenhouse
structures themselves and methods of environmental control can differ greatly.
Hydroponics is a technology for growing plants in nutrient solutions (water and
fertilizers) with or without the use of an artificial medium (e.g., sand, gravel,
vermiculite, rockwool, peat moss, coir, sawdust) to provide mechanical support.
Liquid hydroponic systems have no other supporting medium for the plant roots:
aggregate systems have a solid medium of support. Hydroponic systems are further
categorized as open (i.e., once the nutrient solution is delivered to the plant roots, it is
not reused) or closed (i.e., surplus solution is recovered, replenished, and recycled).
Some regional growers, agencies, and publications persist in confining the
definition of hydroponics to liquid systems only. This exclusion of aggregate
hydroponi~s serves to blur statistical data and may lead to an underestimation of the
extent of the technology and its economic implications.
Virtually all hydroponic systems in temperate regions of the world are enclosed in
greenhouse-type structures to provide temperature control, reduce evaporative water
9
loss, reduce disease and pest infestations, and protect crops against the elements of
weather, such as wind and rain. The latter considerations are especially valid in
tropical regions.
The principle advantages of hydroponic CEA include high-density maximum crop
yield, crop production where no suitable soil exists, a virtual indifference to ambient
temperature and seasonality, more efficient use of water and fertilizers, minimal use of
land area, and suitability for mechanization and disease control. A major advantage
of hydroponics, as compared with growth of plants in soil, is the isolation of the crop
from the underlying soil, which often has problems of disease, salinity, poor structure
and draining. The costly and time-consuming tasks of soil sterilization and
cultivation are unnecessary in hydroponic systems and a rapid turnaround of crops is
readily achieved.
Hydroponics offers a means of control over soil-born diseases and pests, which is
especially desirable in the tropics, where infestations are a major concern. Most
temperate regions have climatic changes, such as cold winters, to break the life cycles
of many pests. In the tropics, this life cycle continues uninterrupted, as does the threat
of infestation. Unfortunately, less is known about many of the diseases that occur in
the tropics than those in temperate regions. In comparing three major food crops
grown in the tropics and temperate regions of the world, the incidence of disease is
much greater in the tropics, as illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3. Number of crop diseases

CROPS TEMPERATE TROPICS
Rice 54 500-600
Corn 85 125
Beans 52 250-280
Source: (Wittwer 1981)
The principle disadvantages of hydroponics, relative to conventional open-field

agriculture, are the high costs of capital and energy inputs, and the high degree of
management skills required for successful production. Capital costs may be
especially excessive if the structures are artificially heated and evaporatively cooled by
fan and pad systems, systems of environmental control which are not always needed in
the tropics. Because of its significantly higher costs, successful applications of
hydroponic technology are limited to crops of high economic value to specific regions,
and often confined to specific times of the year, when comparable OF A is not feasible.
A decade ago, it was calculated that the highest market prices ever paid would have
to increase by a factor of five for hydroponic agronomy to break even. Since then,
CEA costs have more than doubled, while crop commodity prices have remained
constant. Indeed, in the United States, open-field agronomic crops are usually in
surplus, and a significant percentage of the available cropland is deliberately idled.
10
Repeated pricing studies have shown that only high-quality, garden type vegetables -
tomatoes, cucumbers, and speciality lettuce - can provide break even or better revenues
in hydroponic systems. These are, in fact, virtually the only hydroponic CEA food
crops grown today in the United States. In Europe and Japan, these vegetables, and
eggplant, peppers, melons, strawberries, herbs are grown commercially in hydroponic
systems.
7.1 LIQUID (NON AGGREGATE) HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
By their nature, liquid systems are closed systems in which the plant roots are directly
exposed to the nutrient solution, with no other growing medium, and the solution is
reused. There are several systems in this category such as the nutrient film technique
(NFT) and deep flow hydroponics. The latter, has become possibly the most popular
hydroponic system for production of leafy vegetables and herbs.
7.1.1 Deep Flow Hydroponics. In 1976, a method for growing a number of heads of
lettuce or other leafy vegetables on a floating raft of expanded plastic was developed
independently by Jensen (Jensen and Collins 1985) in Arizona and Massantini (1976)
in Italy. Large-scale production facilities are now common and are quite popular in
Japan. In the Caribbean, lettuce production has been made possible by combining
this system of hydroponics with cooling the nutrient solution, which stops the bolting
of lettuce.
The production system consists of horizontal, rectangular-shaped tanks lined with
plastic. Those developed by Jensen measured 4 m x 70 m, and 30 cm deep. The
nutrient solution was monitored, replenished, recirculated, and aerated. Rectangular
tanks have two distinct advantages: the nutrient pools are frictionless conveyor belts
for planting and harvesting movable floats, and the plants are spread in a single
horizontal plane for maximum interception of sunlight.
7.1.2 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT). The nutrient film technique was developed
during the late 1960's by Dr. Allan Cooper at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute
in Littlehampton, England (Winsor et al. 1979); a number of subsequent refinements
have been developed at the same institution (Graves 1983). NFT has given rise to
several modified systems which are used for leafy vegetable production mainly lettuce.
In a nutrient film system for crops such as tomatoes, a thin film of nutrient solution
tlows through plastic lined channels, which contain the plant roots. The walls of the
channels are flexible; this permits them to be drawn together around the base of each
plant, excluding light and preventing evaporation. For lettuce production, the heads
are planted through holes in a flexible plastic material that covers each trough.
Nutrient solution is pumped to the higher end of each channel and flows by gravity
past the plant roots to catchment pipes and a sump. The solution is monitored for
replenishment of salts and water before it is recycled. Capillary material in the
11
channel prevents young plants from drying out, and the roots soon grow into a tangled
mat.
A principle advantage of the NFT system in comparison with others is that it
requires much less nutrient solution. It is therefore easier to heat the solution during
winter months, to obtain optimum temperatures for root growth, and to cool it during
hot summers in arid or tropical regions, thereby avoiding the bolting of lettuce and
other undesirable plant responses. Reduced volumes are also easier to work with if it
is necessary to treat the nutrient solution for disease control. A complete description
on the design and operation of an NFT system is published in Horticultural Review,
volume 7, pages 1-44 (Graves 1983).
7.1.3. Aeroponics. In an unusual application of closed system hydroponics, plants are

grown in holes in panels of expanded polystyrene or other material. The plant roots
are suspended in midair beneath the panel and enclosed in a spraying box. The box is
sealed so that the roots are in darkness (to inhibit algal growth) and in saturation
humidity. A misting system sprays the nutrient solution over the roots periodically.
The system is normally turned on for only a few seconds every 2-3 minutes. This is
sufficient to keep roots moist and the nutrient solution aerated. Systems were
developed by .Tensen in Arizona for lettuce, spinach, and even tomatoes, although the
latter was judged not to be economically viable (.Tensen, Collins 1985). In fact, there
are no known large-scale commercial aeroponic operations in the United States,
although several small companies market systems for home use.
The A-frame aeroponic system developed in Arizona for low, leafy crops may be
feasible for commercial food production. Inside a CEA structure, these frames are
oriented with the inclined slope facing east-west. The expanded plastic panels are
standard size (1.2 m x 2.4 m), mounted lengthwise, and spread 1.2 m at the base to
form an end view equilateral triangle. The A-frame rests atop a panel-sized
watertight box, 25 cm deep, which contains the nutrient solution and misting
equipment (Jensen and Collins 1985). Young transplants in small cubes of growing
medium are inserted into holes in the panels, which are spaced at intervals of 18 cm on
center. The roots are suspended in the enclosed air space and misted with nutrient
solution as described previously.
An apparent disadvantage of such a system is uneven growth resulting from
variations in light intensity on the inclined crops. An advantage of this technique for
CEA lettuce or spinach production is that twice as many plants may be accommodated
per unit of floor areas as in other systems; i.e., as with vine crops, the cubic volume of
the greenhouse is better utilized. Unlike the small test systems described here, larger
plantings could utilize A-frames more than 30 m in length, sitting atop a simple, sloped
trough that collects and drains the nutrient solution to a central sump.
Another potential commercial application of aeroponics, in addition to the
production of leafy vegetables in locations with extreme space and/or weight
restrictions is the rooting of foliage plant cuttings. Such a rooting system works well
to control foliage diseases, and is especially important if export requirements dictate
12
that roots of cuttings be soil-free at the time of shipping. While the cuttings require
heavy shading at the time of rooting, overhead misting is not required. This greatly
reduces the problems of fungal diseases and the leaching of nutrients from the foliage
of the cuttings.
7.2 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
In aggregate hydroponic systems, a solid, inert medium provides support for the plants.
As in liquid systems, the nutrient solution is delivered directly to the plant roots.
Aggregate systems may be either open or closed, depending on whether surplus
amounts of the solution are to be recovered and reused. Open systems do not recycle
the nutrient solution; closed systems do.
In most open hydroponic systems, excess nutrient solution is recovered; however,
the surplus is not recycled to the plants, but is disposed of in evaporation ponds or used
to irrigate adjacent landscape plantings or windbreaks. Because the nutrient solution
is not recycled, such open systems are less sensitive to the composition of the medium
used or to the salinity of the water. These factors have generated experiments with a
wide range of growing media and the development of more cost-efficient designs for
containing them. In addition to wide growing beds in which a sand medium is spread
across the entire greenhouse floor, open systems may use troughs, trenches, bags, and
slabs of porous horticultural grade rockwool.
There are numerous types of media used in aggregate hydroponic systems. They
include peat, vermiculite, or a combination of both, to which may be added polystyrene
beads, small waste pieces of polystyrene beads or perlite to reduce the total cost.
Other media as coconut coir, sand, sawdust are also common in some regions of the
world.
For growing row crops such as tomato, cucumber, and pepper, possibly the two
most popular artificial growing media are rockwool and perlite. Both of these media
can be used in either closed or open systems (gravel is not recommended for use as an
aggregate in either system). Both media are lightweight when dry, easily handled and
easier to steam-sterilize than many other types of aggregate materials. Both can be
incorporated as a soil amendment after crops have been grown in it.
An obvious disadvantage is that rockwool and perlite may be relatively costly
unless manufactured or mined within the region. Therefore, it is common for many
growers to use growing media that are indigenous to the region, such as sawdust in
western Canada, peat moss in Norway and coconut coir in Mexico.
When both perlite and rockwool are used as closed systems, great care must be
taken to avoid the buildup of toxic salts and to keep the system free of nematodes and
soilborne diseases. Once certain diseases are introduced, the infested nutrient
solution will contaminate the entire planting. While it is common to sterilize the
recirculating solution, there is today on going research to control certain root diseases
with surfactants. Such systems can be capital intensive because they require leak
13
proof growing beds as well as subgrade mechanical systems and nutrient storage tanks.
8. Disease and Insect Control
For the past 50 years, crop diseases and insects have largely been controlled by
chemicals. This is especially true in Europe, and in most other regions where
protected agriculture is widely practiced, for both greenhouse and field crops. In
these areas, many apparently effective pesticides and chemicals (none produced
specifically or exclusively for greenhouse agriculture) are available and legal.
However, in the United States, where so many of the world's agricultural chemicals
have been invented, few chemicals are legal for use in greenhouses. The effects of
chemicals inside CEA structures may be different and more dangerous than they are in
open-field crops, and their safety must be documented before federal and state
governments will certify their use. However, because of the limited use of CEA in
American food production. manufacturers are unwilling to spend the large sums
necessary to obtain such documentation and certification.
The frightening ability of some insects to develop resistance to chemical pesticides
has revived worldwide interest in the concept of biological control: the deliberate
introduction of natural enemies of insect pests, particularly when used in association
with horticultural practices, plant genetics, and other control mechanisms. This
combined approach, called integrated pest management (IPM), is of particular interest
to greenhouse growers throughout the world because of the paucity of pesticides with
legal clearance for use in greenhouses.
9. The Future of Food Production in Greenhouses
There seems to be a kind of technological imperative driving development of

greenhouse agriculture. Like manufacturing, it generally moves toward higher-
technology. more capital-intensive solutions to problems. It is highly productive and
suitable for automation.
Given present circumstances, however, there seems to be no rational basis for
anticipating a much wider and faster diffusion of technology than is presently occurring.
The future growth of controlled environment agriculture depends greatly on the
development of systems of production that are cost-competitive with those of open
field agriculture.
Continuing research and development, for example, may lead to more cost-
efficient structures and materials; to reduced requirements of purchased energy; to new
cultivars more appropriate to controlled environments and mechanized systems; to
better control (including improved plant resistance) of diseases and pests. To the
extent that these improvements increase crop yield and reduce unit costs of production,
protected agriculture will become more competitive.
14
The economic prospects for CEA may change if governmental bodies determine
that in some circumstances, politically desirable effects of CEA merit subsidy for the
public good.
Such beneficial effects may include the conservation of water in regions of scarcity
or food production in hostile environments; governmental support for these reasons has
occurred in the Middle East. Another desirable societal effect can be the provision of
income-producing employment for chronically disadvantaged segments of the
population entrapped in economically depressed regions; such employment produces
tax revenues as well as personal incomes, reducing the impact on welfare rolls and
improving the quality of life.
CEA is a technical reality. Such production systems are extending the growing
seasons in many regions of the world and producing horticultural crops where field-
grown fresh vegetables and ornamentals are unavailable for much of the year. The
economic well-being of many communities throughout the world has been enhanced by
the development and use of CEA. Such systems offer many new alternatives and
opportunities for tomorrow's popUlation, new systems that encourage conservation and
preservation of the environment rather than the exploitation of the land and water.
References
Dalrymple DG (1973) A global review of greenhouse food production. USDA Rpt.
89.
Gibault G (1912) Histoire des legumes. Librarie Horticole, Paris. P. 367-368.
Graves CJ (1983) The nutrient film technique. Horticutural Review. 5: 1-44.
Hoaglund DR and Arnon DI (1938) The water culture method for growing plants
without soil. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. 347, 39p.
Jensen MH and Collins WL (1985) Hydroponic vegetable production. Hort.
Review 7, 483-558.
Knott JE (1966) Handbook for vegetable growers. John Wiley, New York, 238 p.
Massantini F (1976) Floating hydroponics; A method of soilless culture, 91-98. In
Proc. 4th Intn. Congress on Soilless Culture, Las Palmas, Canary Island, Spain.
Shive JW and Robbins WR (1937) Methods of growing plants in solution and sand
cultures. New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 636.
Takakura T (1988) Protected cultivation in Japan. Symp. on High Tech. in
Protected Cult. Acta Hort. 230, 29-37.
Winsor G W et al (1979) Nutrient Film Technique. Grower Bulletin 5. Glasshouse
Crops Research Institute, Littlehampton, England.
Withrow RB and Withrow AP (1948) Nutriculture. Purdue University Agr. Expt.
Sta., Bul. 328.
Wittwer SH (1981) The 20 crops that stand between man and starvation. Farm
Chemicals 8, 17-18, 23, 26, 28.
Wittwer SH and Castilla N (1995) Protected cultivation of horticultural crops
worldwide. Hort technology 5(1), 6-23.
CONTROLLED FLOWERING OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIAL PLANTS
R.D. Heins, A.C. Cameron, W.H. Carlson, E. Runkle, C. Whitman, M. Yuan, C.

Hamaker, B. Engle, and P. Koreman
Department of Horticulture
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
ABSTRACT. We have determined the juvenility, cold (vemalization), photoperiod, and

cultural requirements necessary to flower many herbaceous perennials on specific dates and
at specified sizes. We identified the long-day (LD) requirement by conducting critical
photoperiod experiments in which critical photoperiod is defined as the photoperiod that
elicits a complete, rapid, uniform flowering response in a population. The LD requirement
for all herbaceous perennials tested can be met by either a continual photoperiod of 16
hours or more, or by four hours oflight as an interruption in the middle of the night. Night-
interruption lighting for two hours is adequate for rapid, uniform flowering in some
species. Incandescent, cool-white fluorescent, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium
lamps effectively promote an LD response; differences among the irradiance levels
required for flower induction are horticulturally insignificant. To maintain vegetative
growth on quantitative and qualitative LD species, photoperiods should be 10 hours or
fewer.
1. Introduction
Herbaceous perennials in the horticultural sense constitute a wide range of plant species
generally native to temperate climates. Historically, herbaceous perennials have been a
relatively small part of the floricultural market. They are not even cited as a crop group in
the United States Department of Agriculture's National Agricultural Statistics Service
Floricultural Crops statistics (USDA, 1995). Although complete statistics on herbaceous
perennials are not possible to obtain, Rhodus (1994, 1995) reported that wholesale, retail,
and landscape sales of herbaceous perennials by Perennial Plant Association members
increased from $338.4 million in 1993 to $396 million in 1994.
Most annual bedding plants sold in the United States are in flower, while many
herbaceous perennials are sold vegetative. Experience in the U.S. market has shown that
flowering plants sell better than vegetative ones. Although numerous texts describing
herbaceous perennials are available, specific information necessary to flower most
herbaceous perennials on a chosen date at a specific size is lacking. In 1992 at Michigan
State University, we started a research program directed at developing the information
15
16
necessary to bring herbaceous perennials into flower predictably. This chapter summarizes
our findings to date.
2. Flowering Requirements
The flowering requirements for herbaceous perennials are species dependent. However,
three specific areas must be addressed to bring a particular species into flower predictably:
juvenility, cold, and photoperiod. Herbaceous perennials propagated from seed have a
juvenility phase following germination, many have a cold or vemalization requirement, and
many require LD to flower.
2.1 PHOTOPERIOD
Plants traditionally have been divided into day-neutral, quantitative (facultative), or

qualitative (obligate) short-day (SD) or LD categories (Vince-Prue, 1975). Long-day
plants flower, or flower more rapidly, only when the length of irradiance exceeds a critical
number of hours. Qualitative LD plants (LDP) remain vegetative when the duration of
darkness exceeds a particular value and flower when it is less than that value. The critical
photoperiod varies among species and genotypes. 'Esther Read' daisy chrysanthemums
(Chrysanthemum maximum Ramond 'Esther Read') remained vegetative under 12-hour
photoperiods and flowered under photoperiods of 13 hours or longer; 'T. E. Killian' daisy
chrysanthemums flowered only under IS-hour photoperiods and remained vegetative under
14-hour or shorter photoperiods (Griffin and Carpenter, 1964). Many LDP flower under
continual 24-hour light, which suggests they do not have an absolute dark-period flowering
requirement. Therefore, some people term LDP, perhaps more accurately, light-dominant
plants.
Coreopsis verticil/ata L. 'Moonbeam' is an example of a qualitative LDP; no plants
grown with 8-hour photoperiods after receiving 0, 6, or 12 weeks of a 4SC cold treatment
flowered, whereas all those grown under 16- or 24-hour photoperiods flowered, regardless
of cold treatment (lversen and Weiler, 1994). Many LDP show a quantitative response to
light after the critical photoperiod until a maximum has been reached. Forty percent of a
clone of shasta daisy (Chrysanthemum xsuperbum Bergmans) plants grown under 12-hour
photoperiods flowered, and 80% of the plants under 14-hour photoperiods flowered; thus,
the critical photoperiod is between 12 and 14 hours (Shedron and Weiler, 1982). Plants
were grown from seed for 80 days under 1O-hour photoperiods, then transferred to 12-, 14-,
16-, or 18-hour photoperiods. As the photoperiod duration increased, the number of days
to reach visible bud decreased: 100 at 12 hours, 92 at 14 hours, 49 at 16 hours, and 28 at
18 hours (Shedron and Weiler, 1982).
We have found it convenient to divide the photoperiodic responses of herbaceous
perennials into the following categories (Table 1):
ID required (obligate ID plant). Plants in this group will not flower under SD.
17
In all cases, 4 hours oflow-intensity night-interruption lighting (10 foot-candles)

given from 10:00 p.m. to 2:00 a.m. can be used to induce flowering.
ID horticulturally required. These plants may bloom under SD, but the rate of
flowering may be so slow or the number of flowers so greatly reduced that SD are
impractical.
ID beneficial horticulturally. For these plants, the beneficial effect of LD is

marginal, even though it is real (Table 2). For instance, balloon flower (Platycodon
grandiflorus) consistently blooms one week faster under LD than SD.
ID not required (day-neutral plants). These plants bloom under LD or SD.
We have not yet investigated SD herbaceous perennials, but these include fall-
blooming grasses such as Miscanthus sinensis and the well-researched chrysanthemums
and asters.
2.1.1 Critical Photoperiod. The critical photoperiod, which marks the transition from
vegetative to reproductive growth in a monogenetic population, is defined by Vince-Prue
(1975) as the daylength at which 50% of a species flowers. This definition applies to SD
plants (SDP) and LDP and does not include time as a factor. Roberts and Summerfield
(1987) advocate critical-photoperiod definition in SDP as "that photoperiod at or below
which the time to flower is minimal and is not affected by variations in daylength;
photoperiods longer than [the critical photoperiod] delay flowering." Roberts and
Summerfield (1987) propose several definitions for the critical photoperiod of LDP; of
those, the following is useful: "that photoperiod above which time to flowering is minimal
and not affected by further increases in photoperiod, and below which flowering is
delayed." From this definition, an LDP that flowers most rapidly under 24-hour continuous
light would have a critical photoperiod of 24 hours. Horticulturally, flowering percentage,
time to flower, and uniformity all are required components of a definition. Thus, we define
critical photoperiod as that which elicits a complete, rapid, uniform flowering response in
a monospecific population.
The critical photoperiod of a species may change to some degree with changes in
environmental conditions or plant age. As horticulturists, we are concerned with what
day1ength keeps a species vegetative when desired and what daylength is required for
flowering, perhaps most rapidly. Therefore, knowing the critical photoperiod of a plant
enables one to prevent or initiate flowering. Cuttings propagated under photoinductive
cycles favor reproductive growth, not desired vegetative growth. Cuttings of two cultivars
of obedience plant (Physostegia virginiana L. 'Summer Snow' and 'Vivid'), both LDP,
rooted well under SD but poorly under LD (Beattie et aI., 1989). Production time
decreased and plant quality increased when stock plants from which the cuttings were taken
were grown under SD and rooted cuttings then were forced to flower under LD (Beattie et
18
aI., 1989). For most LDP, exceeding the critical daylength induces a higher percentage of
a species to flower, and faster. For most SDP, reducing the critical daylength below the
base photoperiod while retaining active photosynthesis increases the percentage of plants
that flowers and hastens flowering.
To determine general photoperiodic responses as well as the critical photoperiod,
we have grown herbaceous perennial species under a wide range of photoperiods. Plants
were grown from either uncooled plugs or those that received 15 weeks of 5°C. The
photoperiods were 10, 12, 14, 16, or 24 hours or a 9-hour day with a 4-hour night
interruption in the middle of the dark period. All plants were grown under nine hours of
natural light per day for photosynthesis, then covered with an opaque cloth. The
photoperiod then was completed with 2 Jlmol·m·2·s· 1 of incandescent light to achieve the
desired daylength. Temperatures were monitored and controlled to a 20°C ± O.soC daily
average in each photoperiodic treatment. Plants were discarded if no flower buds were
visible after 100 days in the greenhouse.
A summary of some of the results is given in Table 2. For the qualitative LDP,
either 14 or 16 hours of light were required for 100% flowering. Although at least part of
the plants flowered under 1O-hour photoperiods for the quantitative LD species, the most-
rapid flowering occurred with 16-hour days or longer. The 4-hour night interruption was
as effective at promoting flowering as continual-light LD. Echinacea purpurea 'Bravado'
appears to require a dark period of some length each night because no plants flowered
under the continual-light 24-hour treatment.
Qualitative LDP flowered under SD but more rapidly under LD. An example of a
qualitative LDP is Salvia xsuperba 'Blue Queen'. After a period of cold treatment, plants
flower upon exposure to warm temperatures. However, plants flower faster as the duration
of the photoperiod increases: 58 days to flower on average under 1O-hour photoperiods, but
only 30 days under photoperiods of at least 16 hours or night interruption.
The recommendations columns for night interruption and cold are based on the
percentage of plants that flowered and the time it took for them to flower (Table 2). A
"Yes" in the cold-treatment column (cold trt) indicates plants either benefit from or require
a period of cold before forcing. An "NIY" means plants responded to photoperiod
similarly with or without a cold treatment.
Although critical photoperiods vary between species, a general LD lighting
recommendation for the most-uniform and rapid flowering of a mixed group of herbaceous
perennials is to provide either a 16-hour day or 4-hour night interruption. To maintain
vegetative growth on the quantitative and qualitative LD species, plants should be exposed
to photoperiods of 10 hours or fewer.
2.1.2 Light Quality. Traditional photoperiodic lighting involves the use of incandescent
lamps (INC) (Vince-Prue and Canham, 1983). Incandescent lights are effective,
inexpensive, and simple to install; however, their output in the 400- to 700-nm waveband
is only 57 to 69 milliwatts per watt (:::6%) of input power compared to 204 mW, 261 mW,
and 265 mW (:::20%, 26%, and 27%) for cool-white fluorescent (CWF), high-pressure
sodium (HPS), and metal halide (MH) lamps, respectively (Thimijan and Heins, 1983).
19
Use of these other light sources in place ofINC can reduce photoperiodic lighting energy
costs. The output of INC is rich in far-red light, (700 to 800 nm), the ratio of red (600 to
700 nm) : far-red being less than one (Lane et ai., 1965). Far-red light has several
horticulturally undesirable effects on plant morphology, including the promotion of stem
elongation and suppression oflateral branching (Downs et ai., 1958; Moe and Heins, 1990;
Vince-Prue and Canham, 1983). Several other lamp types, such as CWF, HPS, and MH,
deliver proportionately less far-red than red light compared to INC (deGraaf-van der Zande
and Blacquiere, 1992; Thimijan and Heins, 1983). The use of photosynthetic lighting with
lamps other than INC offers the potential for flower induction with less stem elongation.
Lighting used to extend the photoperiod must be of adequate intensity
(Surnmerfield and Roberts, 1987; Vince-Prue, 1975). It has been proposed that each LDP
has a threshold irradiance below which flowering is not induced or hastened by the light
treatment, and a saturation irradiance above which the time to flower becomes constant
(Summerfield and Roberts, 1987). Between these two light levels, the rate of progress to
flowering (inverse of time to flower) for an LDP often is related linearly to the irradiance
(Summerfield and Roberts, 1987). For incandescent lighting, the threshold irradiance for
floral induction in many species ofLDP lies between 1 lux (0.02 Ilmol·m-2·s-!) (400 to 700
nm) and 50 lux (l Ilmol·m-2·s-) (Vince-Prue, 1975). Horticuiturally, a knowledge of
threshold and saturation irradiances is important to avoid inadvertent induction in nearby
greenhouse sections or to induce uniform flowering without providing surplus light.
The spectral quality of photoperiodic lighting is also important. In LDP, research
has shown that light in the red and far-red portions of the spectrum is important for flower
induction (Thomas, 1993; Thomas and Vince-Prue, 1995). Red light is most effective
when LD are provided by a brief night interruption. In contrast, when LD are provided by
long night interruptions or day extensions (DE), mixtures of red and far-red light often are
more effective (Thomas, 1993). The ratio of red: far-red light delivered varies by artificial
light source, as does each source's effectiveness at inducing flowering ofLDP when used
as DE following natural daylight. Cool-white fluorescent lamps emit very little far-red
light, and their flower-induction effectiveness has been contrasted with that of several other
lamps. Flowering of Anethum graveolens L., Triticum compactum Host var. Little Club,
and Hordeum vulgare L. var. Colsess I was compared under 8-hour DE with INC or CWF
lamps at 6.0 Ilmol·m-2·s-!, and those under CWF flowered 28, 20, and 44 days later,
respectively, than those under INC (Downs et ai., 1958).
We have conduced a series of experiments to compare the effectiveness of INC,
HPS, CWF, and MH lamps on flower induction in Campanula carpatica 'Blue Clips',
Coreopsis grandiflora 'Early Sunrise', Coreopsis verticillata 'Moonbeam', and Rudbeckia
fulgida 'Goldsturm' by establishing threshold and saturation light intensities. Before LD
treatments, plants were maintained under a 9-hour photoperiod (SD) provided by pulling
black cloth from 1700 HR to 0800 HR daily. Lights were installed 75 to 90 cm above one end
of each bench so that an irradiance gradient from 0.05 to 2.0 Ilmol·m-2·s·! (400 to 700 nm)
was established. Plants of each species were arranged along the length of each bench, and
control plants remained in SD. Black cloth was pulled at 1700 HR and opened at 0800 HR
on all benches. Lights were turned on at 1700 HR and remained on until 2400 HR, providing
20
a 7-hourOE.
Oays to flower was converted to rate of progress to flowering by taking the
reciprocal. To determine the saturation irradiance, the relationship between irradiance and
rate of progress to flowering was developed using a multiphase function with two linear
components. The functions used were
b2 - bo
Isaturation = b _ b [1]
I 3
if : I < Isaturation then RI = bo+ bI I [2]
if : I > Isaturation then ~ = b2 + b3 I [3]
where the I value is log irradiance and R is the rate of progress to flowering. Isaturation is the
intersection point of the two lines where the R values are equal and is calculated using Eq.
[1]; b l and ~ are the slopes, an~ b aI¥i b are the y-intercepts of Eqs. [2] and [3],
respectively.
No plants of any species flowered under SO. I saturation values for C. carpatica 'Blue
Clips' were 0.44, 0.37, 0.25, and 0.22 Ilmol·m-2·s·1 for CWF, HPS, INC, and MH,
respectively. For C. grandiflora 'Early Sunrise', I saturation values were 0.22, 0.25, 0.43, and
0.50 Ilmol·m-2·s-1 for CWF, HPS, INC, and MH, respectively. I saturation values for C.
verticil/ata 'Moonbeam' varied inconsistently from less than 0.05 to more than 2.0 Ilmol·m-
2· S·I. For all species tested, except for Coreopsis 'Moonbeam' and Rudbeckia 'Goldsturm',
plants lighted with INC were significantly taller than those lighted with the other lamps.
These experiments showed that CWF, HPS, INC, and MH lamps effectively
induced flowering of herbaceous perennials and that some species were more compact
when lighted with CWF' HPS, or MH instead ofINC. An irradiance of 1 Ilmol·m·2·s·1 was
sufficient to induce flowering of all species. Commercial recommendations are to design
the lighting system for 2 Ilmol·m·2·s-1 to compensate for uneven lighting, variability within
the crop, any bulb dimming caused by old lamps, or reduced output caused by dirty lamps
or luminaries.
2.2 JUVENILITY ANO VERNALIZATION
Flowering of seed-propagated herbaceous perennials requires correct timing of

photoperiodic treatments, cold, or both. Many herbaceous perennials undergo a juvenile
phase following germination. Exposing plants to inductive environmental conditions (e.g.,
cold conditions, LO, or both) before they are mature will not induce flowering. Loss of
juvenility in a population is a gradual process in herbaceous plants such as Coreopsis
'Sunray' (Damann and Lyons, 1993), Gaillardia pulchella Foug., and R. hirta L. (Bourke,
1990). These plants flowered faster as they aged when they subsequently were exposed to
inductive LO. Leaf (or node) number usually is used to measure plant age because it is
more constant than other measurements such as time (Holdsworth, 1956). The duration of
21
the juvenile phase varies considerably among species and even cultivars.
Many herbaceous perennials have a cold or vemalization requirement before they
are capable of flowering. For many cold-requiring species, a minimum leaf number is
necessary before plants are fully sensitive to a cold period. For instance, flowering
percentage of Aquilegia xhybrida Sims. increased as leaf number increased (Shedron and
Weiler, 1982). In our research program, we typically compare flowering of different-aged
seed-propagated plants within a species to help identify the leaf number of mature plants.
For some species, detailedjuvenility studies have been conducted (Yuan, 1995).
We have found it convenient to divide the cold responses of herbaceous perennials
into the following categories as they relate to juvenility (Table 3):
No cold required. Plants in this group can be forced to flower directly from 128-
or 50-cell plug seedlings. Immature seedlings likely will take longer to force. Cold
treatment of the plugs will not necessarily reduce subsequent forcing time.
Cold treatment hastens or otherwise improves flowering. Plants in this group

benefit from cold exposure. luvenility is not a direct issue, although immature
plants take longer to bloom regardless of when the cold treatment is delivered.
Cold required for flowering. Plants in this group must have a cold treatment or
they will not flower. In all cases, seedlings must be mature before the beginning
of the cold treatment.
3. Scheduling
3.1 THE ROLE OF TEMPERATURE IN FLOWERING
Although flower induction in most herbaceous perennials is controlled by cold and

photoperiod, the rate of development to flower after induction is controlled primarily by
average daily temperature (ADT). Knowing the relationship between ADT and time to
visible bud or flower is critical if the goal of flowering plants on specifice dates is to be
achieved. The duration of the flowering process can be measured by either the number of
days to flowering (F) or its inverse, the rate of progress toward flowering (lfF).
We use a standard protocol to develop these relationships. Ten mature plants of
a species previously treated with 10 weeks of cold are placed in each of five
greenhouses set at 15, 18,21, 24, or 27°C. Plants receive natural daylengths with a 4-hour
night interruption from 2200 to 0200 HR. The number of days from the start of forcing to
visible bud and to flower is recorded. The number of days from visible bud to flower then
is calculated. Results typical of those observed are presented in Figure 1.
As long as plants are mature, there is little difference in time to flower between
different-sized plants. Accurate prediction of flowering depends on plants starting at the
same developmental stage. Plants already reproductive at the end of cold and the start of
22
forcing will flower in fewer days than those that are vegetative at the start of forcing. This
situation may occur on plants that do not require cold and that are exposed to LD before
cold treatment and subsquent forcing. On such plants, visible bud becomes a reliable
marker allowing temperature adjustment to achieve a desired flowering date.
For Campanula carpatica and Coreopsis grandiflora, the size of the plants must
be increased under short photoperiods before forcing. In both cases, 12 to 13 hours of light
are sufficient. Lavandula angustifolia has an obligate cold period, so plant size can be
increased under natural photoperiods before cold without flower induction. After cold,
Campanula and Coreopsis could be grown under 12- to 13-hour photoperiods without
flower induction. After 15 weeks of cold, Lavandula 'Munstead' will flower independently
of photoperiod, so its size cannot be increased at that time. Another Lavandula cultivar,
'Hidcote', apparently requires LD even after cold treatment. These schedules currently are
being tested by commercial producers.
3.2 PRODUCTION SCHEDULES
The desired outcome from this research is the development of production schedules
for reliable flowering of herbaceous perennials. Figures 2 to 5 are production schedules
developed for Campanula carpatica, Coreopsis grandiflora, Lavandula angustifolia, and
Coreopsis verticil/ata. These schedules provide the essential juvenility, cold, photoperiod,
and temperature relationship information necessary to flower these herbaceous perennials.
Specific timing can change with cultivar, plant size, and light quality.
References
Beattie DJ et al. (1989) The effects of photoperiod and temperature on flowering of
Physostegia virginiana 'Summer Snow' and 'Vivid' as potted plants. Acta Hort.,
252,227-233.
Bourke KM (1990) Juvenility in three composite genera with ornamental potentials:
Rudbeckia, Gail/ardia and Solidago. MS Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia.
Damann MP and Lyons RE (1993) Juvenility, flowering, and effects of a limited inductive
photoperiod in Coreopsis grandiflora and C. lanceolata. 1. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
118(4),513-518.
de Graaf-van der Zande M and Blacquiere T (1992) Light quality during longday treatment
for poinsettia and china aster. Acta Hort., 327, 87-93.
Downs R et al. (1958) Comparison of incandescent and fluorescent lamps for lengthening
photoperiods. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 71, 568-578.
Griffin CW and Carpenter WJ (1964) Photoperiodic response of shasta daisy clones Esther
Read and T. E. Killian. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 85, 591-593.
Holdsworth M (1956) The concept of minimum leaf number. 1. Expt. Bot. 7(21), 395-409.
Iversen RR and Weiler TC (1994) Strategies to force flowering of six herbaceous
garden perennials. HortTechnology, 4(1),61-65.
23
Lane H et al. (1965) The dependence of flowering in several long-day plants on the
spectral composition of light extending the photoperiod. Amer. 1 Bot., 52, 1006-
1014.
Moe R and Heins R (1990) Control of plant morphogenesis and flowering by light quality
and temperature. Acta Hort., 272, 81-89.
Rhodus T (1994) Views on management. Quarterly J. Perennial Plant Association, 2(3),
26-34.
Rhodus T (1995) Views on management. Quarterly J. Perennial Plant Association, 3(4),
29-38.
Roberts EH and Summerfield RJ (1987) Measurement and prediction of flowering
in annual crops, p.17-50. In: lG. Atherton (ed.). Manipulation of flowering.
Robert Hartnoll, Bodmin, Cornwall.
Shedron KG and Weiler TC (1982) Regulation of growth and flowering in
Chrysanthemum xsuperbum Bergmans. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 107(5),874-877.
Summerfield Rand Roberts E (1987) Effects of illuminance on flowering in long- and
short-day grain legumes: a reappraisal and unifYing model, p. 203-223. In: lG.
Atherton (ed.). Manipulation of flowering. Butterworth's, London.
Thimijan Rand Heins R (1983) Photometric, radiometric, and quantum light units of
measure: a review of procedures for interconversion. HortScience, 18, 818-822.
Thomas B (1993) The role of phytochrome and other photoreceptors in the control of
flowering in long-day plants. Flowering Newsletter, 16, 6-10.
Thomas Band Vince-Prue D (1995) Do long-day plants and short-day plants perceive
daylength in the same way? Flowering Newsletter, 20, 50-57.
United States Department of Agriculture (1995) Floriculture crops: 1994 summary. United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.e. Sp Cr 6-1(95).
Vince-Prue D (1975) Photoperiodism in plants. McGraw Hill, London.
Vince-Prue D and Canham A (1983) Horticultural significance of photomorphogenesis, p.
518-544. In: W. Shropshire, Jr. and H. Mohr (eds.). Photomorphogenesis. Springer-
Verlag, Heidelberg.
Whitman C (1995) Influence of photoperiod and temperature on flowering of Campanula
carpatica 'Blue Clips', Coreopsis grandiflora 'Early Sunrise', Coreopsis
verticillata 'Moonbeam', Rudbeckia fulgida 'Goldsturm' and Lavandula
angustifolia 'Munstead'. MS Thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan.
Yuan M (1995) Effect of juvenility, temperature, and cultural practices on flowering of
Coreopsis, Gaillardia, Heuchera, Leucanthemum, and Rudbeckia. M.S. Thesis,
Michigan State Univ., East Lansing.
24
Table 1. Response of selected herbaceous perennials to long days (LD).
I. LD required (obligate LD plant)

Achillea jilipendulina 'Cloth of Gold'
Asclepias tuberosa
Campanula carpatica 'Blue Clips'
Chrysanthemum coccineum 'James Kelway'
Coreopsis grandiflora 'Early Sunrise'
Coreopsis verticillata 'Moonbeam'
Gypsophila paniculata 'Double Snowflake'
Hibiscus xhybrida 'Disco Belle Mixed'
Lavandula angustifolia 'Hidcote Blue'
Oenothera missouriensis
Physostegia virginiana 'Alba'
Rudbeckiafulgida 'Goldsturrn'
11. LD horticulturally required
Coreopsis grandiflora 'Sunray'
Echinacea purpurea 'Bravado'
Gaillardia xgrandiflora 'Goblin'
Leucanthemum xsuperbum 'Snowlady'
Lobelia xspeciosa 'Compliment Scarlet'
Salvia xsuperba 'Blue Queen'
Ill. LD horticulturally beneficial
Astilbe xarendsii
Lavandula angustifolia 'Munstead Dwarf
Platycodon grandijlorus 'Sentimental Blue'
IV. LD not required (day-neutral plants)
Aquilegia xhybrida
Armeria xhybrida 'Dwarf Ornament Mix'
Armeria latifolia
Aster alpinus 'Goliath'
Delphinium elatum 'Blue Mirror'
Dianthus deltoides 'Zing Rose'
Heuchera sanguinea 'Bressingham Hybrids'
Iberis sempervirens 'Snowflake'
Lewisia cotyledon
Linum perenne 'Sapphire'
Primula veris 'PacIfic Giants'
Scabiosa columbaria 'Butterfly Blue'
Veronica longifolia 'Sunny Border Blue'
Veronica spicata 'Blue'
25
Table 2. Flowering of selected perennials in response to photoperiod.
Recommen-
Flowering percentage
dation
Species Cold - Photoperiod

NI"
tre 10
I
Asclepias tuberosa Yes Yes
Campanula carpalica 'Blue Clips' Yes NIY
Gaillardia xgrandiflora 'Goblin' Yes Yes
Coreopsis verlicil/ata 'Moonbeam' Yes NIY
Hibiscus xhybrida ' Disco Belle Mixed' Yes No
Gypsophila paniculala 'Double Snowflake' Yes Yes
Oenalhera missouriensis Yes Yes
Echinacea purpurea 'Bravado' Yes Yes
beneficial
Physostegia virginiana ' Alba' Yes Yes
Lobelia xspeciosa 'Compliment Scarlet' Yes Yes
Salvia xsuperba 'Blue Queen' Yes Yes
No re~nnn~e
Armeria xhybrida 'DwarfOmament Mix' No No
Armeria lati/alia No Yes
Lavendula angusti/olia ' Munstead Dwarf' No Yes
Scabiasa calumbaria ' Butterfly Blue' No NIY
Veronica longi/olia 'Sunny Border Blue' No Yes
Veronica spicala ' Blue' No Yes
• Yes - a 4-hour night interruption (NI) is recommended; no - no benefit from

NI.
.. Yes - 10-15 weeks of cold treatment are recommended; NN - plants respond
the same wily to photoperiod with or without cold; no - cold treatment not
recommended.
26
Table 3. Response of selected herbaceous perennials to cold.
I. Cold treatment not required for flowering

Aquilegia xhybrida (certain cultivars)
Asclepias tuberosa (if not first exposed to short days)
Campanula carpatica 'Blue Clips'
Coreopsis grandiflora 'Early Sunrise'
Hibiscus xhybriaa 'Disco Belle Mixed'
Primula veris 'Pacific Giants'
Coreopsis verticillata 'Moonbeam'
Perovskia atriplicifolia
11. Cold treatment hastens or improves flowering
Armeria xhybrida 'DwarfOmament Mix'
Armeria latifolia
Delphinium elatum 'Blue Mirror'
Dianthus deltoides 'Zing Rose'
Echinacea purpurea 'Bravado'
Gypsophila paniculata 'Double Snowflake'
Lobelia Xspeciosa 'Compliment Scarlet'
Oenothera missouriensis
Physostegia virginiana 'Alba'
Platycodon grandiflorus 'Sentimental Blue'
Rudbeckia Julgida 'Goldsturm'
Veronica spicata 'Blue'
Scabiosa columbaria 'Butterfly Blue' (vegetatively propagated)
Ill. Cold treatment required for flowering (leaf number required before plant
responds to cold)
Achillea jilipendulina 'Cloth of Gold' (unknown, > 13)
Aquilegia xhybrida - cultivars that require cold (> 15)
Asclepias tuberosa (if dormant following exposure to short days)
Aster alpinus 'Goliath' (> 15)
Astilbe xarendsii (unknown)
Chrysanthemum coccineum 'J ames Kelway' (> 15)
Coreopsis grandiflora 'Sunray' (> 16)
Euphorbia epithymoides (unknown)
Gaillardia xgrandiflora 'Goblin' (> 12)
Heuchera sanguinea 'Bressingham Hybrids' (> 16)
Iberis sempervirens 'Snowflake' (probably >40)
Lavandula angustifolia 'Munstead Dwarf (>40)
Lewisia cotyledon (unknown)
Limonium dumosum tatarica (unknown)
Linum perenne 'Sapphire'(unknown)
Papaver orientale 'Brilliant' (unknown)
Salvia xsuperba 'Blue Queen' (> 10)
Veronica longifolia 'Sunny Border Blue' (vegetatively propagated)
27
Figure 1. Influence of forcing temperature on time to flower in Campanula carpatica

'Blue Clips' plants from 128-cell trays (... ), 50-cell trays (e), and 5.5-cm pots (_).
(A), (B), and (C) show days for the indicated developmental stage. The solid lines (-)
represent the regression equation using pooled data for the three plant sizes. Lines in
(D), (E), and (F) represent predicted values for the rate of progress (lIdays) to the
indicated developmental stage, based on linear regression (Whitman, 1995).
(A) Forcing to Visible Bud I(B) Visible Bud to Flowering 1 (C) Forcing to Flowering
70
60 ............................. ~ ............................. ~ . . II!I . ....................... .
i·~····:·······'·~···[··~····
III
>- 50
(IJ
0 40
30
20
10
(0) (E) (F)
0.06
7..;~
~:;;'<' ~:
~.~~~~..... :::::::::: :: .... :::::.:::.:.::: ... :: :.·1'···············:·::·:··:·:·:
III
>-
~ 0.04
.
.......
.....
0.02
.. --
. .. ~. -- --
. .............. .
0.00 ' I
14 18 22 26 14 18 22 26 14 18 22 26
Temperature (C)
28
Figure 2. Campanula carpatica 'Blue Clips' production schedule
Growing time Cultural practice Temperature Photoperiod
2-3 weeks sow seeds < 13 hours of

1 20-22°e light
germination
OR purchase plugs
9-11 weeks Grow until at least 15 < 13 hours of

leaves have formed. IS-20°C light
1
1
1
1
1
1
Hold at I-re if needed. (Plants do not require cold to flower.)
1
1 16 hours oflight
Begin forcing or 4-hour night
interruption
! 1 1 I
! ! 21°C
Visible bud to
! 19°C 7-S weeks flower
16°C - 26 days
! 8-9 weeks flower
19°C - 22 days
16°C flower 21°C - 20 days
10-11 weeks
flower
- - -
29
Figure 3. Coreopsis grandijlora 'Sunray' production schedule
1-2 weeks sow seeds < 14 hours of

1 18-22°C light
germination
OR purchase plugs
8-12 weeks Grow until at least 16 < 14 hours of

leaves have formed. 22-24°C light
1
1
1
1
1
1
10-15 weeks Cold treatment l-rC < 14 hours of

(can be held longer if J light
needed) J I
!
Begin forcing
> 13 hours of
J J 1 light or 4-hour
J J 21°C night interruption
1 18°C 6-7 weeks

Visible bud to
J 8-9 weeks flower
flower
15°C flower 15°C - 35 days
18°C - 27 days
10-11 weeks 21°C - 21 days
flower
30
Figure 4. Lavandula angustifolia 'Munstead' production schedule.
4 - 6 weeks Chill seeds 2 - 4°C Any
2 - 3 weeks Sow seeds Natural

! 18 - 24°C daylengths
Gennination
OR purchase plugs
15 - 20 weeks Grow until at least 40 Natural

to 50 leaves have 14 - 21°C daylengths
fonned
10 - 15 weeks Cold treatment Natural

(can be held longer if ! 1 -7°C daylengths or 9
needed) ! hours oflight
If cooled for <15

Begin forcing weeks, provide 16
hours oflight or a
! ! !
4-hour night
interruption.
! ! 21°C
If cooled for 15
! 19°C 7 weeks
weeks, force
under natural
! 8 weeks flower
daylengths.
16°C flower
(For 'Hidcote',
provide long days
10 weeks
regardless of
flower duration of cold.)
I
31
Figure 5. Coreopsis verticillata 'Moonbeam' production schedule.
Duration Cultural practice Temperature Photoperiod
Take cuttings
Media temp. < 14 hours of
3 - 4 weeks J
22 - 24°C light
Root
13 - 14 hours of
Air temp. light initially
4 - 5 weeks Bulk or
20 - 22°C
(72-cell plug) pinch to increase
vegetative growth of
14 - 17°C 10 - 12 hours of
Longer for larger plugs
for 1 - 2 weeks light for final
plugs
before cold weeks before
cold
OR
Plant plugs or bare-root plants
10 - 15 weeks Cold treatment

< 12 hours of
(can be held longer if J 2 _7°C
light
needed) J
Begin forcing ;:: 14 hours of

light or a 4-hour
J J J night
interruption.
J J 24°C
! 21°C 7-8 weeks Visible bud to flower
18°C 8 - 9 weeks flower

18°C - 24 days
9-10 weeks flower
21°C - 20 days
flower I
24°C- 19 days
-
GREENHOUSE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT AND LIGHT CONTROL
L.D. Albright
Comell University
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Riley-Robb Hall
Ithaca, NY 14853, United States
ABSTRACT. Greenhouse thermal environment results from the interactions among

numerous factors: solar insolation; structural thermal characteristics; operation of
heating, ventilation, and cooling systems; supplemental lighting; and properties of the
greenhouse crop are among the most important. As greenhouse technology and
sophistication evolve and environmental control becomes more complete, the
importance of supplemental lighting increases. Luminaires contribute a sensible
cooling load directly, and a latent cooling load indirectly by influencing transpiration.
The objectives of this paper are to provide a general overview of greenhouse thermal
environment, outline a methodology for greenhouse supplemental lighting control, and
explore the interactions of supplemental lighting and the thermal environment. The
approach used is based on modeling of greenhouse thermal processes, and simulations
of supplemental lighting system control.
1. Introduction
l.l. PARAMETERS OF GREENHOUSE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
In a broad sense, greenhouse thermal environment includes many psychrometric

parameters. Dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, dewpoint temperature, water
vapor pressure, relative humidity and specific enthalpy are among the most important.
Additionally, the thermal environment includes factors such as the thermal radiation
(both solar and long-wave). For the purposes of this paper, thermal environment
considerations for greenhouses will be limited to sensible temperature and thermal
radiation. A review of some of the psychrometric parameters of greatest interest is
presented by Takakura (1994). Furthermore, for this paper, thermal environment will
be interpreted to apply only to the larger aerial environment. Obviously, root
environments, and microclimate interactions with crop canopies are important
considerations in a complete view of thermal environment, but space does not permit
such a complete overview in this single report.
33

34
1.2. APPROACHES TO THERMAL ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS
When computer technology became common, a movement from steady-state to

transient thermal analysis was rapid for commercial and industrial buildings. That is,
for buildings having significant thermal mass, identified by a thermal time constant as
long, or longer, than the period of the diurnal temperature cycle outdoors. Although
some transient thermal models for greenhouses have been developed (for example,
Chandra et al., 1979; Bot, 1983, Fuller et al., 1987; Takakura, 1993), there has not been
a strong preference for transient thermal models over step-wise, steady-state thermal
models for design purposes.
The greenhouse component having the longest thermal time constant is the floor.
However, as a first approximation, the floor effect is relatively small compared to heat
gains and losses through the structural cover and air exchange (ventilation or
infiltration). Ioslovich et al. (1995) suggest 10 minutes as a reasonable heating time
constant. This is in general agreement with other published suggestions for the heating
time constant.
An illustration of the limited effect of thermal mass is in Figure 1. Data points
in Figure 1 were obtained in a double-polyethylene greenhouse with a floor area of 107
m2• A steady-state analysis provides the dividing line on the graph. The line creates
two domains, one where the greenhouse required ventilation to maintain internal air
temperature, and one where ventilation was not required. Two graphs are in Figure I,
one containing data for when insolation was increasing, and one where it was
decreasing. In general, the steady-state dividing line provides a reasonable boundary
between ventilation and heating domains, especially when insolation was decreasing,
showing the relatively small effect of the thermal mass of the floor (and other thermal
mass of the greenhouse). It is thought that direct absorption of insolation into the
thermal mass during the ten-minute data collection intervals, without sufficient
temperature rise of the thermal mass to increase convection to the air, was the cause
of less satisfactory division of the ventilation/non-ventilation domains when insolation
was increasing. Partly cloudy days during the data collection period provided many
such intervals. Concomitantly, vents were seldom open when predicted to be closed.
This suggests heat release from thermal storage, a convective process, is significantly
slower than absorption into storage, a radiative process.
1.3. APPROACHES TO THERMAL ENVIRONMENT CONTROL
1.3.1. Sensors. Central to thermal environment control is frequent acquisition of

information by the environment controller. Information is usually obtained from
sensors, typically providing electrical signals either directly in, or transformed to,
digital form. Sensor technology has improved significantly over the past two decades,
providing not only greater accuracy, but also smaller size, greater stability, lower costs
and higher reliability. A succinct but excellent overview of sensors for greenhouse
environmental control is provided by Bakker et al. (1995).
35
The smaller sizes of air temperature and relative humidity sensors has made the
questions of sensor placement and aspiration, and air mixing within the greenhouse
space more critical. If air mixing is not controlled and stabilized, large scale eddies
of entering (fresh and cool) air interspersed with eddies of air that have been in the
greenhouse for a while (and, thus, warmer) can lead to rapid changes in the temperature
of the air temperature sensor, and confused control. A means to assure more stable and
consistent air mixing patterns is to use internal mixing fans (horizontal air flow, for
example) and inlet control in exhaust ventilation systems that provides a suitable
negative pressure within the greenhouse. A negative pressure of 10 to 15 Pa usually
suffices to subdue wind effects on mechanical ventilation except during very windy
times. Vents opened only a small fraction of a meter usually suffice to create an
adequate degree of negative pressure, provided the overall greenhouse structure has
been sealed relatively well against air leaks.
A useful technique to identify suitable locations for sensors is air flow
visualization during a variety of ventilation situations to be sure the sensors are located
within a zone of representative and stable air flow patterns. However, "smoke bombs"
for air flow visualization are not suitable, for they fill the air space with so much
smoke they obscure finer details such as air mixing patterns. Hand-held devises
generating smoke, aerosol generators, or devices to produce a cloud of small, neutrally-
buoyant soap bubbles ' are very useful to aid in observing ventilation and air mixing
patterns.
1.3.2. Control. Traditional control has viewed a greenhouse environmental control

system as characterized by input and output systems. Internal actions are not
considered. An actuator (e.g., a CO2 generator, a fan, or a boiler) is sized to be
commensurate with the need, and control is based on feedback of the parameter the
actuator influences. The simplest control (on/off) has been widely used, historically,
but does not provide consistent control within a small error band. That is because of
a lack of modulation of the response adjusted to the magnitude of the need.
Proportional control alone is one means of modulating control, where the
magnitude of the response is proportional to deviation from the desired state. However,
proportional control can lead to long-term offset from the desired condition without
ever reaching the set point. As the error grows smaller, so does the response,
preventing effective achievement of the set point.
Integral control is usually included in a controller to prevent this problem of long-
term offset. The error (deviation) is integrated over time, and a continuing small error
eventually accumulates to a sufficiently large integral that greater system response is
the result. The speed at which the integral grows depends on the magnitude of an
integral time constant, which is obtained by tuning a physical system. However,
integral control can lead to oscillating system behavior because the integral value does
I For example, available for purchase from Sage Action, Inc., Freeville, NY 13068, USA
36
not disappear when the offset is brought to zero, whereupon the parameter of interest
is driven past the desired set point.
To avoid the problem of insufficient damping arising from integral control,
derivative control can be added, where the magnitude of system response is
proportional to the time rate of change of the difference between the desired state and
the actual condition (the error). The three types of control together, termed "PID"
control, form the basis of many environmental control computer programs used today.
A modification of PID control, termed "Pseudo-Derivative Feedback Control" (Phelan,
1977) is currently being tested at Cornell University and shows high promise for
accurate and stable temperature control.
A step beyond classical control based on input and output is to develop models of
internal interactions of the process to be controlled. For a greenhouse this may require
highly complex and non-linear models that are not easily implemented in a control
program. Linear models are preferred and may be used as approximations. A topic
of recent, but developing, interest related to greenhouse environmental control is to use
some form of adaptive control, such as neural nets. Neural networks are non-linear
programs that might be termed "black boxes" in their effects but which are showing
some promise for greenhouse control (see, for example, Seginer et aI., 1994 and Kok
et aI., 1994). Neural nets can include a thermal model of the greenhouse being
controlled, and their self-tuning capabilities suggest the model should be of the time-
dependent type for best control.
1.4. APPROACHES TO SUPPLEMENTAL LIGHTING CONTROL
Plants require light for growth, development, reproduction and, sometimes, for
dormancy and germination control. Although a significant body of research exists that
suggests light quality (spectral distribution) influences plant development and growth
significantly, this discussion will be limited to what is commonly termed PAR, or
Photosynthetically Active Radiation within the wavelength range from 400 to 700 nm.
Furthermore, light will be interpreted as PPF, or Photosynthetic Photon Flux.
Supplemental lighting for greenhouses is typically provided by high-intensity
discharge (HID) lamps, predominantly high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, although
metal-halide lamps of various types have been used. This type of lamp can not be
switched on and off rapidly, or repeatedly during the same day. Supplemental lighting
control can be by time clock, or in response to heavy cloudiness and limited solar
availability (Le., use supplemental lighting during a dark day but not on days that are
brighter). Control by time clock is usually during winter months and acts both to
increase growth, and to affect the photoperiod responses of plants.
As Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) systems become increasingly
sophisticated, lighting control becomes more important. In many regions of the world,
weather (the natural light environment) is quite variable from week to week, making
it difficult to time crops properly and create identical plant quality and crop yield every
37
day. Air temperature and the root environment are controlled to relatively constant
conditions regardless of the weather. The light environment, historically, has not been.
To control the light environment means to use supplemental lighting to achieve
approximately the same integral of light (integral of PPF) every day. For example,
Both (1994) demonstrates conclusively that vegetative growth oflettuce is directly (and
linearly) proportional to the integral of PPF received since germination. More recent
work shows the same effect with the vegetative growth of spinach. There is, of course,
the possibility of light saturation. However, when PPF is controlled to a daily integral
by using a combination of supplemental lights for dark days and movable shades for
bright days, the high PPF conditions of saturation are less likely to be encountered.
Whether light control to a daily PPF integral can be truly achieved will depend on
the capacity of the lighting system (installed .umol-m-2s- 1). Assuming sufficient
capacity is installed, control during the entire day must be capable of anticipating the
natural light environment for the remainder of the day so lighting can be activated early
during a dark day, but not too early. Furthermore, control should also be able to
anticipate whether supplemental lighting can wait until the beginning of the off-peak
electricity rate period if operation during only the off-peak period will be adequate to
supplement the day's natural light up to the desired PPF integral. Finally, movable
shade control is required for summer to limit the daily accumulated PPF for two
reasons, to control the rate of plant growth, and to avoid physiological problems such
as tip bum with lettuce.
Historical daily solar data is of little value in anticipating the insolation of today's
solar integral except in unique climates such as dry regions where the sky is clear
every day of summer, for example. As an example of variation, weather in Ithaca, NY,
USA, during early July may provide an integrated daily PPF greater than 60 mol-m- 2
on the brightest days, but only 2 or 3 mol-m-2 on the darkest, with no correlation from
year to year. (Note: for comparison, averaged integrated daily PPF over the earth's
surface is approximately 26 mol-m- 2; Dietzer et aI., 1994). Furthermore, although one
can imagine a supplemental light control method whereby the daily solar forecast is
entered (manually, or automatically) early in the morning, with the day's control based
on that forecast, such forecasts (anticipated integrated PPF) are not yet available and,
to be realistic, would not be consistently accurate, even if available, given today's
weather forecasting technologies.
Albright (1995) has provided a set of rules for controlling supplemental lights to
a daily PPF integral, and use off-peak electricity rates to the maximum extent possible.
Additional, unpublished, work has added a second set of rules to control movable shade
systems to avoid daily PPF integrals during the summer above the desired limit. Light
control is more consistent than movable shade control because lighting can occur after
sunset to fill any deficits. However, if more than the desired PPF has been admitted
during the day, nothing can be done after sunset to reduce that total. However,
simulations using the rules and ten years of hourly weather data from Ithaca, NY, USA,
38
have shown control to be within 10% of the daily PPF target (of 17 mol-m-2 for lettuce2
production, the upper limit before tip burn initiation, provided vigorous air mixing is
present) seven out of every eight days of the year. Excursions greater than
approximately 20 percent above or below the target were not seen during the ten years
of simulated operation.
1.5. INTERACfIONS OF LIGHTING AND THERMAL ENVIRONMENTS
Supplemental lights obviously affect the thermal environment of a greenhouse.

Luminaire efficacy determines how much of the electricity that is used is converted
directly to sensible heat, all of which is added to the greenhouse air (remote ballasts
are not common with greenhouse luminaires, and would be impractical for a large
greenhouse). The added PPF heats the canopy and affects plant stomata responses
which, in turn, affect transpiration and the latent energy ("latent cooling load") added
to the greenhouse air. Firurlly, thermal energy convected from luminaires adds sensible
energy to the air. Example data obtained from eight 400 watt HPS luminaires used for
greenhouse lighting in the U.S. are in Table 1 (Albright and Both, 1994). As can be
seen, there is approximately a 20 percent efficacy range among the luminaires.
Table 1. Electricity use and efficacies of eight commercial 400 W HPS

luminaires.
Luminaire Average Watts mol PPF per kWh mol PPF per hour
A 435 3.51 1.53
B 398 3.22 1.28
C 424 3.06 1.30
D 396 2.89 1.14
E 426 2.92 1.24
F 461 2.85 1.31
G 414 2.84 1.18

H 476 2.81 1.34
Takakura (1994) suggests solar energy transmitted into a greenhouse is partitioned

by a ratio of approximately 3: I into sensible and latent cooling loads. Seginer (1995)
suggests a mid-day ventilation Bowen ratio (sensible:latent heat ratio in the ventilation
2 Lactuca sativa, cv. Ostinata

39
air) around 0.3. As a third estimate, Albright et al. (1985) found a sensible:latent
partitioning to be near unity for cold weather operation of a greenhouse (a sensible
absorptivity averaging 0.34, based on outside solar insolation, with the greenhouse
transmittance near 0.6). Although there was no ventilation for their experiments,
passive dehumidification by condensation on the inside surface of the glazing helped
evapotranspiration. An agreement with this estimate, by Okano et al. (1985), was
obtained in the same greenhouse using a different method of parameter estimation. The
partitioning ratio will be, obviously, a strong function of the leaf area index of the crop
being grown, and watering practices. Further, the latent sensible ratio of a closed
greenhouse during cold weather is not likely to be the same as for a ventilated
greenhouse.
Seginer also suggests the ventilation Bowen ratio may be negative in arid climates
where intense evaporative cooling within the greenhouse can reduce indoor air
temperature below outdoors. Evaporative cooling devices (pads, or mist) used during
the mid-day in more humid climates may lead to the same effect.
2. Analysis of Greenhouse Thermal Environment
2.l. STEADY-STATE MODELS OF THE GREENHOUSE STRUcrURE
Steady-state thermal models of greenhouse structures begin with a simple sensible

energy balance. In Figure 2 is sketched a conceptual representation of major sources
of energy flows, and their typical directions.
Several greenhouse parameters are important for thermal analysis, principally the
structural heat loss coefficient, U; the transmittance of the greenhouse to solar
radiation, 't'; and the absorptance of solar energy inside the greenhouse and partitioning
between sensible and latent energy, as and al' Absorptance values may be based on
solar flux inside or outside the greenhouse. For this report, they will be based on solar
flux inside the greenhouse. (Symbols are defined in the List of Symbols.) None of
these parameters can be assumed to be constants.
The value of U for a single-glazed greenhouse is affected by wind and
condensation on the inside surface. Traditional greenhouse design assumes unit area
conductance is constant, and values of 5.8 and 3.2 W-m-2 K I are often used for single-
and double-glazed glass greenhouses, respectively. Bailey (1975) suggests a refinement
to incorporate dependence of (single-glazed) structural cover conductance on wind:
U = 5.0 + 0.5 VW' (1)
Glazing and structural transmittance is also significantly variable over a day, and
a year. Additionally, it is sensitive to whether light is primarily direct or diffuse and,
if plastic, the age of the glazing. Several comprehensive analyses of greenhouse light
transmittance have been published (e.g., Kozai et aI., 1978; and Critten, 1991). Studies
40
such as these show a strong dependence of transmittance on greenhouse shape, number

of adjacent sections, and orientation; and solar altitude and azimuth. Space does not
permit a thorough review of these studies, but a first obvious conclusion from them is
that transmittance varies significantly over a year, and during a single day.
Furthermore, solar absorptance by the glazing is less critical during the middle part of
the day than the shading effect of framing members (and elements inside the
greenhouse such as luminaires, circulating fans, overhead heating pipes), which usually
dominate.
Additionally, when intense solar flux is transmitted through glazing, part is

absorbed. If mid-day insolation is assumed, with a glazing absorptance of 0.05 (as for
glass with direct-normal radiation), the effective U value of the glazing will be reduced
by at least 10 percent due to absorption of heat within the glass, which acts as a
distributed heat source to retard the flux of heat from inside the greenhouse to out.
This will reduce heat loss from the greenhouse, as well as reduce the potential for
passive dehumidification by condensation on the inside surface of the glazing, by
raising its temperature.
In brief, a steady-state thermal analysis of greenhouses leads to the following
sensible energy balance:
(xs-s'tgSo + H + (XS-LEr. = (pcQ + ~UA + FP)(T; - To) (2)
2.2. TIME-DEPENDENT MODELS OF THE GREENHOUSE STRUCTURE
A first approximation of a transient model, the step-wise, steady-state approximation,

is based on a steady-state model such expressed by Eq. 2, with a time step of perhaps
one hour. A next level of transient analysis includes one first-order differential
equation, for the thermal mass, with the mass taken as a lumped parameter. See, for
example, Albright et al. (1985).
More complete transient thermal models of greenhouses rely on second-order
differential equations to express heat and moisture flows within the thermal mass,
usually considered to be the floor. Methods of solution have ranged from steady-
periodic analysis, to finite difference approximations, to finite element models. While
many of the early models focussed on thermal mass effects, the importance of thermal
mass is not clear, compared with other effects such as evapotranspiration and
condensation on the inner surface of the structure. More recent transient modelling
efforts, such as by Takakura (1993), have introduced these elements in a more rigorous
manner. However, much work remains to characterize factors such as the dynamics
of transpiration, for example. The divergence of results described above for
sensible:latent heat partitioning of solar input shows the need for further efforts on this
topic, and the development of models expressed in a way useful to simulation models.
41
3. Light Control Implications for Thermal Environments

3.1. INTERACfIONS OF LIGHTING, HEATING AND FAN VENTILATION
The introduction of thermal energy from lighting, as influenced by lighting control, will
be addressed through an example using simulation. The simulation is based on the
step-wise, steady-state thermal model originally published by Albright (1994). This
model was created to calculate fan ventilation system operation, and heating needs, for
a user-defmed greenhouse in response to hourly weather data.
The computer program was modified to add supplemental light control (Albright,
1995) by daily PPF integral. One year of hourly weather data was used for the
simulation, 1988 for Ithaca, NY, the same data set used by Albright (1994, 1995).
Greenhouse characteristics and other conditions assumed for the simulation were:
1. thermal conductance of the glazing equal to 5.8 Wm-2K 1,

2. air infiltration rate with the vents closed of 0.3 changes per hour,
3. a maximum fan ventilation capacity equivalent to one air change per minute,
4. a maximum solar transmittance of 0.8 (at solar noon on the summer solstice),
5. a daily variation of solar transmittance (multiplying factor) in the form of one-half
a sine wave, varying from 0.6 at sumise, to 1.0 at solar noon, to 0.6 at sunset,
6. a yearly variation of solar transmittance (multiplying factor) in the form of a full
sine wave, beginning with a value of 0.8 at the spring equinox, rising to 1.0 at the
summer solstice, and falling to 0.6 at the winter solstice,
7. partitioning solar insolation (that transmitted through the glazing) at 1: 1 to
sensible and latent cooling loads,
8. partitioning supplemental lighting power to a sensible:latent ratio of 0.6:0.4,
9. heating temperature set points of 24 C day (8 am to 6 pm) and 18 C night,
10. off-peak electricity rates beginning at 10 pm and ending at 8 am on weekdays,
11. a design supplemental lighting PPF capacity of 200 Ilmol-m·2s-I,
12. good lumina ire efficacy (1.51 mol-kWh- 1),
13. a total of 1178 luminaires installed in a greenhouse with a floor area of 113 m2,
14. no supplemental lighting, and daily PPF integrals of 10, 14, 17 and 20 mol-m-2.
Assumption 7, that solar energy is partitioned equally between sensible and latent
heat is, perhaps, the factor having the widest range of suitable values. As described
above, values of this ratio vary widely depending on local conditions. The equality of
partitioning in this simulation example is based on the findings during cold weather in
a greenhouse at Comell University (Albright et al., 1985), which are the conditions in
which supplemental light is expected to have the greatest influence on heating loads.
Values in Table 2 provide details of heating requirements by month. Values in
Table 3 provide an overall view of the interactions of lighting, heating and ventilation
for the year of weather data used. It must be noted that, in a more complete design,
additional adjustments for lighting design would be required. For example, in the
42
computer model the assumed movable shade system provided 60 percent shade when
closed. This was not adequate to limit the daily PPF integral target to 10 mol-m-2
during many summer days, thus the yearly average daily PPF is significantly above the
target. Furthermore, the design PPF of 200 \-1mol-m-2s- 1 was insufficient to achieve the
target of 20 mol-m-2 on the darkest winter days. Thus the yearly averaged daily PPF
integral missed the target by one percent. These slight effects, however, are not
expected to make a noticeable difference in conclusions drawn from the results.
Table 2. Heating requirements by month, GJ-m-2 , as affected by

supplemental lighting.
Daily PPF Target. mol-m-2
Month of the Year
None 10 14 17 20
January 0.520 0.389 0.281 0.198 0.134
February 0.424 0.357 0.284 0.210 0.155
March 0.320 0.300 0.274 0.242 0.211
April 0.220 0.199 0.178 0.153 0.141
May 0.101 0.097 0.085 0.078 0.074
June 0.062 0.061 0.058 0.056 0.051
July 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.012 0.012
August 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.025 0.025
September 0.087 0.079 0.069 0.065 0.060
October 0.238 0.182 0.131 0.082 0.056
November 0.286 0.194 0.119 0.057 0.030
December 0.469 0.312 0.207 0.124 0.074
It is obvious from the data that supplemental lighting has a very great influence
on greenhouse heating needs in cold and cloudy climates such as Ithaca, NY. For the
assumed weather data, and greenhouse characteristics, natural light provided the great
majority of PPF in all cases. However, the supplemental lights offset heating by more
than half at the daily target of 17 mol-m-2, for example. Electrical energy is, obviously,
more costly than heating energy. However, in evaluating the benefits of supplemental
lighting for greenhouses the data suggest the reduction of heating load should be
considered among the advantages in a total economic analysis, especially for regions
43
where off-peak electrical rates are modest and heating fuels are expensive. Note that
most lighting occurred during off-peak hours, which are times of greatest heating need.
The monthly heating data in Table 2 show how the benefits of supplemental
lighting as a heat source are not spread evenly over the year. There is little benefit
during the summer, which is logical, for periods with heavy cloudiness are usually
warm and little heat is needed during those periods. It is also interesting that late
autumn days in Ithaca show the highest use of heat from supplemental lighting. In
November, for example, nearly 90 percent of the heat from lighting was useful at a
daily PPF target of 20 mol-m o2 • This is due to characteristics of the climate in Ithaca,
where late autumn is particularly cloudy, but yet not extremely cold. However, such
a climate is also characteristic of much of Northwestern Europe, for example.
The observation that supplemental lighting reduces need for space heating does
not imply the heating unit can be made smaller to save installation costs. There will
always be hours when full heating is needed, but the lights will not be, as during a
cold, clear winter night following a day of high solar availability.
Table 3. Lighting, heating and ventilation energy requirements, based on

simulation.
Daily PPF Target, mol_mo2
Parameter
None 10 14 17 20
Yearly Heating, GJ_m o2 2.77 2.21 1.72 1.30 1.02
Yearly Heating Reduction, % 0 20 38 53 63
Yearly Total PPF, mol_m o2 4240 5368 6315 7231
Yearly Added PPF, mol_m o2 0 721 1409 2010 2581
Yearly Lighting, kWh-m o2 0 327 639 912 1171
Lighting Off-Peak, % 92 77 68 64
Yearly Hours Heating 6205 5381 4694 4138 3561
Yearly Hours Fan Ventilation 1724 1945 2167 2353 2646
Finally, it must be noted the lighting system was designed to provide the best
light environment for a daily PPF integral of 17 mol_m o2 • Redesigning the lighting
system (more, or fewer, luminaires) for each daily PPF integral target will lead to
slightly different numbers for Tables 2 and 3. However, space limitations in this report
preclude a complete evaluation of all possibilities. Thus, the results here should be
viewed as pertaining to applying different criteria to control a single lighting system
in an example greenhouse. Furthermore, the complete lighting design for the example
44
greenhouse did not show an overall efficacy equal to that of the individualluminaires.
In part this is because some of the PPF leaves the greenhouse through the side walls and
roof, and is not available to the plants. The light system was designed using the
commercially-available computer program, Lumen Micro3•
4. Summary and Conclusions
The thermal environment in a greenhouse is comprised of many participating and

interacting elements. Some are under the control of the designer, some are not.
However, one element that is significant, and which has not received substantial
attention in the past, is the supplemental lighting system. Light has been the major
important aerial environment parameter that has not been controlled well in the past.
Supplemental lighting is becoming increasingly important as Controlled Environment
Agriculture grows more sophisticated, and its control should become a matter of
urgency among greenhouse engineers.
Although time-dependent thermal models of greenhouse environment may be
useful for complete analyses, the short thermal time constant of greenhouse structures
makes it possible to use a simpler approach, the step-wise, steady-state model, to
explore many questions related to greenhouse design and control. One element of a
simple thermal model characterized by a short thermal time constant is heat from
luminaires. A simulation model using this approach, and hourly weather data for
Ithaca, NY, USA, was used to predict the effect of supplemental lighting control on the
need for heating in an example greenhouse.
Results of computer simulations have been presented to quantify how
supplemental lighting can have a major effect on the need for space heating in a
greenhouse. For climates similar to that of the weather data set, and a daily PPF
integral target of 17 mol-m-2, more than half the heating fuel that would be needed with
no supplemental lighting will not be needed. Furthermore, climates that can make best
use of the heat from supplemental lighting are those with moderately cold but very
cloudy weather, such as the Northeastern United States, or Northwestern Europe.
An aspect of supplemental lighting not discussed in detail in this report, but which
is very important, is the degree to which thermal radiation from luminaires increases
plant canopy temperature. A PPF intensity of 200 Ilmol-m-2s-1 approaches the upper
limit for practical greenhouse supplemental lighting. At this intensity of irradiation,
canopy temperature can be several degrees above air temperature, which may affect
plant growth and development. Research to develop accurate models of canopy
temperature is continuing and results are in the greenhouse engineering literature.
However, more work will be needed to bring the understanding of plant canopy
temperature to a level of maturity suitable to use by greenhouse environment designers.
3Available for purchase from Lighting Technologies, Boulder, CO, USA.

45
References
Albright, L.D. (1994) Predicting greenhouse ventilating fan duty factors and operating
costs. Paper No. 944576. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, 20p.
Albright, L.D. and A.J. Both. (1994) Comparisons of luminaires: efficacies and
system design. NASA Conference Publication CP-3309. NASA Kennedy Space
Center, FL, USA, 281-297.
Albright, L.D. (1995) Greenhouse lighting control to a daily PPF integral, with
energy and cost consequences. Paper No. 954486. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, 22p.
Albright, L.D. et al. (1985) In situ thermal calibration of unventilated greenhouses.
J. Agric. Engng. Res. 31,265-281.
Bailey, B.J. (1975) Reducing glasshouse heat losses by internal blinds of different
materials. Dept. Note No. DN/G/616/2105. National Inst. Agric. Engng, Silsoe,
Great Britain.
Bakker, 1.C. et al. (1995) Greenhouse climate control: an integrated approach.
Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, Netherlands, 211-245.
Bot, G.P.A. (1983) Greenhouse climate: from physical processes to a dynamic model.
PhD thesis, Wageningen Agr. University, Wageningen, Netherlands, 240p.
Both, A.J. (1994) Dynamic simulation of supplemental lighting for greenhouse
hydroponic lettuce production. PhD thesis, Cornell University Libraries, Ithaca,
NY. 194 p.
Chandra, P. et al. (1979) A time dependent model of the greenhouse thermal
environment. Transactions of the ASAE 24(2), 442-449.
Critten, D.L. (1991) Optimization of CO 2 concentration in greenhouses: a modelling
analysis for the lettuce crop. J. Agr. Engng. Res. 48, 261-271.
Dietzer, G. et al. (1994) Guidelines for lighting of plants in controlled environments.
NASA Conference Publication CP-3309. NASA Kennedy Space Center, FL,
USA,391-393.
Fuller, R.J. et al. (1987) Validation of a dynamic model for predicting energy use in
greenhouses. 1. Agric. Engng. Res. 38, 1-14.
Ioslovich, I. et al. (1995) Sub-optimal CO 2 enriclunent of greenhouses. J. Agric.
Engng. Res. 60, 117-136.
Kok, R. et al. (1994) Imitation of a procedural greenhouse model with an artificial
neural network. Canadian Agr. Engng. 36(2), 117-126.
Kozai, et al. (1978) Light transmission and photosynthesis in greenhouses. PUDOC,
Centre for Agr. Publishing and Documentation. Wageningen, Netherlands, 99p.
Okano, T. et al. (1985) Greenhouse parameter estimation by recursive least squares.
Acta Horticulturae 174, 433-442.
Phelan, R.M. (1977) Automatic control theory. Cornell University Press, 280p.
Seginer, I. (1994) Estimating greenhouse-ventilation Bowen-ratio from environmental
conditions. Research Number 152-777, Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Technion, lIT, Haifa, Israel, 20p.
Takakura, T. (1993) Climate under cover: digital dynamic simulation in plant bio-
engineering. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 155p.
Takakura, T. (1994) Temperature, humidity, and ventilation - interrelationships. in
Proceedings, Greenhouse systems, automation, culture and environment. NRAES,
Riley-Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 153-167.
46
(a)
SOUR ''''SOur.ON INCft[ASIIIojCl
.00
o 'IIE£HHOVSt Io'UITtO
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Figure l. Ventilation as a function of air temperature and solar

insolation; ten minute averages with (a) insolation increasing
during the period and (b) insolation decreasing during the
period.
47
0;:.::-
Effedive Sky
T!'~:~
Radialion
Figure 2. Conceptual view of thermal energy mass flows in a

greenhouse. Note: thermal mass pictured as the floor includes
thermal mass effects of the crop, benches, and other items
within the air space.
Symbols
Roman Greek
A Area, m2 ex Absorptivity
c Specific heat J-kg-1K 1 p Density, kg-m- 3
E Electrical energy, W 7 Transmissivity
F Perimeter heat loss factor, W -m- IK- 1
H Heater input, W Subscrints
P Perimeter, m g Glazing
Q Ventilation rate, \113_ S-1 Indoors
S Solar input, W L Luminaire
T Temperature, C I Latent
U Unit area conductance, W-m-2KI 0 Outdoors
V Velocity, m-s-I s-L Sensible-Luminaire
s-S Sensible-Solar
w Wind
THE PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK OF THE USE OF
NATURAL ENEMIES AND POLLINATORS IN PROTECTED CROPS
M. Dissevelt and W.J. Ravensberg

Koppert Biological Systems B.V.
p.a. Box 155
ABSTRACT. The use of beneficial insects and mites for the biological control of pests
has increased significantly in the past thirty years. Bumblebees have been incorporated
into protected crop production since the late 1980's for the pollination of vegetable crops
and this stimulates greater use of natural enemies. Also the number of producers of
beneficial organisms has strongly increased. The role of the market in the vending of
agriculturallhorticultural products is ever more important. Growers are attempting to
differentiate their product and increase their market share by meeting the demands of large
supermarket chains. Since 1991, quality control guidelines for natural enemies are being
developed in the EU in order to standardise the quality of beneficial insect and mite
products. Legislation is being prepared by an increasing number of countries for both
microbiological pesticides and beneficial arthropods. The current regulations and the need
for their harmonisation is discussed. How the quality control guidelines will fit into
national or European legislation is not clear yet. A view of recent developments and a
view of the future of biological control is given and current promoting and limiting factors
are discussed.
1. Introduction
The use of biological control methods in the 1960's was chiefly due to the occurence of
resistance to pesticides in several key pests in greenhouses. Gradually, growers became
more aware of the advantages of using beneficials in the 1970's. At present, demands by
policy makers for a reduction in usage of pesticides and by consumers requiring
production of pesticide-free food and flowers are also promoting the use ofIPM.
A close relationship among researchers, extension workers, growers and producers of
natural enemies has resulted in the rapid transfer and use of information on biological and
integrated control.
Since the late 1980's bumblebees have been produced on a commercial basis for
pollination of a variety of crops. Beneficials and pollinators are produced by a multitude
of small companies. The role of the producers in the development ofIPM-programmes is
mentioned.
49

50
Several European governments have made programmes to reduce the use, the emission
and the dependence on chemical pesticides. In all programmes a sub goal is to replace
environmentally toxic pesticides by less harmful ones. This will stimulate the application
of beneficiaIs. On the other hand legislation referring to beneficials is being prepared by
several countries. The impact of those import regulations on the implementation of IPM
is discussed later in this article.
2. The Application of Beneficia Is in Protected Crops
The greenhouse area on which biological control is applied has increased from 400 ha in
1970 to almost 20,000 ha at the present (Van Lenteren, 1993a). Biological control is
mainly used in heated greenhouses, although the usage under polythene covers is
mcreasmg.
The application of biological control in warm climates (p.e. SE-Europe, Japan) is much
more complicated than in temperate areas. In warm countries pests develop outdoors
during a large part of the year and invade greenhouses particularly once open field crops
are harvested. This migration is the main source of primary greenhouse infestation by
pests. The mild climate outside enables pests to develop year-round and pest-pressure is
therefore very high. The use of insect-proof screens seems to be a condition for successful
applications of rPM, especially in those areas. At present, all greenhouse tomatoes and
many other greenhouse crops are protected by screens in Israel (Berlinger et aI., 1996).
Frankliniella occidentalis and Bemisia tabaci often hamper the development of IPM,
both in vegetable and ornamental crops because of the transmission of viruses (Tomato
Spotted Wilt Virus and Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus). Those viruses can cause severe
damage to the crops. Pest tolerance and thus possibilities for biological control ofthose
pests is very low in cases where those viruses are observed. In Italy, for example, B. tabaci
severely limits IPM in tomato (Benuzzi, Nicoli, 1993).
Problems with soil diseases can be strongly reduced by growing the crop in inert media,
which has become common practice in Western Europe (Van Lenteren, 1995).
The amount offungicides applied is still high due to the fact that no alternative control
methods are available. Often the application offungicides (sometimes weekly) interferes
with the application of natural enemies. The need for alternative control methods is great.
Many research institutes now study biological control methods of fungal diseases,
especially with parasitic fungi. Marketing of these fungi is greatly hampered until now by
the production costs, efficacy and registration. Competing with chemical fungicides is not
yet possible.
2.1. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE MACRO-ORGANISMS
The first applications of biological control in glasshouses were made with Phytoseiulus
persimilis in 1968 and Encarsiaformosa in 1970. In the last 30 years about 30 species of
natural enemies have been introduced against more than 20 pest species. Many new
beneficials are taken under investigation. New control agents are almost exclusively used
51
against insects and mites. Detailed information on beneficials commercially used until
1994 is given by Ravensberg (l994a). Since 1994 at least 8 new species can be added to
this list (table 1).
Table 1. Since 1994 commercially applied natural enemies for control in

protected crops.
Natural enemy Target pest In use since

Amblyseius californicus spider mites 1994
Eretmocerus californicus whitefly 1994
Hypoaspis miles sciarids 1994
Phytoseiulus persimilis-T spider mites 1995 I)
Hypoaspis aculeifer sciarids, bulb mite 1995

Opius pallipes leaf-miners 19962)
Aphidius ervi aphids 1996
Harmonia axyridis aphids 1996
1) P. persimilis produced on the 'tomato spider mite' Tetranychus urticae for application
in tomato
2) Following the withdrawal in 1982 0. pallipes is produced again for control of Liriomyza
spp.
For the biological control of white fly in different vegetable and ornamental crops the
parasito'id Eretmocerus californicus has been marketed since 1995. E. californicus is
especially valuable for the control of Bemisia tabaci (although it also parasitizes
Trialeurodes vaporariorum very well) and in periods of higher temperatures.
The rather resistant soil-dwelling predatory mites Hypoaspis miles and H. aculeifer are
used for the control of sciarids, especially in ornamental crops.
Good results have been obtained in the control of spider mites in tomato with the
tomato-strain of Phytoseiulus persimilis. The predatory mite Amblyseius californicus can
survive periods offood scarcity, accepts pollen as an alternative food source and is rather
resistant to pesticides. As a result new possibilities for spider mite control in vegetable and
ornamental crops have been obtained.
Opius pallipes realizes a better leaf-miner control in tomatoes in early season in
comparison to Dacnusa sibirica. The value of this parasito'id at the end ofthe cultivation
season is still being investigated.
Finally, aphid control is improved by the introduction of new beneficials. Aphidius ervi
is a new parasito'id that is used against Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Aulacorthum solani.
The lady-beetle Harmonia axyridis is still being tested for use in hot spots. The first tests
under field conditions show promising results for the control of Myzus nicotianae, which
still forms a threat to IPM in sweet pepper in the Netherlands.
52
2.2. COMMERCIALL Y AVAILABLE MICRO-ORGANISMS
The number of micro-organisms marketed for control of insects is still very limited. This
is mainly due to the expensive and time consuming registration procedures that are applied
in cases where micro-organisms are involved.
In some countries microbials on the basis of bacteria and fungi are marketed without a
registration. They are often offered as plant or soil improvers or fertilizers. Often these
products are not well investigated and lack data of efficacy and toxicology. These products
will not be mentioned here.
2.2.1. Bacteria. Bacillus thuringiensis is the main product in the bacteria group. Different
strains of this bacteria are being applied against a broad range of insect pests.
The antagonist Streptomyces griseoviridis is registered in some countries for use against
Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia, Alternaria and Pythium in ornamentals (Simon et aI., 1992;
Whipps, 1994).
2.2.2. Fungi. Verticillium lecanii was the first fungus to be registered in Europe in 1990.
The commercial product Mycotal is registered in the UK, the Netherlands, Switzerland
and Finland for control of whitefly. Vertalec, applied against aphids, is registered in these
same countries, excepting the Netherlands (Ravensberg et aI., 1994b). Paecilomyces
fumosoroseus is in the process of registration in the EU against whitefly. The antagonist
Trichoderma harzianum is registered in Hungary for the control of Botrytis cinerea (Ilovai
et al., 1996; Whipps, 1994).
2.2.3. Viruses. One virus-based product (Spod-X) has been registered in the Netherlands
for control of Spodoptera exigua in ornamenta1s since 1994.
2.2.4. Nematodes. Steinernematids and Heterorhabditids have been proven efficacious

against various insects. Efforts in recent years have led to matching the optimal strain or
species in a particular habitat against a particular insect species. Better formulations and
production in liquid cultures have on average improved the quality of the products applied
(Georgis, Grewal, 1994). Nematodes are mainly applied in ornamental crops.
2.3. IPM IN VEGETABLE CROPS
In many temperate countries IPM is practised on a large part of the main vegetable crops
in greenhouses.
In 1994 up to 17 different beneficial organisms were applied on more than 200 ha of
greenhouse crops in Austria (Bliimel, Schausberger, 1996).
In 1993, biological control was applied in France on 755 ha, mainly in tomato, cucumber
and strawberry. Frankliniella occidentalis and Aphis gossypii hampered further
development in cucumber until new beneficials against those pests (Or ius spp. and
Aphidius colemani) became available (Maisonneuve, 1993). However due to the arrival
of a new insecticide (abamectin) the area on which biological control was applied
53
decreased to 535 ha in 1995 (Maisonneuve, pers. comm.)!

In Italy, beneficials are applied on only 300 ha of a greenhouse acreage of 24,000 ha.
Bemisia tabaci and Frankliniella occidentalis severely limit further implementation of
rPM (Benuzzi. Nicoli, 1993).
In the Netherlands the area of vegetables under glass under IPM is approximately 2,500
ha. IPM is applied on nearly the total acreage of tomato, sweet pepper, cucumber (mainly
in the first planting) and melon. Beneficials are also applied in eggplant and strawberry.
At present Spodoptera exigua forms a threat to biological control, especially in sweet
pepper and gerbera. Biological agents, registered in vegetable crops, are not effective
against this species and chemicals interfere with Orius spp. used for thrips control. The
need for alternative control is great.
IPM programmes are more and more 'fine-tuned' in the main vegetable crops in the
northern European countries because of the greater availability of beneficia Is.
The use of IPM for whitefly control in New Zealand greenhouse vegetables has
increased enormously since the registration of a new selective insecticide (buprofezin).
Also, bumblebees have had a strong positive influence on the development ofIPM in this
country (Beck et aI., 1993a).
In Australia, beneficials have only recently become available for use in horticulture
(Spooner-Hart, 1993).
In Japan, although much information has been obtained on IPM, the commercial use of
beneficials in protected crops lags far behind that of western countries. One ofthe major
limitations was the fact that natural enemies were not readily available. Climatic
conditions are also a factor. The commercial use of beneficials is expected to increase in
the future (Yano, 1993).
In recent bulletins of the IOBC Working Group "Integrated Control in Glasshouses"
(California (1993), Lisboa (1994) and Vienna (1996») overviews of biological control, the
state of the art in many countries, can be found.
2.4 IPM IN ORNAMENTAL CROPS
The application ofIPM in ornamental crops is much more complicated than in vegetable
crops, due to a greater variety of plant species (and accordingly more pests and diseases),
greater availability of pesticides, the harvest and sales of the total product, and, last, but
not least, the need to meet export demands such as zero-tolerance. In the past, fewer
incentives existed to encourage growers to change to a more complicated, but more
environmentally friendly system of pest control. This is now slowly changing because of
new ideas about crop protection, zero-tolerance, resistance problems and environmental
pollution.
Where a zero-tolerance is mandated by quarantaine regulations, IPM with a firm reliance
on biological control may not be realistic. Where floricultural products are destined for
marketing within the producing country the idea that some pests and their damage can be
tolerated is gathering greater acceptance by ornamental growers, allowing more space for
the application of beneficials.
54
Scouting is the basis for a reliable IPM programme in ornamentals, even more than in
vegetable crops. In some crops, susceptible cultivars of indicator-plants are used for
monitoring in addition to sticky traps. Regular introductions, weekly monitoring and crop
sanitation are the basis for a succesful control. Training growers in recognition of pests,
diseases and signs of damage will help to reduce the number of applications of chemicals
in ornamental crops, many of which are preventative.
Host plant resistence is present in 'lines' of many ornamental plant species against a
whole range of pests, but many commercial cultivars are still very susceptible
(chrysanthemum to leaf-miner and thrips, rose to powdery mildew, carnations to Fusarium
oxysporum). Selection of commercially produced cultivars should be based more on host
plant resistance than is the current practice in order to move towards environmentally
friendly production of ornamental crops in the future.
Worldwide only a few hundreds of hectares of ornamentals are under IPM, but this area
is increasing. IPM is mainly applied in the cut flower crops bouvardia, chrysanthemum,
cymbidium, gerbera, and in potted plants like ficus, ferns, palms and poinsettia (both in
cuttings and potted plants).
Poinsettia was one of the first ornamental crops in which the possibilities of IPM were
investigated. This crop was choosen as a test crop because of the limited number of pests
that form a threat to this crop (mainly whitefly and sciarids). In many countries (Canada,
Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland and Italy), good results with Encarsia
formosa (and recently in combination with Eretmocerus californicus) against whitefly and
Steinernematids against sciarids were obtained in this crop, both in the production of
cuttings and potted plants. Netherlands even, a 25% higher production of cuttings on
motherplants was recorded in case beneficials were used instead of chemicals for whitefly
control. Despite the good results growers in the USA have returned totally to chemical
control of white fly since the arrival of a new pesticide (imidacloprid)(Sanderson, pers.
comm.).
In New Zealand cymbidium is the main crop in which IPM is being applied. Despite for
the fact that the product has to meet extremely high quality export demands to Japan, there
has been a rapid uptake of IPM by growers of this crop. This is partly due to problems
with the use of miticides (decreasing effectiveness, phytotoxicity and chemical residue).
Calendar introductions of Phytoseiulus persimilis are made and also indicator-plants are
used (Beck et aI., 1993b; Martin et aI., 1996).
In the Netherlands, IPM is applied on approximately 250 ha of ornamental crops. This
acreage is increasing due to promising results in a variety of crops and greater availability
of beneficiaIs. The latest plans of the Dutch Government call for IPM to be applied widely
in floriculture by the year 2000, the year in which the use of a large number of pesticides
will be forbidden. Further development of IPM-programmes in bouvardia, cymbidium,
chrysanthemum, rose, gerbera, ficus and poinsettia are of the highest priority (Fransen,
1993; Fransen, 1996).
In England IPM is mainly applied on spring bedding plants (Jacobson, 1993).
In the USA (California), a statewide IPM demonstration project was set up in potted
chrysanthemum. In the IPM-project greater insect damage appeared than in traditionally
55
grown chrysanthemums, but a high quality crop was still produced. There was no
difference in terms of salability (Hesselein et aI., 1993).
Of all the Scandinavian countries IPM is most widely applied in Denmark. In those
countries there is an acreage of 800 ha of ornamental crops (600 ha potted plants and 200
ha cut flowers). IPM is applied on approximately 50% of the total acreage of potted plants
in Denmark (i.e. 150 ha). In the other Scandinavian countries IPM is rapidly developing.
The main crops on which IPM is applied are poinsettia, Hedera, potted chrysanthemum,
potted roses. IPM in cut flower crops such as rose, gerbera and chrysanthemum is under
development.
More information on the application of beneficiaIs in ornamental crops can be found in
the same bulletins of the IOBC Working Group "Integrated Control in Glasshouses" as
mentioned in the vegetable section.
3. The Application of Bumblebees in Protected Crops
3.1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPLICATION OF BUMBLEBEES
Since the late 1980's bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) have been produced and used for the
pollination of vegetable crops. The original incentive for growers to use bumblebees
(especially for tomato growers) was the decrease in labour costs of manual pollination. In
some crops, fruits of higher quality and higher vitamin C contents are produced where
pollination is done by bumblebees, especially in comparison to tomatoes, where hormone
treatments were used. These were not the only advantages, however. The introduction of
bumblebees has also stimulated the application of natural enemies, especially in crops or
areas in which no beneficials had previously been used. Broad-spectrum pesticides that
were not longer usable due to the undesired side effects on bumblebees, had to be replaced
by more selective alternatives to chemical control methods, i.e. the natural enemies. IPM
allows the natural pollinators to work to their fullest advantage.
Because of the threat that non-indigenous bee species might pose to local bee
populations (displacement of native bees, transmission of diseases), native bee species are
also produced for countries where B. terrestris does not occur and where suitable
alternatives are available. For example, for the West Coast of North America Bombus
occidentalis is produced, for the Eastern part of North America Bombus impatiens.
Bombus canariensis is produced for the Canarian Islands.
Refining the introduction rates of pollinators is important, since in a number of crops
fruits can become deformed in cases of over-pollination (too many visits), especially in
sweet pepper and strawberry.
3.2. AREAS OF APPLICATION
In the Netherlands and Belgium bees are applied most intensively of all countries. In total
bumblebees are used on about 6,500 ha, half in greenhouses, half under polythene covers.
There is a high potential for further application of bumblebees especially in Southern
56
Europe.
The main protected vegetable crops in which bumblebees are applied are tomato
(approx. on 6,000 ha), sweet pepper (300 ha), strawberry (50 ha), eggplant (50 ha),
courgette, melon, red currant, blackberry and raspberry (in total approx. 70 ha).
Bumblebees are used on a smaller scale for seed production (cucumber, Brussels sprouts,
winter radish).
Bumblebees are used in tomatoes during the whole cultivation period. In sweet peppers
natural pollinators are mainly used to improve the quality of the fruits of the first and last
setting. In strawberries and small fruit the application of bumblebees mainly depends on
the weather and the availability of (the cheaper) honeybees. Where climatic conditions are
good, satisfactory pollination by honeybees will be obtained. In courgette, the size of the
pollen is too big and not sticky enough for transportation to the hive, although enough
pollen is transported for pollination. Feeding of additional pollen is necessary to obtain
good development of hives.
In ornamental crops bumblebees are also being applied. In berry-carrying crops (like
Solanum pseudocapsicum and Skimmia) more fruits will be formed, leading to a higher
ornamental value of the plants. Bumblebees are also used in ornamental crops at the stage
of seed production (Gerbera, Borago, Helleborus).
3.3. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Experiments are being carried out to look at the benefit of the application of bumblebees
under special conditions. Long-tongued bumblebees could be used for pollination of
Primula and beans. The application of solitary bees is also under investigation.
Commercial production of those bumblebees is not yet anticipated in the near future
because they are hard to breed 'artificially'.
Some researchers are looking at the possibilities of using bumblebees as vectors of
microbial antagonists for biocontrol of various flower-infecting pathogens (Sutton, 1993).
4. The Biocontrol Industry
The number of companies that produce natural enemies for use in greenhouses and under
polythene covers has increased from 1 in 1968 to over 50 nowadays (table 2) (Van
Lenteren, 1995). Bumblebees are produced by about 4 large companies and 15-20 small
companies. Only the large companies produce both types of beneficial arthropods.
Honeybees are mainly produced by amateur beekeepers.
The current sales of biological control agents is estimated to be only US$120 million
compared to US$ 26 billion for agrochemical products. The sales of Bacillus thuringiensis
products covers more than 90% of the total sales of biological products (Powell, Jutsum,
pers. comm.). The present yearly turn-over of natural enemies and pollinators of the 4
largest companies in Western Europe, who not only market their products in Europe, is
approximately US$ 40 million (Bolckmans, pers. comm.).
57
Table 2. The number of producers of natural enemies for IPM m

greenhouses worldwide (Van Lenteren, 1995).
Region Number
Western Europe 26
Central Europe 8
Former USSR 10
North America 10
AustralialNew Zealand 3
Producers of natural enemies are playing a very important role in the implementation of
IPM programmes. A large part ofthe IPM programmes is developed and maintained by
the producers of beneficials.
National research institutes are not always able to react promptly to new developments.
Therefore producers have to carry out applied research by themselves in order to being
able to market promising beneficials on short terms. Financing ofthis research has been
hampered by the tremendous drop in prices of beneficials and pollinators because of
competition and reduced margins.
5. The Role of the Market
The role of the market in the vending of agricultural/horticultural products is ever more
important. Large supermarket chains more and more demand products that have been
grown with a minimum of pesticides or are pesticide-free. As an example of this a Dutch
initiative is described.
In order to meet the demands of supermarket chains the Dutch Vegetable and
Fruitgrowers Association created the 'Environmentally Friendly Production' programme
in 1991. Tomatoes, cucumbers, sweet peppers and melons, that are produced under strict
rules with regard to the use of pesticides, are marketed under a special label. At the
moment, for some ornamental and vegetable crops criteria such as use of fertilizers,
amount of energy used and the production of waste are taken into account for getting a
certain production qualification.
Because the goal of the Growers Association was to set the rules in such a way that 90%
of all growers could join this project (to guarantee delivery of products all through the
season), those products are produced in bulk within the Netherlands. Therefore growers
are still searching for ways to distinguish their products from others in order to safeguard
their share in European markets.
58
Since the season 1995/96 some Dutch growers have formed associations, who are setting
their own standards for their products in order to guarantee the marketing of their
exclusive product. One of the first organisations among tomato growers is
GARTENFRISCH. Growers who are a member of this association are not allowed to use
any pesticides for control of insects and mites during the cultivation period. Those pests
should be controlled by beneficials and cultivation measurements (except for fungicides
since there are no biological alternatives). In case of severe infestations a grower can apply
pesticides, but the 'penalty' is removal from the special block at the auction for at least one
month. In this period the grower will receive a set price below the GARTENFRISCH-
block price.
The individual grower is checked by independent authorities to ensure that the standards
are met. The growers are intensively guided by pest control advisors.
Until now those environmental friendly produced products have received little or no
price premium, but growers seem to have succeeded in enlarging or gaining a segment of
the sales. Also, growers of other crops like sweet pepper and cucumber are taking notice
of this development.
Obviously, those developments are having a promoting effect on the application of
beneficials. It is expected that this trend will eventually spread all over Europe for reasons
of competition and supermarket and consumer demands.
6. The Development of Quality Control Guidelines
The success of IPM programmes largely depends on the quality of the introduced
beneficials. Since 1991 guidelines for natural enemies are being developed by the global
IOBC Working Group "Quality Control of Mass Reared Arthropods" in the EU in order
to standardise the quality of beneficial insect and mite products. Both researchers and
producers of natural enemies are taking part in this Working Group.
The quality control criteria are based on laboratory measurements, flight tests and field
performance tests. Until now tests for Phytoseiulus persimilis, Aphelinus abdominalis,
Aphidius spp., Aphidoletes aphidimyza, Chrysoperla carnea, Dacnusa sibirica, Diglyphus
isaea, Encarsiaformosa, Amblyseius cucumeris and Orius spp. have been developed. In
the near future, producers of beneficials will have to execute those tests just before
shipment of the beneficials takes place. Some tests will have to be carried out frequently,
some on an annual or seasonal basis (Van Lenteren, 1993b).
Failures in IPM-prograrnmes caused by qualitatively poor material should be prevented
once those criteria are implemented. How the criteria will fit into national or European
legislation is not clear yet.
7. Legislation and Registration
The success of biological control as an alternative for chemical control has resulted in
59
increased importation and release of exotic organisms. Nowadays more and more
countries are demanding import licenses and registration of beneficiaIs. The development
of registration procedures has not kept pace with the demands of governments to move
towards pesticide-free food production. Long-standing, expensive registration procedures
are hampering the development and implementation of new biological control agents,
especially for small producers and for products with only small markets. Also the diversity
in procedures between all different countries makes registration a time and money-
consuming affair. Authorities should support the development of uniform and simple
procedures for macro-organisms in order to facilitate registration, minimize environmental
risks and promote the implementation ofIPM (Bigler, in press). Implementation of the
quality control guidelines in those procedures will help to register only efficacious, high
quality products and thereby prevent failures in IPM-programmes caused by products of
poor quality.
Harmonization of procedures within the European Union is under discussion and efforts
have been made to include the FAO Code of Conduct for the importation and release of
biological control agents into the EU (Klingauf, 1995).
The demands for registration of beneficial organisms in different countries are presented
in table 3.
Table 3. Registration and evaluation criteria needed for micro- and

macro-organisms in different countries (modified after Bigler, in
press).
Micro-organisms Macro-organisms
Countries eff.l) (eco-)tox. 2) eff.l) envir.eff.3) since
EU yes yes no no
Austria yes yes yes yes 1995
Sweden yes yes yes yes 1995
Non-EU
Hungary yes yes yes yes 1988
Norway yes yes no no
Switzerland yes yes yes yes 1987
Japan yes yes yes yes 4)
Australia yes yes yes yes 1994

Canada yes yes yes yes 1996
Israel yes yes no no
USA no yes no no
1) eff.: efficacy data 3) envir. eff.: environmental effects
2) (eco-)tox.: (eco-)toxicological data 4) as for regislation of chemicals
60
7.1. REGISTRATION OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
In general, similar registration procedures are applied for micro-organisms as for chemical
pesticides. In cases where non-indigenous micro-organisms are involved, extra
information on possible environmental impacts has to be supplied. Especially in the case
of products based on micro-organisms the registration procedure is more or less blocking
their development. The new EU procedure is very costly and time consuming and the
generally small markets for these products do not justify these investments. There is a
strong contradiction in governments stimulating and funding research on alternative
control methods and creating high thresholds for their implementation in daily agricultural
practice.
7.2. REGISTRATION OF MACRO-ORGANISMS
Most European countries do not yet demand registration of macro-organisms.

Japan, Australia, Canada, Hungary, Sweden, Austria and Switzerland are a few of the
countries worldwide where registration of commercial products of macro-organisms is
compulsory. In Japan and Morocco efficacy data are demanded for each natural enemy on
every crop based on tests, carried out by the authorities over several seasons. In Japan
registration for the use of Encarsiaformosa in tomato and for Phytoseiulus persimilis in
strawberry was obtained in 1995 after 4 years of official testing. It is obvious however,
that in those countries it will take years before all natural enemies, needed for a total IPM-
programme, are registered (Bigler, in press; Van Lenteren, in press).
In an increasing number of countries the release of non-indigenous macro-organisms is
only permitted where an import license has been obtained. The procedures for granting
licenses are still under review, but so far they are very different between countries.
7.3. REGISTRATION OF BUMBLEBEES
In some countries import permits and health certificates have to be supplied with every
shipment of bumblebees. Only a few countries (i.e. Norway and Turkey) prohibit the
import of bumblebees in order to protect indigenous bee species.
8. Recent Developments in IPM
There are many new developments going on in horticulture, which will have an effect on
the application of beneficials.
8.1. IPM IN STOCK/SEEDLINGS
Since the early 1990's, the application ofIPM on cuttings of poinsettia has become wide-
spread in the Netherlands. Now also the possibilities of application of IPM during the
propagation of vegetable plants (cucumber, tomato and sweet pepper) have been taken
under investigation in a project in which different disciplines are represented
61
(Plantbreeders, Plant Protection Service, NVP, producers of beneficials, extension

service). Very good results have been obtained in the last 2 years. Those young plants,
produced with a minimum of pesticides or pesticide-free, will form the basis for the
production of pesticide-free grown crops in future.
8.2. OPEN REARING SYSTEM
IPM-programmes are heading more and more towards 'preventative' introductions of

beneficials. In many cases the beneficials will die shortly after introduction due to food
scarcity. By using banker plants containing host insects (i.e. barley with the bird-cherry
aphid Rhopalosiphum padi, rose with the potato aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae) or
pollen (the plant Ricinus communis produces pollen and nectar), beneficials can be
produced on an alternative foodsource and released continuously in the greenhouses. At
the moment open rearing systems are being applied in sweet pepper (aphids), cucumber
(different banker plants for aphids and thrips), tomato (aphids) and lettuce (leaf-
miner )(Maisonneuve, 1992; Van der Linden, 1993 ; Van Lenteren, 1995). For ornamental
crops the use of banker plants also seems promising, providing that the plants do not form
a threat to the produced crop by attracting pests.
8.3. IMPROVED USE OF BENEFlCIALS
Of some beneficials it is known that they can adapt to a particular pest or crop. In the case
of control of Tetranychus urticae good results have been obtained with Phytoseiulus
persimilis produced on T. urticae on tomato (instead of the normal production on T.
urticae on bean). Efficient control of spider mites with the 'standard' P. persimilis was not
possible until then. This product has become a commercial product for use in tomato in
1995.
Some beneficials accept alternative food sources. Orius spp., Amblyseius cucumeris, A.
degenerans and A. californicus can reproduce on pollen. Macrolophus caliginosus can
survive periods of food scarcity on plant juices. Those facultative carnivorus predators can
be introduced preventatively, resulting in earlier and better pest control on a lower level.
8.4. CROPPING PERIOD
In some European countries (Norway, The Netherlands) trials are being carried out to look
at the possibilities of improving fruit quality of cucumbers during the season. Nowadays
2-3 plantings per season are necessary for obtaining good fruit quality all season long,
partly due to difficulties in controlling thrips. The short cultivation periods of 12-15 weeks
make it hard to obtain satisfactory biological pest control and make biological control
relatively expensive. At the moment some growers are trying to grow only 1 crop per
season in a so-called 'high-wire-system'. By this system growers will save the costs of
plant material and labour of replanting, while gaining extra fruit quality. However, extra
labour is needed for crop maintenance. This development will have its impact on IPM in
cucumber. Extending the cropping period will certainly give more chances to slowly
62
developing, but promising beneficials like Orius spp., which will lead to a more solid
thrips control in this crop. On the other hand, whitefly control may be hampered by this
system because leaves may be removed before Encarsiaformosa has hatched.
8.5. USE OF NETTING
The use of insect-proof screens minimizes pest immigration, providing a better basis for
implementation ofIPM programmes. The use of netting will have to be widely applied in
the near future in order to be able to meet the increasing quality demands, especially for
ornamental crops. This applies for both biological and chemical control. At the moment
different systems of netting are being applied. Although the prices of netting are
decreasing, netting still asks a large investment of the grower, which at the moment limits
its appeal.
9. The Future of Biological Control
9.l. PROMOTING FACTORS
There are some factors which will help to enlarge the application oflPM in future, such
that it will finally become an accepted and widely used method of pestcontrol in most
(vegetable and ornamental) crops.
9.1.1. Availability ofbeneficia Is. From the first applications ofIPM in 1968 until 1990 13
species of natural enemies were commercially introduced onto the market 01an Lenteren,
1995). Since 1991, 21 new beneficial species were marketed. It is expected that this
number will still be increasing in the coming years. Micro-organisms are still rarely used
as control agents. Due to the high costs of registration of micro-organisms the number of
microbials that can be expected to appear in the near future will be limited.
9.1.2. Availability of pesticides. Since the costs for development and registration of
pesticides are strongly increasing, fewer new pesticides will become available in the
future. In order to prevent early resistance of pests against the registered pesticides,
chemical companies are stressing the importance of resistance management. Most times
this implies a more intensive application of beneficials. However, biological control
methods should be used in combination with other pest control methods in IPM
programmes, so mutual benefit will be harvested.
9.1.3. Arrival ofnew pests.The use of broad-spectrum chemicals to control newly-invaded

pests has often seriously interfered with existing IPM-programmes. Nowadays, many new
pests can be successfully controlled with new beneficials, since natural enemies are
becoming more rapidly available than new selective chemicals.
9.1.4. Host plant resistance. Biological control and host plant resistance are two important
63
corner stones ofIPM for the future. At the moment there is a complete array of biological
agents available for growers to combat many pests, and the list of beneficials is still
growing. Cultivars resistant to a number of diseases (viruses and fungi) have already been
developed for the most important vegetable crops. In North-America the development of
insect resistant cultivars is more common than in Europe.
If plant breeders could achieve to develop resistant cultivars without unintended
hampering effects on beneficials, then current pest problems could be solved in an
environmentally friendly and lasting way.
9.2. LIMITING FACTORS
9.2.1. Limited knowledge of IPM by users. The availability ofbeneficials is increasing

rapidly at the moment. This makes rPM programmes more reliable, although more
complicated. Therefore there is a strong need for further education of growers and
advisers. At the moment decision-support systems for crop protection are being developed
in order to help the grower make the best choice for pest control (Altena, 1996; Shipp et
al., 1996).
9.2.2. Zero-tolerance. The zero-tolerance is generally used as a 'standard' for all products,
although it is only an export requirement for a few countries. The auctions will have to
create a better climate for environmentally friendly grown products, and these products
will have to be accepted by the trade. International trade demands will have to be
amended.
9.2.3. Registration procedures. Further development of rPM will be hampered if

governments do not pay extra attention to harmonization of registration procedures.
9.2.4. New chemical pesticides. The new generation of pesticides could limit further use
ofbeneficials in certain crops. On the one hand, their more specific activity allows them
to be used in IPM programmes besides natural enemies. But, on the other hand, their
application can be so easy and cheap for growers, that they replace the use ofbeneficials.
This has happened with abamectin (used for spider mite and thrips control (France, the
Netherlands) and imidacloprid (used for the control of aphids (the Netherlands) and
whitefly (USA)).
10. Concluding Remarks
In reviewing the increasing number of commercially available beneficials and the number
of crops in which they can be applied, a promising future for further implementation of
rPM seems to be ahead of us. However, further development of rPM programmes will
greatly depend on the balance between promoting and limiting factors mentioned.
Growers are being forced more and more by govemments and consumers to reconsider
their production methods and are therefore searching for more environmentally friendly
64
methods. However, only premium prices for their products and increasing market shares
will be true incentives for growers to use biological control methods.
The role of producers of beneficials, research institutes, public and private advisors in
educating and guiding the growers is becoming more and more important because of the
increasing complexity of IPM programmes. However this asks for a higher input in
research and extension activities. Declining research funds and decreasing margins on
prices of beneficial organisms are negatively effecting those activities.
It is clear that steps have to be taken by authorities all over the world in order to move
towards pesticide-free horticultural products in the near future. On the one hand, laws and
registration procedures are being changed in several countries in such a way that chemical
pesticides will become less and less available, for which reliable, economically acceptable
non-chemical control methods will have to be developed. On the other hand, new and
divers legislation in many countries is hampering the implementation of beneficiaIs in new
crops and areas. Reducing registration costs of beneficial micro-organisms surely will help
to encourage the development of application of microbials in IPM programmes.
11. References
Altena K (1996) What happened to "CAPPA"?: the Koppert experience. IOBC/WPRS

Bull. 19(1), 5-6.
Beck NG, Martin NA and Workman PI (1993a) IPM for greenhouse crops in New
Zealand: grower acceptance. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2), 1-4.
Beck NG, Workman PI and Martin NA (1993b) IPM for Cymbidium orchids in New
Zealand. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(8), 12-15.
Benuzzi M and Nicoli G (1993) Outlook for IPM in protected crops in Italy. IOBC/WPRS
Bull. 16(2),9-12.
Berlinger MI, Lebiush-Mordechi Sand Rosenfeld I (1996) State of the art and the future
ofIPM in greenhouse vegetables in Israel. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 19(1), 11-14.
Bigler F (1996) Use and registration of macro organisms for biological crop protection. In
press, OEPPIEPPO Bull.
Bliimel Sand Schausberger P (1996) Current status ofIPM in greenhouses in Austria.
IOBC/WPRS Bull. 19(1), 19-22.
Fransen JJ (1993) Integrated pest management in glasshouse ornamentals in the
Netherlands: a step by step policy. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2),35-38.
Fransen JJ (1996) Recent trends in integrated and biological pest and disease control in
the Netherlands. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 19(1),43-46.
Georgis R and Grewal PS (1994) Commercial application of entomopathogenic
nematodes. Proc. Vol. 1, Montpellier, France; Soc. Invert. Path., 157-163.
Hesselein C, Robb K, Newman I, Evans R and Parrella M (1993) Demonstration
integrated pest management program for potted Chrysanthemum in California.
IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2),71-76.
Ilovai Z, Budai C, Dormanns-Simon E and Kiss EF (1996) Implementation ofIPM in
65
Hungarian greenhouses. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 19(1), 63-66.

Jacobson RJ (1993) Integrated pest management in spring bedding plants: a successful
package for commercial crops. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(8), 105-112.
KlingaufFAI (1995) Registration requirements of biological control agents in Germany
and in the European Union. In: Biological Control: Benefits and Risks. Hokkanen HMT
and Lynch JM (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 283-290.
Martin NA, Workman PI and Marais T (1996) IPM for greenhouse crops in New Zealand:
progress, problems and prospects. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 19( 1), 99-102.
Maisonneuve IC (1992) Augmentation de l'efficacite de Praon volucre, parasitoYde de
Macrosiphum euphorbiae sur tomate de serre, grace it une plante relais, le rosier.
OEPPIEPPO Bull. 22(3), 513-519.
Maisonneuve IC (1993) Biological control in protected crops in France in 1992.
IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2), 105-108.
Ravensberg WJ (1994a) Biological control of pests: current trends and future prospects.
Brighton Crop Protection Conference, BCPC Pests and Diseases, Vol. 2, 591-600.
Ravensberg WJ, Van Buysen AC and Berns R (1994b) Side-effects of pesticides on
Verticillium lecanii: In vivo tests on white fly and aphids. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 17(3),234-
238.
Shipp JL, Clarke ND, Papadopoulos AP, Jarvis WR, lewett TJ and Khosla SK (1996)
Harrow greenhouse crop manager: a decision-support system for integrated
management of greenhouse cucumber and tomato. IOBCIWPRS Bull. 19(1), 155-158.
Simon E, Ceglarska-H6di E and Aponyi-Garamvolgyi (1992) Microbial control of soil-
borne pathogens in Hungary. OEPPIEPPO Bull. 22(3), 457-461.
Spooner-Hart R (1993) Arthropods in the antipodes: pests and biological control in
protected crops in Australia. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2), 153-156.
Sutton JC (1993) Use of bees to deliver biocontrol agents for controlling flower-infecting
pathogens. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16( 11), 244-246.
Van Lenteren IC (1993a) Parasites and predators play a paramount role in insect pest
management. In: Pest management: Biologically based technologies. Lumsden RD and
Vaughn IL (eds.), American Chemical Society, Washington DC, 1993,68-81.
Van Lenteren JC (1993 b) Improving the reliability of biological control by applying
quality control of natural enemies. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 16(2),85-88.
Van Lenteren JC (1995) Integrated pest management in protected crops. In: Integrated
Pest Management, Dent D (Ed.) Chapman and Hall, London, 311-343.
Van Lenteren IC (1996) Benefits and risks of introducing exotic macro-biological control
agents into Europe. In press, OEPPIEPPO Bull.
Van der Linden A (1993) Development of an IPM program in leafy and tuberous crops
with Liriomyza huidobrensis as a key pest. IOBC/WPRS 16(2),93-96.
Whipps JM (1994) Advances in biological control in protected crops. Brighton Crop
Protection Conference, BCPC Pests and Diseases, Vol. 3, 1259-1264.
Yano E (1993) Prospects for biological control in protected crops in Japan. IOBC/WPRS
Bull. 16(2), 189-192.
R&D RESEARCHIDEMONSTRATION GREENHOUSE USING
METHANE GAS FROM A LANDFILL FOR CO-GENERATION
William 1. Roberts
Director of CCEA
Department of Bioresource Engineering, Rutgers University
New Brunswick, NJ USA 08903
ABSTRACT: A research/demonstration greenhouse for the production of

greenhouse tomatoes using the single truss tomato production system (STTPS) has
been designed and erected in Florence, New Jersey, at the Burlington County
Resource Recovery Facility. The facility will demonstrate the potential for using
methane gas from landfills or other sources for heating and lighting to maximize
crop production while minimizing energy costs. The main greenhouse is 76.97
meters long with 7 bays at 10.97 m with each bay being 51. 81 m long. The
headhouse is 14.6 m wide and 62.2 m long is placed between the main greenhouse
area and a 10.97 m wide and 27.4 m long nursery facility. Tomatoes grown on
transportable benches are moved to the workers for pruning, inspection and harvest.
Hives of bees provide pollination. Supplemental lighting is provided by 430 watt
HID (high intensity discharge) high-pressure sodium lamps. Power will be supplied
to the lights by a 300 KW co-generation unit operating on methane gas produced by
the adjacent landfill. Rejected heat from the co-generation engine will be stored in
the floor. A floor heating system and overhead 50 mm hot water steel pipe provide
heating. Ventilation is accomplished through electric fans and a calibrated and
screened inlet ventilation window. Evaporative cooling is also provided by a high
pressure fog system. Currently 3 bays are glazed with glass and 4 bays are glazed
with two layers of polyethylene film.
1. Introduction
This Burlington County Research and Demonstration Greenhouse research facility is
a part of the New Jersey Ecocomplex. The Ecocomplex is the nation's first
research, teaching and technology transfer experiment station focusing on
environmental issues. The project is funded by the Burlington County Board of
Chosen Freeholders with assistance from the New Jersey Economic Development
Authority.
The faculty of the Bioresource Engineering Department has been conducting
extensive research over a period of years on greenhouse design, energy conservation,
alternate energy use, unique tomato production systems and automatic handling of
67
68
transplants using machine vision and robotics. The design of the R&D greenhouse
discussed here is a synthesis of many of these research activities into a demonstration
unit of modest production size. The size of the cooperative greenhouse research and
demonstration facility is limited at this location because of the terrain which is
surrounded by designated wetlands, Figure 1. The concepts being introduced into
the design include, use of methane gas (Giniger, et a1.1984) as a primary energy
source, computer models which predict date of first flower based on PAR
(photosynthetically active radiation) energy received, supplemental lighting to
achieve model predictions, floor heating and energy storage systems, polyethylene
film double glazing, the single truss tomato production system, screening for insect
control and the use of thermal screens for cooling and energy conservation. Ebb and
flood hydroponic crop production in conjunction with transportable benching will be
featured in the growing system. Robotic transplanting and computer vision analysis
for seedling selection will also be demonstrated in an extended research phase. In
addition several computer models have been developed which can be used in the
design of a production facility as described in this paper, including an economic
model, a growth model and a materials handling model.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 GREENHOUSE DESIGN
The greenhouse as shown in Figures 2 and 3 is 76.97 meters long with 7 bays, 10.97
meters wide with each bay being 51.81 m long. The headhouse is 14.6 m wide and
62.2 m long and provides areas for an office, storage and work space for sorting,
packing, handling and transplanting of the crop. At one end of the headhouse the
boiler and the mechanical room are located and electric service entrance equipment.
Nearby, the 300 KW co-generation unit will be located on a slab outside the
headhouse near the electric panel. Located adjacent to this area are the concentrated
liquid fertilizer storage tanks, stainless steel screen filter and holding tanks for the
hydroponic growing system. In addition to the main greenhouse there is a 10.97 m
by 27.4 m plant nursery facility for producing the large number of transplants
required for STTPS production systems. The nursery area is separated from the
main greenhouse growing area to isolate and separate the younger from the older
plants in the two areas of production.
The greenhouse design features two glazings. The nursery area and three bays of
the greenhouse growing area are glazed with glass and 4 sections glazed with two
layers of air-inflated, polyethylene film. The greenhouse manufacturer chosen,
features an interchangeable design from glass to polyethylene film. The ridge and
furrow design has aluminum gutters which will receive either glass glazing bars or
flat or curved aluminum bars to support the polyethylene film. To change the
glazing only the support members need to be changed. At any time in the future at
modest cost, the greenhouse can be changed to whichever glazing proves to be
69
appropriate for this installation based on data collected, which includes amount of
PAR (photosynthetic ally active radiation) received and the thermal energy required
for heating in each section. These differences will be correlated along with crop
performance and yields.
The floor of the greenhouse features a floor heating system of 19 mm
polybutylene pipe, spaced on 30.5 cm centers. Each pipe loop is 103 m long and is
connected to a double return header system as indicated in Figures 4 and 5 (Roberts
1996). The double return header system ensures that each 'slug' of water travels the
same distance to and from the boiler and co-generator unit located in the headhouse.
Equal distances create equal friction which in turn provides equal flow in each loop
without the need for control valves or changes in pipe diameter. The floor of the
greenhouse has a very large thermal mass. Waste heat from the co-generator will be
captured and stored in the floor as the warm water is circulated throughout the floor
heating system. The generator can operate for long periods of time without affecting
air temperature in the greenhouse because of the huge energy storage capability of
the greenhouse floor. During periods when heat is required the heat stored in the
floor will be transmitted to the greenhouse based on the temperature difference
between the floor and the aerial environment. Traffic paths are paved in each bay
and at the ends of the greenhouse. The rest of the entire floor is of sand construction
with an impermeable liner under the sand to collect all water which escapes from the
irrigation system. This design limits unwanted runoff and potential ground water
pollution and creates an environmentally neutral greenhouse.
2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM
The aerial and root environment of the greenhouse is controlled separately by an

Argus computer system with sensors mounted in each zone throughout the crop area.
Overhead hot water loops of 5 cm pipe, see Figure 4, provide the heating capacity
required in cold weather and augments the floor heat heating system. The overhead
loop is very responsive and the floor loop has a large response time delay to the
control system. Three and four way mixing valves on the hot water system
anticipate the needs of the greenhouse and based on outside temperatures control the
temperature of the water in the system. As the air temperature approaches the set
point the valve position is changed so that more of the water is recirculated and less
comes from the boiler. At the time the sensor is satisfied and the pump stops the
temperature of the water in the large pipe loop is near the greenhouse set point
temperature. This ensures that there will be a minimum overrun of the set point.
When a mixing valve is not used the temperature in the overhead pipe loop will be
near the boiler temperature when the pump stops. This high temperature water
provides a tremendous energy source causing an overrun of the setpoint, particularly
in mild weather. The importance of the mixing valve has become more evident as
energy conservation and heating efficiency have become important in greenhouse
operation. The computer system also controls time of day set points in the several
zones within the greenhouse and records temperatures so that the manager can
70
determine the temperature at several locations in the greenhouse at any time of day.
Hot water for the overhead system is supplied from a 1176 KW boiler powered by
propane or methane biogas from the adjacent landfill.
Overhead thermal screens are used to reduce heat loss at night in the winter and
reduce daytime temperatures during the warmer parts of the year. At the control of
the computer, the thermal screen is retracted or extended depending upon the need.
During the heating period at night the screen will be extended to seal off the attic
space from the crop growing area. The use of thermal screens has reduced the
energy loss from the greenhouse on average about 30 %.
During the cooling mode the thermal screens are operated by the computer based
on inside temperature and the amount of PAR radiation entering the greenhouse.
Light is critical for optimum plant growth but as leaf temperatures increase
photosynthesis is adversely affected. The computer balances the need for PAR with
the high leaf temperatures and extends the thermal screen during periods of high
light levels if the ventilatic,)n system can not keep up with the temperature set points.
Ventilation is accomplished mechanically by exhaust fans coupled to a calibrated
window inlet. The design ventilation rate using thermal screens for summer shading
is 1.7 cubic meters per square meter at 2.54 mm pressure. Screening is installed on
the ventilation inlets as indicated in Figure 7 and performance of the ventilation
system with and without the screening is illustrated in Figure 8 (Roberts, et al.).
The window opening is designed to give the incoming air an apparent velocity of 3.6
meters/sec. This causes minimum static pressure drop on the fans and provides a
very high velocity to the incoming air (Roberts 1984). The jet effect of the air
entering the greenhouse through the controlled inlet causes excellent mixing between
the greenhouse ambient air and the incoming air, see Figure 6. During periods of
cold weather the cold incoming air is thoroughly mixed by this process before it
strikes any of the plant material and subcools the growing area near the ventilation
inlet. The air in the greenhouse is mixed much like the jet action of a water hose
inserted into a barrel causes mixing of the contained solution.
Further temperature control is provided by evaporative cooling during extreme
weather. High-pressure fog nozzles are placed over the center walkway in each
section and along the ventilation inlet. Water under high pressure is injected into the
greenhouse environment at these locations. The very small droplet size provides for
rapid evaporation into the greenhouse air with the energy to evaporate the water
coming from the greenhouse air. Cooling can occur to the limit of the wet bulb
temperature. It is possible during clear days to experience a 6°C degree drop in
temperature of the incoming ventilation air at the window and since the nozzles are
placed over the walkway in each section, provides cooling throughout the growing
area. On more humid days the temperature drop may be reduced only 3°C. When
the evaporative fog system is operating, the greenhouse ventilation system operates
to provide an air exchange of approximately 25 % of a volume change per minute.
This rate provides a balance between controlling greenhouse humidity and
discharging the fog before it has had time to evaporate and cool the greenhouse
ambient air. A ventilation rate which is too high reduces the efficiency of cooling by
71
exhausting cooled air while a ventilation rate which is too low does not lower the
humidity in the greenhouse which controls the amount of water vapor being
evaporated. The ventilation rate is adjusted by the Argus computer controlled
environmental control system.
2.3 STTPS SYSTEM
The STTPS (single truss tomato production system) has been developed to mechanize
tomato production in greenhouses (Ting, et al. 1991). Conventional greenhouse
production provides a spacing of 2.5 plants sq meter. This space is required to
provide for maintaining and harvesting the crop. In the STTPS, tomatoes are grown
on transportable benches at a nominal density of 10 plants per square meter, four
times the normal density because no access aisles are required for workers to care
for the crop. Tomato plants are planted on transportable benches, pruned above the
first flowers and moved to the workers for the required operations, including pruning
and harvest. Pollination is provided by hives of bees spaced throughout the growing
area.
The transportable benches used in this system are 4.9 m long and 1.4 m wide.
Two are placed across the 10.9 m bay leaving a 46 cm access and management aisle
between them and allowing for a small clearance between the end of the benches and
the greenhouse supporting posts, see Figure 4. There are 68 benches per bay which
move on bearings and rollers on two rails which provide support beneath them.
Special equipment allows the benches to index with a conveyor in the aisles on each
side of the greenhouse for transport to the headhouse. With a 16 by 4 plant spacing,
there are 64 plants per bench or 9.3 plants per square meter.
Several options are available for moving the single truss tomatoes throughout the
greenhouse. These include moving the benches in a loop within the greenhouse bay
and having the workers stationed at either end of the bay. As the benches reach the
end of the greenhouse bay the workers prune, examine or harvest depending upon
the need. The workers perform tasks on one half of the bench in one aisle at the end
of the greenhouse and on the other half of the bench in the other aisle at the other
end, see Figure 9. Another option is to move the benches on the conveying system to
the headhouse where the bench configuration allows for workers to operate on both
sides of the bench. Normally the benches are moved to the headhouse following the
final harvest. At that point the remaining vegetative material is removed and taken
to a compost site at the Resource Recovery facility. The empty benches are cleaned
and replanted with transplants brought to the work area from the 10.97 by 27.4
nursery greenhouse. The completed benches are then moved back to the appropriate
growing area in the greenhouse. Currently these and other options are being pursued
during the early stages of operation.
2.4 SUPPLEMENTAL LIGHTING
Low winter light levels limit tomato production in our latitude. Supplemental
lighting is required to maintain uniform year-round production demanded by
72
marketing systems located in areas of high population density like New Jersey.
Supplemental lighting is provided by 430 watt high pressure sodium fixtures capable
of delivering PAR lighting as required throughout the year. Six lamp fixtures are
spaced at 1. 83 meters across the bay and there are 18 lamps spaced at 2.54 meters
along the bay. The total of 108 lamps per bay gives a spacing of 4.65 square meters
per lamp and radiation of 92 watts per square meter, see Figure 10. The spacing
for the lighting in the plant nursery is 2.32 square meters per fixture.
The energy for the HPS lamps will be supplied from the power grid or from the
300 kw co-generation unit powered by the biogas from the landfill. This type of
load, used on off-peak hours is very beneficial for power companies with daytime
peaking energy consumption.
One of the advantages of the STTPS is that the canopy is horizontal and lends
itself to supplemental lighting. Early experiments (McAvoy, 1989, and Giniger et
ai, 1988) led quickly to the conclusion that in supplemental lighting of tomlltoes
there were advantages, relative to traditional growing, to working with a plant
terminated after the first fruit truss develops. Supplemental light is most effectively
utilized if a horizontal plane can quickly be filled with foliage (high LAI, leaf area
index) with all the active foliage at a uniform distance from the light source to
provide a uniform intensity. In a multicluster plant the weight per cluster is variable
and in later stages of growth insect infestations, disease and mechanical injury
problems increase with time to potentially reduce production.
Giniger et. aI., (1988) found that light received during the seedling stage from
emergence to flowering was always strongly correlated with the time to first
anthesis. An equation was developed to predict flowering based on the PAR
received by the seedling. On the other hand, light received during the period from
flowering to harvest was strongly correlated with the total amount of fruit. Another
equation was developed for the production stage which predicted yield based on PAR
received. These two linear equations are used in a growth model.
2.5 MANAGEMENT OF SUPPLEMENTAL LIGHTING
Natural and supplemental light is monitored by the Argus system so that the total
PAR can be held constant for each crop throughout the year. The required amount is
provided by the HPS lamps by varying the length of operation throughout the day.
At one extreme the targeted amount of light is provided almost completely from May
to September in New Jersey. At the other extreme during the darker and shorter
daylength period supplemental light is required to maintain a constant schedule. In
each crop the actual light is monitored on a continuous basis and the input of
supplemental light adjusted throughout the period to achieve the desired total by the
end of the vegetative stage. Current mode ling and case studies indicate that a
feasible strategy involves a combination of daily total monitoring in combination with
expected historical averages for the period.
73
3. Results
The research/demonstration greenhouse was dedicated on April 9, 1996 by New

Jersey Governor, Christine Whitman. The program featured an address by Dr.
Merle Jensen on the future of Controlled Environment Agriculture. The first tomato
crop has been harvested with production averaging. 9 kilograms per plant. The
STTPS system allows the cropping schedule to be repeated 5 times throughout the
year. It is anticipated that succeeding crops will equal or surpass this yield. To
date, no chemical applications for disease and insect control have been used. The
ventilation inlet screening may account for some of this. PAR readings are being
taken comparing the two glazing sections and energy measurements are being made
on each section as well. The materials handling system is working well. All of the
environmental control systems including floor heating, overhead heating and
ventilation and evaporative cooling have performed to date as expected. Labor is
being provided by 6 people from the Burlington County s Occupational Training
I
Center. These workers are seeding, transplanting, pruning and harvesting the crop.
The screening illustrated in Figure 7 has performed well and is designed to
exclude white fly and larger insects. Figure 8 indicates that the system is operating
safely below the design static pressure limit of 2.54 mm. When the pressure
increases about this level the screening will be cleaned. Previous experience in an
experimental greenhouse indicated that no cleaning was necessary the first year.
4. Summary
A series of coordinated research projects were completed to create the knowledge

base necessary for the design and management of the single-truss tomato production
system being used in this greenhouse facility, (Giacomelli, G.A. 1993). They
include:
* biogas utilization
* effects of HPS lighting on tomato plant growth
* development of a plant factory model
* computer simulation and validation of the cropping system
* screening seedling to improve uniformity
* design of transport and elevation system
* tomato production in rockwool on ebb-flood benches
* comparison of labor standards
This facility, using methane gas from the landfill for co-generation for the energy
required for supplemental lighting and the ventilation system and the substitution of
methane for natural gas for the production of hot water used in the heating system
74
provides a great opportunity to learn more about the system on a larger scale.
Studies at this research/demonstration facility will determine if the STTPS has great
potential for the production of high quality tomatoes for the large New York City
and Philadelphia metropolitan markets.
Acknowledgment
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Paper # NJAES #P03130-13-96
5. References
Giacomelli, G.A., K.C. Ting, et al. 1993, Design of a Single Truss

Tomato Production System (STTPS) Symposium on New Cultivation Systems,
Cagliari, Italy April 26-30, 1993.
Giniger, M and D.R. Mears, 1984. Cogeneration for Heating Greenhouses, NAR
ASAE paper and presentation, University of Maine,
August 12-15
Giniger, M.S., R.1. McAvoy, G.A. Giacomelli & H.W. Janes, 1988. Computer
simulation of a single truss tomato cropping system. Transactions of the ASAE,
31(4): 1176-1179.
McAvoy R.1., H.W. Janes and G.A. Giacomelli, 1989. Development of a plant
factory model: I. the organizational and operational model, 11. a plant growth
model: the single truss tomato crop. Acta Horticulturae, 248:85-94.
Roberts, William 1. and Stephen Kania, 1996, Screening for Insect Exclusion
from Greenhouses, Proceedings 26th International Congress of American Society
of Plasticulture, Atlantic City, NJ June 1996
Roberts, William 1. 1996. Soil Heating Systems for Greenhouse Production
Extension Publication E208, Rutgers University, April 1996.
Roberts, William 1. Heating and Ventilating Greenhouses,
Extension Publication 046, Rutgers University, August 1984.
Ting, K.c. and G.A. Giacomelli, 1991. Systems integration of automation, culture
and environment within CEA. Proceedings of the 1991 Symposium on
Automated Agriculture for the 21st Century, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI49085-9659,
pages 513-526.
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~
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•...· 1.' " CONCRETE FOOTING ~. ~t;'
I"(:
GREENHOUSE CROSS-SECTION
FIGURE 4
79
r
Typical floor heating layout
Figure 5
20 - 300
Diagram showing how air moving through

a narrow slot or inlet ventilator causes
incoming air to mix with ambient greenhouse air
Figure 6
80
wall
vent
window ..
19 mm steel pipe
\
Screening \ /
\/\ /
o'/
~ soil line
Window vent screening detail
Figure 7
Screening Effect on Airflow

9. 10.00
8-1 IL---------r 9.00

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III
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c
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Figure 8
81
_. __ . __ "_. i
Bench travel options in a bay
Figure 9
I
!
0 0 o0 0
0 0 o0 0"- 6 rows of light @ 18 per row
430 watt HPS fixtures
0 0 0 0 0 typical growing bay

, 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 o 0/ 1.83 m spacing
Cl 0 0 o 0
~ 2.54 m spacing
3.01 45.8 m ~5 @ 3.01 m) .. 3.01 ~
Location of HPS fixtures in a typical bay

Figure 10
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN CLOSED GROWING SYSTEMS FOR
GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
W. Voogt and C. Sonneveld

P.O. Box 8
2670 AA Naaldwijk
The Netherlands
ABSTRACT. Closed growing systems are seen by the Dutch government as the
solution to emission of nutrients from glasshouse horticulture. However, inherent to
these systems are problems like accumulation of Na and Cl, or other ions, and an
unbalanced nutrient solution. So standards for water quality and nutrient input have
been developed. In general, the input of ions by means of the water and the fertilisers,
should be equal to the plant uptake. The water quality acceptable (Imax) is limited by the
uptake capacity of the crop and is determined by Rmax (The maximum acceptable
concentration in the root environment). Rmax ranges from 4 mM for salt sensitive crops
like bouvardia to 10 mM, for salt tolerant crops like tomato. The maximum uptake
(Umax) of Na and Cl at Rmax ranges from < 0.1 to 1.0 mM. If Imax > Umax, partial
leaching of the recirculating nutrient solution is required. The fraction to be leached
out could be calculated from Rmax, Umax and Imax . The restrictions for water quality are
valid for all ions. The nutrient supply should be equal to the demand of the crop, to
avoid depletion or accumulation. Since the nutrient supply is connected with EC
controllers, it means that the mutual ratios of the nutrients in the input should be equal
to the ratios absorbed. For this purpose, standard nutrient solutions are established
together with guidelines for adjustments according to plant stage, to keep the nutrients
on the required levels.
1. Introduction
In the Netherlands, at present over 55 % of the area of crops in greenhouses are grown
in substrates with. For fruit vegetables, this approaches 90 % (IKC 1994a). This
change over from soil to soilless culture took place in less than 20 years. The system
most frequently used is substrate e.g. rockwool, with a free drainage of the water
surplus from the root environment, as described by Sonneveld (1991). The unequal
transpiration of individual plants, combined with the differences in water supply from
individual trickle nozzles, necessitates a leaching fraction of at least 10 - 15 % (Van
den Burg and Hamaker 1987). Next to this, on part of the holdings frequent leaching is
83
84
needed to avoid salt accumulation, in case the quality of the water used is not in
agreement with the requirements for soilless culture. An important drawback of
growing systems with free drainage is the substantial loss of water and nutrients. Apart
from financial consequences this strongly contributes to the pollution of ground- and
surface water (Vehaegh 1990).
To avoid the problems of water and nutrient losses, closed growing systems were
developed. This development was stimulated by the legislation of the government. In
1989 the policy of the government was laid down in a plan aiming at 100 % closed
systems in the year 2000 (Anonymous 1989). This proved to be not feasible, since
many crops, e.g. radish, chrysanthemum, could not be grown in soilless systems on an
economical justified basis (Ruijs 1993). However, for holdings already using soilless
culture systems, reuse of drainage water should be implemented. This is enacted in the
so called the " Discharge Provisions" ("Lozingenbesluit"), resulting from the Surface
Water Pollution Act (Anonymous 1994). From November pt 1996, the change over
from free drainage systems to closed growing systems will have to be completed.
This policy has long been foreseen, so research has been carried out in recent years,
to study the effects of water quality, i.e. Na and Cl and nutrient management in closed
growing systems, in relation to crop growth. This paper will focus on the practical
implications for the quality of the water and the quantity and ratio of nutrients to be
supplied in closed systems.
2. Closed Growing Systems
2.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The term closed growing system, used in this paper is restricted to the root
environment and could be simply described as a system without losses of water and
nutrients from the root environment. In other words, a system in which the water and
nutrient supply is equal to the uptake by the crop (Fig. la). This description is valid for
many systems used in practice, e.g. nutrient film technique (NFT), deep flow technique
(DFT), ebb-flow systems and systems with substrate with recirculation or reuse of
drainage water. The latter systems are often used in the Netherlands. In such systems
the surplus of water and nutrients supplied drained from the root environment is
collected and reused (Fig. 1b). For a more technical description of the systems used,
see Lataster et al (1993).
The recirculation of the nutrient solution leads to several problems. In the first
place the rapid spread of root-pathogens from infected plants throughout the system.
This problem could be counteracted by disinfestation of the drainage water. Methods
for disinfestation are described by Runia et al. (1988)and Runia (1995). Other
problems with closed systems are connected with water quality and the supply of
minerals. In closed systems, all minerals supplied to the system either as fertiliser or as
a component of the water, if not absorbed by the plant, will accumulate in the system.
85
Accidentally minerals will precIpItate, like CaS04, CaHP04, and escape from the
recirculating nutrient solution. In some systems minerals accumulate at specific sites of
the growing medium by evaporation, e.g. in the top layer of the substrate with pot
plants in ebb-flow systems, and escape in this way from the root environment (Otten
1994). Depletion occurs if minerals are supplied in quantities less than the plant needs.
The rate of accumulation or depletion is equivalent to the difference between the input
and the uptake (output) and the possible buffering capacity ofthe system.
II,npu. /'u Input

~ ~--------.LI
___ Uptah _+____+_ U
Uptake
Growing system
I
"\, Draina~e I
A B ~L Leachate
Fig. I. Diagram of the routes of water and minerals in closed systems, the basic
principle (A) and a substrate system with reuse of drainage water (B)
2.2 DEFINITIONS
In this paper the minerals in water, nutrient solution and uptake by plants are expressed
as concentrations (mMol). The following abbreviations are used and are valid for
nutrients, salts (Na and Cl) and the total concentration (EC-value, expressed in dS m-I).
I act The concentration in the input (raw water or nutrient solution)

I max The maximum acceptable concentration in the input
I opt The input concentration to keep R opt
R act The actual concentration in the nutrient solution in the root environment
R max The maximum acceptable concentration in the root environment
R op' The concentration in the root environment to obtain optimum yield an
product quality
U act The actual uptake by the plant, expressed as concentration of the water
absorbed.
U max The uptake concentration at R max
U 01" The uptake concentration at R opt.
2.3 BUFFER
Generally, the buffering capacity of systems is relatively small as will be calculated

from the small volume of the substrates used (Sonneveld 1995). The total amount of
86
water in closed growing systems varies widely. It depends on the technical layout of
the system which is adapted to the crop grown and the type of substrate used. In Table
1 the quantity of water and nitrogen available is given for some systems. Data are
derived from Lataster et al. (1993), Kipp and Wever (1995) and IKC (1994b). The data
in Table 1 show clearly that for many systems, the buffer is quite small if compared
with the uptake of the crop, which varies from 3000 - 7000 mmol m,2 (Voogt 1993;
Sonneveld 1995). So the consequence of the buffering capacity is of low significance
in closed systems. If lact > Urnax of a specific mineral, accumulation occurs and the
buffering capacity only has meaning for a delay in reaching Rrnax.
Table 1. Quantity of water and nitrogen as buffer in the substrate for five different
crops and corresponding systems,
System Crop Substrate Available Quantity
volume water ofN
I m,l I m,l mmol m,l
Nutrient Film technique Tomato o 2 70
Rockwool slabs in gutters Cucumber 7 6 150
Containers with pumice stone Rose 35 21 315
Beds with poly fenol foam Anthurium 112 56 280
Sandbeds Chrysanthemum 150 45 750
Soil Tomato 300 )* 75 1875
)' depends on root depth, assumed is 30 cm
2.4 WATER QUALITY
In this paper, water quality is defined in terms of the inorganic components of the
water. In view of what is stated before, the conclusion can be drawn that the quality of
the water acceptable for closed sytsems completely depends on the uptake capacity of
minerals by the plant. This acceptable quality is determined by those minerals absorbed
lowest in relation to the concentrations present in the water. For many situations Na
and Cl are limiting factors since these minerals are absorbed in low concentrations in
relation to the concentrations present in the water sources available. If I act> U act for
Na, Na accumulates in the recirculating nutrient solution. This could have two
implications. If the supply of nutrients to the system is kept constant, the total salt
concentration increases, which will reduce growth and yield or induce specific
problems for some crops, like blossom end rot with tomatoes and peppers (Sonneveld
and Van der Burg 1991). However, in horticultural practice the nutrient supply to the
growing system is connected with an EC controller. This keeps the total concentration
in the root environment more or less constant and thus increased Na reduces the
nutriental concentrations. In Fig. 2 such a situation is shown at a tomato holding.
Rainwater, low in Na was used untill 7/8 and tapwater with 2.5 mMol Na from 7/8 till
5/9. It clearly shows the effect of the Na accumulation in the reduction in K. So the
87
14 ~"
Na K
12 ~
******* **
10 *** **** **** **** ** *
5: *
A
**
o **
E *
E 6~ A
* ""
4~ A
* A
2~ AAA A
! AAA AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA A
o IA
512 613 5/4 515 416 417 3/8 219 2110 1111 1/12
date
Fig. 2. The course of the K and Na concentration, converted to

a standard EC-value on.5 dS m-I, in the recirculating
nutrient solution of a tomato crop.
consequence of high input of a certain element results in an unbalanced nutrient

solution and depletion of nutrients.
The influx concentration of Na and Cl increases with the concentration in the root
environment ( Sonneveld and Van der Burg 1991; Baas et al. 1995). So U max should
be determined at the highest acceptable concentration in the root environment (R max).
Investigations have been carried out on the effects ofNa and Cl concentrations, in
combination with EC values. In Table 2 the R max of Na and Cl and the related Umax,
derived from these experiments are listed (Sonneveld and van der Burg, 1991; Baas et
al. 1995; Warmenhoven and Baas 1995; Sonneveld 1995). For sweet pepper it was
found that the uptake of Na decreases strongly after three to four months. This is
probably connected with the plant stage. The relatively higher U max was determined
during the period with only vegetative growth. The lower U max was found during heavy
fruit bearing (Van der Burg 1987). So in fact the period with the lowest U max
determines the acceptable input concentration (I max). Beside Na and Cl, other minerals
could cause salt accumulation. Particularly Ca, Mg and S04 should be taken into
consideration, as these ions are present in many water sources and I act of these
elements could be higher than U max. The R max is specific for each element and crop,
and is explained in paragraph 3.1.
88
Table 2. Maximum acceptable Na and Cl concentrations (Rrnax) in the root

environment and the related uptake concentrations (Urnax).
Rrn•x Urnax
Na Cl Na Cl
Tomato 12 12 1.0 l.2
Cucumber 10 10 1.1 1.5
Sweet pepper vegetative growth 10 10 0.5 0.8
heavy fruit load 8 8 0.1 0.8
Eggplant 8 8 0.4 0.7
Rose 6 6 < 0.1
Gerbera 8 8 0.8 1.8
Carnation 8 8 0.2 0.3
Aster 6 6 0.6
Chrysanthemum 6 6 0.8
A too high input of micro elements induce problems of a different kind, since these
elements do not measurably affect the EC. High concentrations ofMn, B, Cu and Zn in
the root environment lead to an increased uptake by the roots and accumulation in
plant tissue (Sonneveld et al 1984). Dependent on plant species, plant stage and
climatical condition, these accumulations induce toxicitities. High Zn and Cu can
replace also Fe from the chelate complex, resulting in Fe-deficiency (AKZO Nobel
1993; Voogt 1994).
2.5 WATER SOURCES
In Dutch horticulture, water from several sources is used. Preferably rainwater is used
as long as there is enough storage capacity, but this is often restricted. In the
Netherlands there is an annual average precipitation of 750 mm, sufficient for most
crops. However, in spring and summer there is a deficit of 250 - 300 mm and in winter
a surplus of 400 mm. To compensate for this deficit and yearly fluctuations, large
water basins are necessary (Hamaker 1992). In areas where greenhouses are
concentrated, like in the Westland district, insufficient space is available for such
basins. So, additional water is necessary to compensate for the rainwater deficit. For
this purpose tapwater or desalinated water is used. In other parts of the country bore-
hole water is widely used, which is not a possible source in the coastal areas because of
too high salt concentrations. In Table 3 examples of the mineral compositions of
common water sources in the Netherlands are listed. In general, rainwater meets the
requirements for closed systems. However, in coastal areas, it could be contaminated
with some NaCl, from dry or wet deposition of salts on the greenhouse roofs. Zn could
be a serious problem, if the collected rainwater contacts galvanised greenhouse
constructions. Such happens especially if condensation water leaks into the water
basin. The usability of tap water depends on its source and is often restricted because
89
of the Na concentration. Bore hole water can literally contain all macro and micro
elements. If the minerals present are restricted to these nutrients, the water could be
used, taking into account these nutrient concentrations in the calculation of the
fertiliser mixture. This is possible as long as the concentrations present are lower than
or equal to those required in the nutrient solution. The presence of HC03 is of minor
importance since it could be easily removed by acids, from which the anions are part of
the fertiliser composition (Sonneveld and Voogt 1994).
Table 3. A verage mineral compostions of examples of water sources used in Dutch

horticulture. Rainwater from central and coastal areas, tap water from the
Westland district and Dongen (source: Maas river and groundwater resp.),
water desalinated by reverse osmosis and bore-hole water from Horst.
Rainwater Rainwater Tap-water Tap-water Reverse Bore-hole

central coast Westland Dongen Osmosis water
EC dSm· 1 0.01 0.15 0.5 0.6 0.04 0.7
Na mmoll- 10.05 0.25 )** 2.0 0.4 0.10 0.5
Cl 0.05 0.26 )** 1.7 0.35 0.08 0.6
Ca 1.3 1.8 1.4
Mg 0.3 0.45 0.6
K 0.2 0.2 2.4
SO.) 0.8 0.3 1.4
NO] 1.5
Mn ,LImoll- 1 15
Zn 1.0 )* 4.0 )* 0.2 4
B 3 4 8 8
Cu 0.75
)* Occasionally 5 - 10 "moll"
)** Occasionally 0.5 - 1.0 mmoll'
2.6 LEACHING
If in the water I act of a certain element exceeds U max, the concentration will accumulate
to R max. In order to avoid further accumulation, part of the recirculating nutrient
solution should be drained to waste. The fraction of the nutrient solution to be leached
could be calculated by the following equation:
I act - Umax
fd = ---------------
R max - Umax
in which fd is the required leaching fraction of the quantity of nutrient solution

supplied to the system. This equation is valid under the condition of R max in the root
90
environment. The actual leaching could be suspended until R max is reached, which is
practised for systems with a small buffer from the start, but for growing systems with a
larger buffer it will take longer. From the equation it is obvious that the required
leaching strongly depends on R max.
3. Nutrient Management
3.1 NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
Some principles of nutrition are basic for soilless culture and so valid for closed
growing systems as well. All essential elements should be supplied, both in the right
quantity and in their mutual ratios. Using nutrient solutions as described in Sonneveld
(1981) is a practical way to achieve this. For all important crops in the Netherlands,
standard nutrient solutions are developed from which straightforward recipes for
fertiliser mixtures can be calculated (Sonneveld and Voogt 1994). Necessary
adjustments because of water quality, analytical data of the solution in the root
environment or other parameters, can easily be made. In Table 7 examples of standard
nutrient solutions for some crops are listed (IKC 1994a).
In closed systems the supply of nutrients should be more or less equal to the
absorption of nutrients by the crop. The Uopt values of macro elements for tomato,
sweet pepper and rose are listed in Table 4 (Sonneveld 1995).
Table 4. Uptake concentrations (Uo pt) of tomato, sweet pepper and rose
expressed in mmol 1-1, as mean values over the whole growing
period of the crops.
Nutrient Tomato Sweet pepper Rose

N 9.6 10.3 5.3
P 1.1 0.8 0.4
S 1.2 0.7 0.4
K 6.1 4.6 2.0
Ca 2.2 2.2 0.9
Mg 0.9 0.8 0.3
Uopt values for tomato and sweet pepper are in the same order of magnitude. For rose
however, the concentrations are about half those values.
The concentrations of nutrients in the recirculating solution should be kept at the
required levels, since an optimum nutrition of the plant is determined by the specific
concentrations of an element and moreover, by the mutual ratios to the other nutrients
in the root environment. For some elements, an accumulation at the root surface is
necessary to achieve sufficient uptake. This is clearly demonstrated by the results
derived from experiments with K, Ca and Mg ratios with tomatoes and with carnations
in closed systems, listed in Table 5 (Sonneveld and Voogt, 1986; Voogt, 1988). The
91
RlI is higher for Ca and Mg than for K. For K, RlI increases with increasing K supply,
whilst for Ca and Mg, RlI decreases with the supply, with the exception of Ca with
tomato.
Table 5. Average concentrations supplied (I) and in the root environment (R) in
mmoll- l , and the accumulation factor (RlI), of K, Ca and Mg, recorded in
investigations with K:Ca:Mg ratios with tomato and carnation
in recirculating nutrient solutions.
Treatment K Ca Mg
R RlI I R RlI I R R!I
tomato
1 3.2 1.5 0.5 2.9 l3.6 5.1 0.6 2.1 3.5
2 4.7 4.1 0.9 2.3 10.9 5.0 0.7 2.2 3.6
3 6.3 10.2 1.7 l.7 6.0 3.6 0.7 1.6 2.4
4 7.5 16.9 2.3 1.0 2.1 2.1 0.7 1.1 1.7
carnation
1 2.7 4.8 l.8 2.4 4.2 1.8 0.4 1.5 3.8
2 3.2 6.0 1.9 1.9 3.2 1.7 0.5 l.6 3.2
3 4.3 8.8 2.0 l.0 1.9 l.9 0.7 l.6 2.3
4 5.1 10.0 2.0 0.6 l.6 2.7 0.8 l.6 2.0
It is impossible to establish general guidelines for the nutrient supply since there are
great differences between crops. The demand of a crop cannot be deduced from the
uptake concentrations only. Some crops are able to deplete a nutrient solution down to
very low concentrations for some nutrients. This phenomenon does not necessarily go
together with a great demand, which is demonstrated by rose and strawberry. These
crops can deplete B from the nutrient solutions in the root environment easily,
resulting in toxic levels in the older leaves (De Kreij et a11985; van Bastelaere 1993).
Opposite effects were found with sweet pepper, since for this crop relatively high B
levels in the root environment are needed, to ensure sufficient uptake. Even at the
required concentrations in the root environment, B deficiency symptoms often occur
with this crop (Voogt, not published data). To characterize the differences in nutrient
uptake and demands, the accumulation factor could be used. If R!I is below 0, plants
can easily absorb a nutrient. If this is the case for B, Mn, Cu or Zn, one should think on
the fact that such ions easily induce toxic levels in the plant. If RlI is higher than 0, the
uptake is rather difficult and higher concentrations in the root zone than supplied are
necessary . In Table 6 accumulation factors of some nutrients and for some crops are
listed, the data clearly demonstrate the differences between crops.
92
Table 6. Accumulation factors from some elements and crops, derived

from lact at Ropt.
Tomato Sweet pepper Rose Chrysanthemum
K 1.4 1.5 2.3 1.2
Ca 3.6 4.0 5.0 4.7
N03 2.1 1.9 2.3 1.8
Fe 2.0 2.1 1.7 4.5
B 2.5 4.0 1.3 3
Irrespective of the nutrient demand of certain crops to obtain maximum growth and
yield, effects on quality should be taken into account as well. The requirements for
plant nutrition in relation to optimum yield and to quality sometimes differ. Examples
of this are the effects found in experiments with K and with P with tomato. High K
levels are necessary to obtain optimum quality in terms of colour, shelflife, firmness
and taste of fruits. On the other hand, a high K level involves less Ca in the nutrient
solution, and increases the risk of blossom end rot (Voogt 1988; Nukaya et al 1995).
With increased P concentrations, the uptake and distribution of Ca to fruits is
stimulated and reduces the risk of blossom end rot. However increased P levels
enhances the incidence of gold specks which is a negative fruit quality aspect (Voogt
and Sonneveld 1988, De Kreij 1996 ). So in these cases, the optimum ratio of nutrients
should be a compromise between several factors.
A complicating factor in the set up for crop specific lopt and Ropt, are cultivar
effects. In several investigations it was found that lopt, R opt or Rmax differed
significantly between cultivars, like for Ca and Mg with carnation (Sonneveld and
Voogt 1986), with P and cucumber (Voogt and Sonneveld 1985), with Mn and gerbera
(Sonneveld and Voogt 1996) and with Mn and B with rose (Voogt not published data).
3.2 STANDARD NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
The standard nutrient solutions listed in Table 7 are calculated, on basis of Vopt
obtained at experiments with different nutrient ratios. It is noteworthy that the nutrient
solutions for closed growing systems showed lower total ion concentrations (EC value)
and relatively lower bivalent ion concentrations (Ca, Mg and S04) in comparison to the
nutrient solutions for free drainage systems. The reason is the necessary higher
accumulation rate of bivalent ions in the root environment, results in a shift in ionic
ratios in the drainage water compared to the nutrient solution supplied.
The addition of NH4-N should be mentioned separately. Nitrogen of this source is
absorbed easily by the roots and so usually not found in drainage water or in the root
environment. The standard nutrient solution for closed growing systems therefore has
to be adapted to this shift in nutrient composition of drainage water compared to the
input.
Many closed growing systems are systems with free drainage with which the
93
drainage water is collected and reused (Fig. 1b). With these systems, the composition
of the drip solution as well as the solution in the root environment are important for
plant nutrition (see 3.2), as is also the case with free drainage systems (Sonneveld
1995). So, the composition of both the drip solution and the solution in the root
environment should be the same for the systems mentioned. The addition of nutrients
to the systems, however, varies strongly because of the great differences in waste with
the drainage water.
Table 7. Standard nutrient solutions for tomatoes, roses, cucumbers and gerbera for
closed growing systems; for tomatoes and roses also for free drainage
systems.
Tomato Rose Cucumber Gerbera

closed free closed free
s~stem drainage system drainage
EC dS m· 1 )* 1.6 2.6 0.7 1.6 1.7 1.1
NH4 mmoll· 1 1.0 1.2 0.8 1.5 1.0 0.75
K 6.5 9.5 2.2 4.5 6.5 4.5
Ca 2.75 5.4 0.9 3.25 2.75 1.6
Mg 1.0 2.4 0.5 1.125 1.0 0.4
NO] 10.75 16.0 4.3 11.0 11.75 7.25
S04 1.5 4.4 0.5 1.25 1.0 0.7
H2P04 1.25 1.5 0.5 1.25 1.25 0.6
Fe ,Limoll· 1 10 15 15 25 15 25
Mn 10 10 5 5 10 5
Zn 4 5 3 3.5 5 3
B 20 30 15 20 25 20
Cu 0.75 0.75 0.5 0.75 0.75 0.5
Mo 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
)' calculated value (method Mc Neal et al (1970) of the ionic composition
3.3 EC CONTROL
Most vegetable crops require a higher R opt for the EC than necessary for maximum
yields, in order to obtain optimum product quality. This effect is clearly found for fruit
vegetables, but also for radish (Sonneveld and Van den Burg 1991; Sonneveld and Van
den Bos 1995). For cut flower crops however, the required Ropt is generally lower,
since the product quality is often not improved and even negatively affected by
increased EC values (De Kreij and Van Os 1989; De Kreij and Van den Berg 1990).
In order to have a good control of the EC in the system, the question arises, which EC
value determines the yield and quality: the concentrations in the nutrient solution
supplied by the drippers, or the concentrations in the nutrient solution in the growing
94
medium. Usually the EC of the drip solution is lower than that of the root environment.
Roots, however, are not evenly distributed in the substrate. A major part is to be found
in the vicinity of the drippers (De Willigen and Van Noordwijk 1987) An investigation
with a split root system with tomatoes showed that the EC of both the drip solution and
of the root environment are of significance for the crop. For tomatoes it was found that
for the water uptake, the plant escapes from high EC values, since the highest water
absorption was obtained at the lowest EC-values. The nutrient uptake, however, until
certain values, was found to be highest at the highest EC-values. The yield was not
different between treatments. The fruit quality, however, was affected negatively if
plants could escape to low EC-values (Sonneveld and Voogt 1990).
F or closed systems, next to the EC of the drip solution and of the root environment
also the EC value of the concentrations absorbed is an important parameter. This value
can be calculated from the individual Vact of all nutrients by the method described by
Mc Neal et al (1970). So the EC of Vact is equal to the necessary input of nutrients,
expressed as EC to keep the EC value of Ract constant. This last method is applicable,
since most systems in operation use automatic EC controllers, and in this way Vact
feeds back to I aet automatically. Vact as EC-value changes considerably during the
growing period of crops. (Voogt 1988; Schacht and Schenk 1990).
3.4 NUTRIENT UPTAKE IN TIME
The uptake of nutrients can fluctuate strongly, just like mentioned for Vact expressed as
EC-value. However, fluctuations in Vact of specific nutrients can deviate from the
fluctuations in EC. The total uptake is more or less determined by the growth, but the
uptake of specific nutrients also depends on plant stage. This is demonstrated by the
uptake of K, Ca and Mg in time by tomatoes, shown in Fig. 3 (Voogt 1993). The K
uptake increases strongly 8 weeks after planting together with a reduced uptake of Ca
and Mg. This is connected with an increased fruit load and restriction of the vegetative
growth and the root development. Periods with heavy sink function of fruits, induce a
high K demand. At the same time the Ca and Mg uptake is decreased because of a
reduced vegetative and root development. As a result of the change in the ratios of
Uact of K, Ca and Mg, the Ract can change dramatically, leading to strong depletion of
K and rapid accumulation of Ca and Mg (Voogt 1988). Adjustments of the ratios in I act
in time are necessary. Plant stage dependent uptake ratios of nutrients are reported also
for other crops by Van Goor et al. (1988) and Schacht and Schenk (1990).
Irrespective of what is mentioned about the fluctuations in nutrient uptake in
relation to plant stage, there are fluctuations caused by climatical conditions and other
factors (Schacht and Schenk 1990; Voogt 1993), as well as fluctuations in nutrient
uptake during the day (Terabayashi et al1991; Adams 1984).
95
121 K
j V\
Ca
10
1I Mg
:::::1
8~if'
'0 6
E 1 x
E '-'\ /1
4 t )( \. -*-)( X
I \ x\ X- Xy X}I \" / I \ \, / "'X-l(
! X "'x x.
21 • ' .• H. . .
+
\x- ,,~./x
...• X
•• *. . . ...• ,
.•..• .,. •,-,--4-.
..•.
o I , I ... , •• """ I
11 15 19 23 27 31
weeknumber
Fig. 3. lact ofK, Ca and Mg in mmoll- i of a year round tomato

crop, planted Jan. 5th (week 1)
H+ supply Yield
2.5 ..
I, ~12
1 ,
1 ,
, \ -10
1 ,
1 ,
1
I
'
' -8 ,.
::: 1,5 1 ' ;'
1 '
,.3
.
'0 1
1 -6
E
E 1 3'
-4
0.5
-2
" 1111 1111 IIflll AD

10 15 20 25 30
week
H + supply (Y1) Yield (Y2)
Fig. 4. The yield (stems m- 2 ) and the W supply (mmoll- I )

in order to keep the pH of the recirculating nutrient
solution at 5.5, during the first 30 weeks of a rose
crop.
96
3.5 pH IN CLOSED SYSTEMS
The pH is an important factor affecting the uptake of many nutrients. The optimum
range for many crops lies between 4.5 and 6.0 (Voogt 1994; 1995; Sonneveld and
Voogt 1996). In addition to this, the pH sometimes affects the stablility of substrates,
for instance pH levels below 4.8 degrade the structure of rockwool slabs (Voogt 1995).
To prevent blocking of the irrigation system by precipitation of salts, the pH should not
rise above 6. It is insufficient to control the pH in the growing system by controlling
the pH of the drip solution only. The ratio between cation and anion uptake dominates
the pH in the root environment and consequently in the drainage water. This can be
controlled by the NH4IN03 ratio. For most crops a ratio between 0.1 - 0.2 is sufficient
to keep the pH in the root environment around 5.5 (IKC 1994a). However, there is a
strong relationship with plant stage, as vegetative development involves relatively high
N uptake so that more NH4 is needed than with generative growth (Voogt 1995). An
example of the shift in cation and anion uptake is shown in Fig. 4, which shows the
results of an investigation with roses in a recirculating nutrient solution, without NH4
supply. The pH was kept at a constant level of 5.5 by adding either RN03 or KOH. In
the first 30 weeks after planting, the development of shoots was concentrated in
flushes, visible in the peaks in stems harvested. The H+ supply, expressing the surplus
in anion uptake, was fluctuating, with peaks three to four weeks before the peak in
yield and a clear drop in the H+ supply during the peak in yield. The changes in pH
should be anticipated by adjustment of the ratio between NH4 and N03 of lact
according to the development stage of the plant (see 3.6). In the root environment in
substrate systems, very different pH levels may occur. Usually the pH is lowest in the
vicinity of the drippers because of the rapid NH4 absorption and the intensive rooting at
these spots. Between drippers the pH will be highest because of a lack of NH4 and
accumulation of HC03, due to root respiration (Voogt 1995). The pH of drainage water
is the result of a mixture of leachate from all sites in the root environment and will be
affected most by the strongest buffer, which is usually the HC0 3 . The lower the
drainage rate, the higher the pH will be. From an economic point of view it is advisable
to reduce the quantity of drainage as much as possible. This will result in higher pH
values in the drainage water. As a consequence, the concentrations of P and Mn will be
reduced, since both nutrients will precipitate in the root environment at spots with high
pH values (V oogt 1994). It is not realistic to adjust the P and Mn input to the reduced
analytical data of drainagewater if the pH is high, since plants are capable of absorbing
these elements sufficiently at sites with lower pH values. Moreover, extra supply of
these nutrients will increase the total amounts in the substrate, which can lead to
excessive uptake if the pH drops unexpectedly.
3.6 MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE
As mentioned before there is a shift in the mutual ratios of nutrients in the drainage
97
water compared to the drip solution. In addition to this shift also the EC in the drainage
water is increased. The consequence of this is that with reuse of drainage water the
contribution to the drip solution of nutrients is relatively higher than of waterquantity.
If not adequately adjusted, reuse of drainage water results in a drip solution with too
high EC values, characterized by relatively high concentrations of Ca, S04 and Mg and
low concentrations of NH4, K and N03. Adjustment of the nutrient solution to the
required ratios in the drip solution, requires a nutrient supply which is relatively low in
comparison with the water supply and should be relatively high in monovalent ions and
low in bivalent ions. In other words, lact should be such that the mixture of drainage
solution and fresh nutrient solution reaches the required EC value and ion composition.
Assuming that the buffering capacity of the system can be neglected, then lact is equal
to V act . Fluctuations in total uptake are corrected automatically by the EC controller.
However, fluctuations in the uptake of specific nutrients will not be traced in this way.
The standard nutrient solutions are composed such that on average the required drip
solution will be reached.
Beside the long term changes in total- and specific concentrations of Vact, small
changes like the diurnal fluctuations occur. These, however, will be intercepted by the
buffering capacity of the system. Larger variations, like those due to growth and
development, or plant stage, should be counteracted. There are three ways to achieve
this.
1) adjustments based on regular analysis ofthe drainage water.
2) adjustments based on known relationships between nutrient uptake and plant stage
and/or environmental factors
3) adjustments based on continuous on line measurements of nutrients in the
recirculating nutrient solution.
With method I, the control of the composition of the nutrient solution is always being
done afterwards. Depending on the laboratory, the time between sampling and the
availablity of the analytical data usually is 1 or 2 days. Changes in the uptake ratios can
be very fast (Voogt 1994), so in some periods samples should be taken two times a
week. The second method can only be used if all parameters connected with the
nutrient uptake and their relationship are exactly known. At the moment, method 3 is
not applicable under practical conditions, due to technical problems and the high costs
of on line measurements (Gieling et al. 1995). A combination of methods 1 and 2 is
therefore suitable. A standard nutrient solution for closed growing systems forms the
basis. Guidelines are used to adjust this nutrient solution according to plant stage or
other parameters. Regular analysis of drainage water are used as a safety and a further
control. Results of this working method are reported in Voogt (1994).
Another method used in practice is temporarily buffering of the drainage water in
storage tanks. The input of nutrients can be calculated based on the analysis of the
drainage water stored. A specific mixture of drainage water, raw water and nutrient
solution can be calculated and controlled by a continuous measurement of the EC value
of the drip solution. The target values for the drip solution can be attained quite
98
accurately. This calculated input of nutrients however is only valid during use of the
drainage water analysed and with fixed mixing ratio and EC value of the drip solution.
For an adequate application of this method, two storage tanks of sufficient volume are
required. One tank can be used while the other is filled with drainage water. This
method only works optimally if the specific nutrients can be supplied more or less
independently, which is only possible with a computerised injection control system,
using liquid fertilisers. During one year, this working method is being evaluated at a
holding with year round rockwool grown tomatoes with reuse of drainage water. In
Fig. 5, the course of the EC and the N03 concentrations of the drip solution, the storage
tank with drainage water, and the realised N03 supply from fertilisers are shown. The
required N03 concentration in the drip solution could be realised despite the strong
fluctuations in N03 contribution from the drainage water.
..
EC value NO,
ECsupplled Supplied OraVlage
. ."
" ECdra,nage Fertiliser
. "
"
I
10.J • I
E·
-
j
I
•
~.-.-~
.J. 1" ~
........ ,. r'./~'V""'-,,\
'.T""T"1""'I" -¥ •
++"\
1,,1" \
\
'0
,~ ""'1
. +... ,..........................
1'
''"'............
12
e
E· ~ e ..
s·.. J \ l ' 1 \ • ,'\ •
: ....:.
: It J'
. ... .- \. ~ ~' . ....:.:. •

. . . . . . . . .' t'"",.
..... .. "... .. .
...+.+++..... +++++~+++~++-+
I
+. Week
11) 15 2(1 2S 30 3S 40 10 ,.. 2Qo :M

weelc week
Fig. 5 The EC in the nutrient solution supplied and in the drainage water (left),
N03 concentrations in the nutrient solution supplied and the contribution
from drainage water and from fertilisers (right), monitored at a long term
tomato crop with reuse of drainage water, using drainage water storage.
The nitrate concentrations are all converted to an EC of 2.7 dS m-I in the
irrigation water supplied.
4. Discussion
With respect to environmental pollution, closed growing sytems offer an adequate

solution for horticultural crop production. The benefit, however, is restricted by the
viability of keeping the input equal to the requirements of the crop (see 3.1). In other
words, the water quality and the management of the nutrient supply determine the
necessity of leaching. The nutrient management would not necessarily be the limiting
factor, if the right technical equipment is used and the right nutrient solutions, target
values and adjustments to the supply are followed up. This factor highly depends on
99
the proficiency of the operators. The water quality, however, is often beyond one's
control. At the moment, in Dutch greenhouse industry insufficient quantity water of the
required quality for closed systems is available, so partial leaching is unavoidable and
for crops with a low Urnax for Na, like sweet pepper, the necessary fd is rather high. The
fertiliser efficiency in such situations is not higher than the result would be with free
drainage systems.
In order to keep fd as low as possible, Rrnax for the EC and for specific ions like Na
and Cl should be kept as high as possible. If Rrnax is kept, Urnax is reached and the
concentrations in the drainage are high and thus removal of the undesirable ions from
the system is the most effective.
Obviously there is a minimum level of nutrient concentrations, expressed as EC
value, in the root environment required for optimum plant growth. Specifically for
vegetable crops the EC value to obtain optimum quality is much higher. The gap
between both minimum and maximum EC value can be utilised for the accumulation
of Na and Cl to the levels of Rrnax, provided that no specific effects are connected with
accumulation of these ions.
References
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solutions Proc. sixth Int. Congr. On Soilless Culture, 71-79.
AKZO Nobel (1993) Conditional stability constants for metal chelates. Technical
leaflet 217, AKZO Chemicals International, Amersfoort The Netherlands, 4 p.
Anonymous (1989) Structuurnota Landbouw: beleidsvoornemen. Ministry of
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Baas R, Nijssen HMC, Van den Berg TJM and Warmenhoven MG (1995) Yield and
quality of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L) and gerbera (Gerbera Jamesonii L.)
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De Kreij C Van den Berg T and Warmenhoven M (1985) Optimaal borium-
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De Kreij C (1996) Interactive effects of air humidity, calcium and phosphate in
blossom-end rot, leaf deformation, production and nutrient contents of tomato .
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waterbehoefte en de nutrientenemissie van de glastuinbouw in het Zuid-Hollands
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Kipp JA and Wever G (1993) Wortelmedia. Informatiereeks 113, Research Station
for Glasshouse Vegetables and Floriculture, Naaldwijk, The Netherlands, 54 p.
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Teeltsystemen los van de ondergrond groenten en snijbloemen onder glas.
Informatie en kennis centrum, Naaldwijk, the Netherlands 104 p.
Mc Neal BL Oster JD and Hatcher JT (1970) Calculation of electrical conductivity
from solution composition data as an aid to in-situ estimation of soil salinity. Soil
Science 6 (113) 405-414
Nukaya A, Goto K, Jang H, Kano A and Ohkawa K (1995) Effect ofK/Ca ratio in the
nutrient solution on incidence of blossom-end rot and gold specks of tomat fruit
grown in rockwool. Acta Hort. 396 123-130.
Otten W (1994) Dynamics of water and nutrients for potted plants induced by flooded
bench fertigation: experiments and simulation. Thesis Agirc. Univ. Wageningen,
Wageningen The Netherlands, 115 p.
Ruijs MNA (1993) Economic evaluation of closed production systems in glasshouse
horticulture. Acta Hort. 340 87-94.
Runia WT, Van Os EA, Bollen GJ (1988) Disinfection of drainwater from soilless
cultures by heat treatment. Neth. 1. Agric. Sci. 36,231-238
Runia W T (1995) A review of possibilities for disinfection ofrecirculation water from
soilless cultures. Acta Hort. 382, 221 - 229.
Schacht Hand Schenk MK (1990) Control of nitrogen supply of cucumber (cucumis
sativus) grown in soilless culture. In: Van Beusichem ML (ed), Plant Nutrition -
Physiology and applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 753-758
Sonneveld C (1981) items for the application of macro-elements in soilless cultures.
Acta Hort. 126 187-195
Sonneveld C and De Bes SS (1984) Micro nutrient uptake of glasshouse cucumbers
grown on rockwool. Comm Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 15, 519-535
Sonneve1d C and Voogt W (1986) Supply and uptake of potassium, calcium and
magnesium of spray carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus) grown in rockwool. Plant
and Soil 93 259-268
101
Sonneveld C and Voogt W (1990) Response of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) to

an unequal distribution of nutrients in the root environment. In: Van Beusichem ML
(ed), Plant Nutrition - Physiology and applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
509-514.
Sonneveld C and Van der Burg (1991) Sodium chloride salinity in fruit vegetable crops
in soilless culture. Neth. 1. of Agr. Sci. 39,115-122.
Sonneveld C (1991) Rockwool as a substrate for greenhouse crops. In: Bajaj YPS
Biotechnology and Forestery, Vol 17,285-313. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Sonneveld C and Voogt W (1994) Calculation of nutrient solutions for soilless culture.
Voedingsoplossingen Glastuinbouw, 11, Naaldwijk, The Netherlands, 21 p.
Sonneveld C and Van den Bos AL (1995) Effects of nutrient levels on growth and
quality of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) Grown on different substrates. lourn. of PI.
Nutr. 18(3) 501-513.
Sonneveld C (1995) Fertigation in the greenhouse industry. In: Proc. Dahlia Greidinger
Int. Symp. on Fertigation, Technion Institute of technology, Haifa, Israel, 121-140
Sonneveld C and Voogt W (1996) Effects of pH value and Mn application on yield and
nutrient absorption with rockwool grown gerbera. Acta Hort (in press).
Terabayashi S, Takii K, Namiki T (1991) Variations in diurnal uptake of water and
nutrients by tomato plants grown hydroponically Journ of the Japanese Soc. For
Hort. Sc. 60 (3) 547-553.
Van Bastelaere H (1993) Gewas is erg gevoelig voor teveel borium. Groenten +
Fruit/vollegrondsgroenten 47(28) 10 - 1l.
Van der Burg AMM (1987) Specific effects of sodium chloride on sweet pepper
grown on rockwool in a recirculation system. In:Annual Report 1987, glasshouse
crops research station, Naaldwijk The Netherlands, 2l.
Van Goor Bl, De lager A and Voogt W (1988) Nutrient uptake by some horticultural
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Van der Burg and Hamaker P (1987) Variatie in waterafgifte druppelaars en
wateropname. Groenten en Fruit 42(19),30-33.
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in Zuid-Holland. Landbouw Economisch Instituut, Den Haag, Int. rep 386, 81 p.
Voogt Wand Sonneveld C (1985) Si and P levels in the nutrient solution for rockwool
grown cucumbers. In: Annual report, Glasshouse Crops research Station, Naaldwijk,
The Netherlands, 22
Voogt W (1993) Nutrient uptake of year round tomato crops. Acta Hort. 33999-113.
Voogt Wand Sonneveld HGM (1988) Interaction between zinc and phosphate in
beefsteak tomatoes. In: Annual Report, Glasshouse Crops Research Station,
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Voogt W (1994) EDDHA bij hoge pH: me er Fe opgenomen en minder Mn. Vakblad
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102
Voogt W (1995) Effects of the pH on rockwool grown carnation (Dianthus

caryophyllus) Acta Hort. 401 327-336.
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frequency .ActaHort.40 1, 393-400.
MONITORING AND CONTROL OF WATER AND NUTRIENT SUPPLY IN
CLOSED GROWING SYSTEMS
Th.H.Gieling l, J.Bontsema2 and E.A. van OSl

1 IMAG-DLO, Monitoring and Control Department
POBox 43, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
2Wageningen Agricultural University, Dep. of Agric. Engin. and Physics
Bomenweg 4,6703 HD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT. In a review approach, this paper introduces some of the it priori know-
ledge of water and nutrient supply systems. Extra attention is paid to growing systems
and their relation to pollution of the environment. In some European countries the year
2000 will be a target to enforce the use of closed growing systems in greenhouses. A
project - started in this framework - aims at the design of a management and control
system for processes in greenhouses.
Results from the EU project on monitoring and control of water and nutrient supply
are presented. Ionselective ISFET sensors are used to monitor nutrient concentrations.
The design of robust control algorithms seems to be feasible and 'loopshaping' proved
to be a very useful design technique. Algorithm performance was tested in a simulation
procedure, the results of which showed good disturbance suppression. Real tests on a
tomato crop are scheduled for fall 1996.
1. Introduction
Greenhouse production - by its nature - is a capital and knowledge intensive branch of

agricultural industry. In order to be able to earn a living in economically harsh
circumstances, the grower is forced to be an innovative entrepreneur. The modern
grower carefully observes and adopts new developments, even if there are only slight
indications of return on investment.
In the minutiae of his History of Greenhouses, Van den Muijzenberg (1980) shows
examples of the same kind of attitude in connection with 'growers' from ancient times
in China, Egypt and India through mediaeval Belgium and Holland to 19th century
England and France. Although Jacobs (1995) states that England should be regarded as
the cradle of the modern greenhouse industry, he stresses that in 1950 the Dutch
103
104
horticultural industry responded to a rapidly growing European market by taking

advantage of its favourable geographic position in the centre of that market.
In 1974 a commercial firm showed the first system which claimed to be the
'computer heart' of an automatic greenhouse control system (Gieling, 1980). It is of
value to mention this event since it was the ultimate cause to release funds for
institutions in The Netherlands to aim their research efforts on the application of the
computer as controlling element in greenhouse processes. Development of
computerised controllers did benefit from these research efforts, both for control of
climate as well as for automatic water supply systems.
Especially in the field of water and nutrient supply a lot of changes came about.
Although one would expect that only in ancient times buckets and water hoses were
used to water plants in commercial gardens, it is only since the early days of 1960 that
automatic control of water supply and supply of nutrients came about. In the period
from 1950 to 1958 research was carried out on water cultures in Belgium, whilst in
1969 the first rockwool slabs for horticultural purposes were introduced in Denmark.
At the same time growing systems were adjusted to the new demands of automation
and control and demands for a more environmentally conscious way of growing. In
combination with good functioning water and nutrient supply systems, rockwool
proved to be a perfect medium for fruit-vegetable crops such as tomato, sweet pepper
and cucumber. In The Netherlands in 1993 the use of artificial substrates, of which
more than 70% is rockwool, was estimated to be 70% for fruit-vegetables and 24% for
flowers. To comply with the new rules for environmental protection, the surplus of
irrigation water is collected - mostly in troughs or gullies underneath the plants - to be
treated and recirculated to the crop.
In preparation to legislation, the European Union started to fund research projects to
introduce new management and control technology with potential to improve quality of
the environment, quality of the growing process and quality of the product (MACQU,
1993).
2. Review of Earlier Research
2.1 GROWING SYSTEMS
2.1.1 Introduction. Development of soilless growing systems in protected cultivation

started on a commercial scale in the early eighties. Reasons for changing were: higher
production, energy saving, stopping the spread of soil-born pathogens and a better
control of growth and quality. Experiments started at research institutes, experimental
stations and at some leading nurseries. They were supported by supplying firms in
order to start developing technically reliable systems and especially to get familiar with
the way to grow the crops and to handle the system. Problems which had to be tackled
were: the layout of the growing system, the kind and size of the substrate, the capacity,
105
layout and make of the water supply system, the high root temperature and the control
of Electrical Conductivity, pH and composition of the nutrient solution.
Practical experience with open systems proved that a water surplus is needed of 30%
on top of the transpiration of the crop in order to avoid problems. These problems
relate to diurnal variations of plant transpiration, compensation of the variation in
supply of individual capillaries and accumulation of salts (especially sodium) in the
substrate. Until then, the surplus of water and fertilisers was simply flushed into the
subsoil. It was not seen as a problem until a general awareness did arise on the
polluting effect that fertilisers have to ground- and surface water.
In the last decade the industrial world was confronted with environmental legislation
and this period of time is characterised by an awakening of environmental
consciousness. After tackling the major industrial contaminators first, Dutch govern-
ment is now turning to the large group of minor contaminators, in which farmers and
growers take a special place. Various memoranda were issued, aiming at a prescribed
level of reduction in pollution by the year 2000. The National Environmental Policy
Plan (1989) aims to achieve a safe, sustainable and competitive horticultural sector.
Following the Agricultural Structure Memorandum (1989) glasshouse growers should
grow their products in closed systems, separated from the subsoil. In 1994 80% of the
glasshouse vegetables and pot plants and 30% of the flowers should be grown out of
the subsoil, while 30% of the area should recirculate the nutrient solution.
It is good to mention here also, that the Multi -Year Crop Protection Plan (1991)
promulgates guidelines to reduce the dependency on and the use of chemical pesticides
(e.g. more biological control, better equipment and less frequent spraying) and to
reduce the emission to the environment, e.g. to ground and surface water and to the air.
The total reduction in use of pesticides should be 35% in 1995 and more than 50% in
2000 for the whole agricultural sector. For glasshouse horticulture these figures are
even more stringent: 50% reduction in 1995 and 65% in 2000. At the same time
considerable reductions in emission of pesticides should be obtained: 50% to the air,
75% to soil and ground water and 90% to surface water in 2000. The above-mentioned
memoranda show the objectives, made in the late eighties.
Present legislation (Pollution of Surface Water Act and the Decree on Waste Water
Disposal, 1994) sets very concrete targets for every nursery to fulfil at a certain point of
time between 1995 and 2000. Such targets are the result of hard negotiations between
government and horticultural representatives and are based on research done in the last
five years, showing the advantages and shortcomings of soilless systems for all
glasshouse crops. Among several other, the important obligations are:
• recirculation of the nutrient solution in a closed system;
• use of rain water if no other supply water of better quality is available;
• maximum limits on water supply for soil grown crops;
• after dryness. separate catchment and flushing of the first rain shower;
• registration of consumption of water, fertilisers and pesticides.
106
2.1.2 The NFT system. The growing awareness of the environmental aspects of open
systems causes a new interest in all types of closed systems. Nutrient Film Technique
(NFT) was developed as a closed growing system by Dr. A. Cooper during the late
1960's. The principle of the system is to flow a thin film of nutrient solution through
plastic lined channels which contain the plant roots. Nutrient solution is pumped to the
higher end of each channel and flows by gravity along the plant roots to catchment
pipes and a tanle Nowadays one also finds a combination ofNFT with water supply by
means of trickle irrigation. The slope of the channel must be at least 0.5%. Young
plants may be grown in small rockwool cubes. When transplanted in the channel, no
additional capillary material is added, so the plant roots are bare. The roots soon grow
into a tangled mat of their own. It did not become very popular, mainly because of the
rather high investments and high growing risks - due to spreading of diseases - and the
absence of buffer capacity.
Simulation studies investigating the economic, technical and environmental aspects
of closed growing systems for different groups of crops show that each group of crops
needs its own specific system (Ruijs and Van Os, 1991; Van Os et aI., 1991; Ruijs,
1994).
In Aeroponics plants are grown in holes in the lid covering a trench. The plant roots
are merely hanging in mid air in the trench. Water supply is sprayed on the roots by
means of nozzles. A small water layer on the bottom of the trench, poor of oxygen,
prevents the roots from becoming to bulky. The water spraying system is only switched
on for some seconds every few minutes. This is sufficient to keep the roots moist but
aerated. Problems appearing during experiments are uneven watering, especially along
the edges of a bed and the risk of root pathogens spreading through the water. The
water use is very high and as a consequence disinfection is expensive.
2.1.3 Soilless systems with artificial substrates. To fulfil the demand for sustainable
horticulture, materials and substrates should have a long lifetime. It has been shown
that for crops such as radish, butterhead lettuce and chrysanthemum the economic
prospects of growing in soilless systems were insufficient. From these studies carried
out at commercial nurseries (Vemooij, 1992), it became clear that water and fertiliser
consumption could be decreased dramatically. Now guidelines can be given for closed
and sustainable growing systems to decrease pollution of ground water and surface
water and to avoid the creation of new waste flows (Van Os, 1994).
Crops can be subdivided into classes in the way they are placed in the greenhouse
(Van Os, 1994). Each class has its own specific technical layout of the growing system:
crops with 2-6 plants per m2 such as fruit vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers) should be
grown in multi-year-usable substrates (rockwool, polyurethane foam). The substrate
slabs are enveloped by plastic foil or are bedded down in a long-shaped polypropene
container (Figure 1). The enveloped slabs lie in a flat or profiled polypropylene or
coated steel trough. Crops such as carnations, freesias and alstroe-merias are grown in
3-4 beds with aisles per 6.4m span. Beds are created on a with perfectly levelled-out
107
trickle
container
.
------------------------------_.
subsoil
Figure 1: Growing in rows on substrate
horizontal soil surface with a width of I.OOm to I.50m, covered I.5mm to 2.0mm thick
polyethylene foil, aluminium sheets, concrete slabs or concrete floor. The beds are
filled with a loose substrate such as peat, sand, perlite or volcanic sands.
Chrysanthemums, lettuce and radishes are crops with many plants per m2 and are
grown span-wide. They need a system of dig-in polyethylene foil on top of which a
loose substrate such as sand. volcanic sand or perlite is placed.
Experiments in practice. based on the conclusions of simulation studies, were
executed at some Dutch research stations. From an economical point of view, a
complete change to growing in soilless systems proved to be not feasible for some
specific crops (Ruijs, 1994). Pressure by growers and results from research caused
government to change policy. Now, growing in open soil systems will be permitted for
some crops, such as vegetable crops with many plants per m2 (lettuce, radishes).
2.2 WATER SUPPLY AND NUTRIENT APPLICATION
2.2.1 Quality of the water source. An important part of a recirculating system for
water supply is the basic water source, from which e.g. tapwater, well water, surface
water or rainwater is added to the already circulating irrigation water. The quality of
the basic water depends on the presence and concentrations of dissolved nutrients,
algae and residues. Sodium and chloride are the two important factors which determine
quality of clean water. These ions are not absorbed in the quantities with which they
are offered in 'clean' water. Consequently, they will accumulate to toxic concentra-
tions for the crop. Especially in trickle irrigation systems, iron is another important
factor. Here, as a result of the pH difference between the basic water and the irrigation
water, it may coagulate and block the capillaries. Chloride can be absorbed in larger
quantities than sodium, because the roots are more efficient in keeping sodium out.
108
2.2.2 Water supply through trickle irrigation systems. A pump feeds the nutrient
solution into the supply lines of a trickle irrigation system. The water from the plants
returns into a small sub-soil buffer tank. The dead-end in the supply lines causes the
~
~
•
a) standard b) series
~
~
• •
c) parallel d) Tichelmann
Figure 2: Layout of different water supply systems
time delay to increase along the length of the tube (Gieling et al.,1993). Towards the
end of the tube, fewer capillary hoses subtract water from an equal supply tube volume.
The time delay in the supply tube will increase even more if water supply through the
capillaries is reduced to a minimum (Fig. 2a). The diameter of the supply tube cannot
be reduced to decrease the time delay. It would need an increased pressure to drain out
water of the capillaries, which would lead to an unequal distribution of water. An
opportunity to overcome this problem, is found by interconnecting the supply lines at
their ends and create a supply system with a circulating water stream by means of an
extra pump (Fig. 2b,c,d).
A first alternative on the standard way of connecting the supply lines can be found in
connecting them in series (Fig. 2b). It means that the supply lines are connected outlet
to inlet, which causes the pressure difference over the entire system to be very large. A
pressure difference in all parts of the system and an unequal distribution of water
through the capillary hoses is the result of it.
A second option connects the outlets of the tubes in the same way as the inlets (Fig.
2c). The main supply then situates at the same side as the main outlet. It means that the
route of the water through the first supply tube is much shorter than the route through
the last supply tube. Thus, the distribution of water in the entire system is not uniform.
A third water circulation system is known from heating technology as the
Tichelmann system. (Buitelaar et aI., 1975; Von Zabeltitz, 1978). Here, the outlet of
the system situates on the opposite side of the inlet (Figure 2d). Thus, the route of the
water through the system is equal for all supply lines. Since the length of the routes in
the system is equal for all supply lines, the distribution of the water is nearly uniform.
The distribution of water will be entirely uniform, when also the resistance in the
109
different routes are the same. For this purpose the resistance of inlet and outlet tubes
should be small in comparison to the resistance of the supply tube (V on Zabeltitz,
1978). A common solution, is to decrease the diameter of the inlet tube with increasing
length. Then the outlet is a mirror of the inlet. A complete model of the Tichelmann
layout is described by Gieling et al. (1994). Application of the Tichelmann system may
reduce the Dead Time in the system to Y4 of the original Dead Time.
2.2.3 Nutrient supply systems. Systems for supply of water and nutrients can be
subdivided into two categories: a system where nutrients are diluted with water in a
mixing tank and a system where nutrients are directly injected in the main stream.
When a mixing tank dispenser unit is used, all the fertiliser sources and the water
streams (clean water and return water) flow into the mixing tank. The composition
needed for the crop is fixed in the A/B recipe (see paragraph 2.2.5.), or in the relative
amount of each single element. The irrigation water is then supplied from the mixing
tank and brought into the system by means of a system pump.
When a direct i~ection dispenser is used, all fertiliser solutes are separately injected
directly into the supply water pipe. Direct injection does not use a mixing tank, so the
mixing has to take place in-line with the supply pipe itself, by means of a static mixer.
The mixing tank is a buffer between the fertiliser and the irrigation water, which makes
it less sensitive for disturbances. This is an advantage over direct injection. However,
buffering has the disadvantage, that a fast response in setpoint is no longer possible.
First the buffer has to be emptied before a solution with a different composition can be
prepared. On the other hand, a mixing tank is not influenced by an unsteady flow.
Direct injection is very sensitive to disturbances. A change in flow has a direct effect
on the addition of fertilisers. Also, bicarbonate in the recirculating water will react with
the individually injected fertilisers. This process takes some time, which causes the
actual pH level in the capillaries to differ from the pH level directly after injection.
This can easily lead to problems, which might even result in the death of an entire crop.
2.2.4 AIB systems. Nowadays, the use of AIB-diluter systems is the most common
practice. It consists of two stock tanks (one A-tank and one B-tank), in which standard
solutions are kept with a hundred times higher concentration than needed for irrigation.
A third tank is filled with an acid or a base to adjust the pH. Sulphate and phosphate
may not be dissolved in the A-tank. Calcium and iron chelate may not be dissolved in
the B-tank. This separation is strict, because otherwise calcium sulphate, calcium
phosphate and magnesium phosphate will easily precipitate.
The solutions in the tanks can be made with solid or fluid fertilisers. Solid fertilisers
are sold in large bales and needs physical effort by the grower to put together the
required solutions. Solid fertilisers are often polluted with ballast or carrier materials
which are not taken up by the crop. Fluid fertilisers are highly concentrated and pure.
Extra precautionary safety measures have to be taken because of the high concentration
of the fertilisers. The advantages of the fluid fertilisers are the absence of physical
110
work load and the easy and precise dosing. Especially the ballast materials of the solid
fertilisers causes problems in circulating systems. Accumulated material in the
irrigation water may block the trickle irrigation capillaries.
2.2.5 Single element injection. Single injection diluters come in three different
designs. In the venturi system the injector is placed in the low pressure point of the
venturi. The water passes the opening and sucks the fertiliser out of the injector. A
valve controls the amount of injected fertiliser. Changing the frequency of opening and
closing of the valve adjusts the amount of added fertiliser. The pressure drop is related
to the flowrate of the main stream, so flow meters are very important in this design.
In a second method the pressure drop is created by means of a pump. The system of
injection is the same, but here the pressure drop is created and regulated by the pump.
A third method is to inject the fertilisers with the aid of small pulse pumps. Each
pulse of a pomp injects a certain amount of fertiliser. These pumps can be air driven or
electrically powered. Air driven pumps regulate the amount of injected fertiliser by the
frequency of the pulses. Electric pumps regulate the amount of injected fertiliser by
means of the speed of the motor and the adjustable volume of the pulses.
3. Research on Monitoring and Control
3.1 MONITORING WITH CHEMO-SENSORS
3.1.1 Introduction. Chemo-sensors provide an electrical signal in relation to the

concentration of particles in fluids or gases. These particles can be atoms, molecules or
ions (Hauptmann, 1990). If biological substances like enzymes, bacteria or whole cells
are part of a chemo-sensor, the word bio-sensor is used.
In horticulture chemo-sensors are mainly used to monitor the root environment. In
hydroponics EC and pH sensors are common practice. ISE (Ion Selective Electrode)
and ISFET (Ion Selective Field Effect Transistor) sensors are slowly gaining interest
(Gieling et aI., 1988; Bailey et aI., 1988; Hashimoto et aI., 1989). The chemo-sensors
mentioned here are potentiometric sensors, based on the measurement of a potential
difference across a membrane. The application of chemo-sensors in horticulture is
described by Gieling et al. (1995).
3.1.2 Sensors for EC and pH. In horticulture EC (Electrical Conductivity) and pH

sensors are the simplest form of chemo-sensors. EC is measured using three ring-
shaped electrodes, mounted inside the water transport pipe at equal distances. The two
end-electrodes are connected to each other and to ground. The temperature of the fluid
is measured and is used to modify the value of the AC voltage applied between the
central electrode and the ground electrodes. A normal value for this AC voltage is
approximately 1 V. The frequency may range from 400 Hz to 50 kHz. An AC voltage
111
is used to avoid polarisation. The EC is measured as the current between the central
electrode and the two end-electrodes. The current ranges from 0,1 mA to 10 mA. The
currents in the upstream and downstream parts of the sensor are summed at the central
electrode. Thus, parasitic effects like the one caused by the speed of the supply water
are eliminated. Grounding both end-electrodes allows the sequential or parallel use of
more EC electrodes in one water supply system. In horticultural practice two distinct
EC electrodes are used parallel, thus enabling a check on the functioning of both EC
sensors against each other. EC normally ranges from 2 to 10 mS/cm. The pH sensor is
the most well-known potentiometric electrode. Here the potential across a glass
membrane is an indication of the activities of H+ (in solution often referred to as H30+)
in the solution on both sides of the glass membrane. In horticulture pH is measured
with standard pH combination sensors. The sensors are filled with a gel, which means
that replenishing is not needed anymore. Slow deterioration of the sensor is avoided in
this way. The life of the pH sensors normally used in horticulture is about one year.
Here too, two sensors are used, so that one sensor checks the other. As a further check
the values obtained with the EC and pH sensors are compared with the results of a bi-
weekly lab analysis.
3.1.3 The ISE electrode. In an ISE sensor a membrane separates the measurant from
an inner electrolyte in the sensor body. The function of the membrane is to transport
matter across the membrane with preferably one specific property. If ions are
transported, an electric potential E will develop across the membrane. An electrode is
placed in the electrolyte of the ISE sensor, thus providing galvanic contact with the
membrane. A well defined potential difference exists between the electrode and the
electrolyte material. An ISE is always used with a reference electrode. The reference
electrode is in galvanic contact with the opposite side of the membrane by means of the
conductance of the measurant. The voltage difference between the ISE electrode and
the reference electrode is described by the Nemst equation and is a function of the
logarithm of ion activity. Often used reference electrodes are the SCE (Saturated
Calomel Electrode) and the Ag/ AgCl electrode (Albery et aI., 1986).
The membrane used in an ISE determines the quality of the sensor in terms of
discrimination between measured ion and interfering ions. Some popular types are:
Solid membranes (silverhalogenide, fluoride, silicate), liquid organic electrolyte
membranes and solvent polymeric membranes.
ISE sensors are available for most macro nutrients, like K+, Ca2+, N0 3-, SO{, NH/
and ions interfering with plant growth, such as Na+ and Cr. Since the logarithm of
activity is measured, the overall uncertainty of ISE measurements is not very good
(Heinen and Harmanny 1992). For instance, for a Ca2+ ISE sensor a measuring
uncertainty of 1mV might imply an uncertainty in the ion activity of 8%. The output
impedance of the sensor is very high, which means that special precautions have to be
taken with respect to connecting cables, signal grounding and input impedance of the
amplifiers.
112
3.1.4 The ISFET sensor. ISFET sensors have been developed at Twente University in
The Netherlands (Bergveld, 1970). These integrated semiconductor sensors are able to
distinguish ions from each other and produce an output signal as a function of the
activity aj of specific ions. The ISFET consists of a Field Effect Transistor with an ion
sensitive membrane on top of the gate (Figure 3). The principle of operation of ISFETs
is the surface field effect. The conductance at the surface of a piece of semiconductor
material is affected by a perpendicular electrical field, generated by the potential
Membrane
•
IRef.lvgs
Epoxy. I Id I
rt · ". l ~ . ~~ 1
Alum .• 1 ~.
I )\' .
SiO 2' Vds I
• n+ • p-type
substr.
Figure 3: ISFET sensor
difference over a (ion selective) membrane on top of the ISFET. The membranes used
are insulators such as SiJN4, AbO} and Ta20s for pH, or silicates as sensitive materials
for pNa or pK, or polymeric and solid state ion selective membranes. The commercial
breakthrough for ISFETs is limited by factors influencing accuracy of measurement
and life-expectancy. These factors include drift, temperature sensitivity, electric
isolation from the solution, encapsulation, membrane attachment and fixation. (Van
den Vlekkert, 1992). Since ISFETs are members of the ISE family, all ISE sensor
problems related to uncertainty are also valid for ISFET sensors.
However, ISFET sensors also have many advantages. The ISFET is a low cost, mass
producible semiconductor component. It can be produced as a small but rugged device,
both as a dip-stick and as a flow-through cell. Smart-sensors can be build by
integrating ISFETs for different ions and electronics for amplification and data-
handling on the same sensor body. The ISFET sensor does not use polluting agents and
it does not need excessive maintenance (Gieling, Van den Vlekkert, 1996).
The membrane on top of the ISFET has been subject of intensive fundamental
research of a group of specialists at the University of Twente in The Netherlands
(Reinhoudt, 1995, 1996). In a test procedure of these new types of membranes sensors,
it has been shown that the lifetime of the sensors is now at 3 to 4 months.
3.1.5 Sensors/or soil or substrate moisture. One of the parameters for water uptake by
roots is the difference in waterpotential between the substrate and the root-tissue. For
113
any well-defined substrate there is a unique relationship between waterpotential and

water content. Measurement of either of these is sufficient for greenhouse control.
Current methods of measurement comprise deriving water content from the dielectric
properties of the substrate in the time domain (TDR) or in the frequency domain.
Waterpotential can be determined from dielectric measurements and from measure-
ments with a hydraulic tensiometer. Modern growing methods like NFT and
aeroponics have no substrate in which measurements can be made. In these methods
watering is controlled by the detection of excess water at the end of a drain. An EC
sensor is suitable for this purpose.
Dielectric methods to determine water content from the dielectric constant of the
substrate are rapidly gaining ground. For each specific soil type the relationship is
established between dielectric constant and water content in a calibration procedure. In
time domain reflectometry (TDR), a short electrical pulse is sent into a pair of electro-
des and the time dependent reflected signal is analysed to give the water content of the
medium between the electrodes (Werkhoven, 1992). The method is still experimental,
but completely automated instruments are emerging. In an alternative approach the
complex impedance between two electrodes is measured at one, carefully chosen
(high) frequency (Hilhorst et aI., 1992). This method can give both water content and
EC. It is easier automated and miniaturised than TDR. A miniature version of the
sensor is integrated on a silicon chip and commercially available. It can be incorpora-
ted into a well-defined substrate, for which the relation between water content and
waterpotential is known. When this system is brought into a soil or substrate, an equi-
librium will develop, in which the waterpotential in both media will be the same. Thus,
a measurement of the water content of the known medium allows a statement about the
waterpotential of the unknown soil or substrate.
A tensiometer consists of a porous cup filled with distilled water. It can be used for
high (near-zero) water-potential measurements. When the cup is brought in contact
with the soil, an equilibrium will develop in which the tension inside the cup equals the
suction of the soil or the substrate. The tension inside the cup is measured with a
pressure transducer. The method works for suction pressures down to -80 kPa. At
lower pressures there is a risk of air entering the cup. Errors will arise when contact
between cup and soil is poor. Hydraulic tensiometers are commercially available.
3.2 CONTROL OF WA TER SUPPL Y AND NUTRIENT APPLICA TION
3.2.1 Introduction. Nowadays, commercially available control equipment for water

and nutrient supply use classic analogous or digitised P, PI and PID controllers. EC and
pH are the controlled variables. In case of A/B systems, A or B type of solutes are
either subsequently added into a mixing tank, or directly injected into the main stream
of the supply water in relation to the EC value measured in the supplied nutrient
solution. The pH value of the supplied nutrient solution is kept within the range of
114
approx. 5.5-6.5 [units pH] by adding a lye or an acid. These types of nutrient diluters
are often used in connection with open growing systems.
However, most commercial systems show problems in tracking sudden changes in
the value of setpoint variables and in the response to disturbances like fast changing
climate conditions (Kupers et aI., 1992). The introduction of computers in control
engineering eased the introduction of more sophisticated control algorithms. Direct
Digital Control did not get as much attention (Young et aI., 1991) as might be expected
from the general success and acceptance of microcomputers nowadays. As a
consequence, only recently new strategies for system identification and new algorithms
for control of water and nutrient application in connection with specific growing
systems are being developed.
Hashimoto et al. (1989) used ion selective sensors to study and elucidate the
dynamic characteristics of nutrient uptake. In their 1991 IF AC paper Morimoto and
Hashimoto propose the application of fuzzy logic and a neural network to control water
and nutrient supply and the pH level of a 'deep flow' hydroponic growing system.
They divide the controller in two parts: a fuzzy logic feed back controller and a neural
network feed forward steering. The purpose of the neural network is to learn - in
iterative runs on actual data - the non-linear characteristics of the solution pH and to
make an inverse dynamic model for adaptive control. In combination with the fuzzy
controller, this comes down to the determination of the membership functions of the
fuzzy controller. The fuzzy logic feedback controller determines the action to be taken
on the basis of 'if-then-else' reasoning on fuzzy-data sets. The fuzzy-data are obtained
by mapping real data (Desired Value - Measured Value) through the membership
functions on a standard set of weights (e.g. the set of real numbers 0.0 - 1.0).
True digital control of an NFT system with top-end water supply is described by
Young et al. (1991), by Chotai and Young (1991) and by Chotai et al. (1991). They
suggest a self adaptive and self tuning control method for systems whose dynamic
characteristics change over time. Their papers report on the development of an
adaptive control approach with a Proportional Integral Plus controller.
Honjo and Takakura (1991) suggest the use of a simple neural net structure for the
identification of water and nutrient supply to a hydroponic growing system with
tomato plants. Using 8 hours of input data from 5 environmental factors and a neural
net with one hidden layer (4 nodes), the amount of water and nutrient supply is
calculated from the time series of these 5 environmental factors.
Okuya and Okuya (1991) developed an ion controlled feeding method for hydro-
ponics, by calculating the nutrient ions absorbed by the crop. The ion concentration in
the mixing tank was analysed at a laboratory. Depending on the EC value, four kinds
of stock solution were transported to the mixing tank. The adding ratio of each stock
solution was calculated by the absorbed concentration of each ion and the difference
between the set value and the measured value. In connection with a continuous
measurement of ion concentrations, this method is a good approach.
115
3.2.2 Materials and Methods. In the next few pages results of the EU funded project
are elucidated. The project aims at the design of a management and control system for
processes in a greenhouse.
In the project, ion-selective ISFET sensors are applied to monitor nutrient
concentrations. Robust control algorithms have been developed by means of 'loop
shaping' techniques. Performance of these algorithms was tested in a simulation
procedure. Real tests on a tomato crop are scheduled for to be performed in fall 1996.
~
•.
evolution F
K+ controller potassium injection
~----.
AlB without potassium
revolution F F
controller TIchelmann layout
I
F
main stream
gullies
dean with
water
F sand plants
filter
--..... ~ I,
mixing
tank
,.rum
p,t
Figure 4: Layout of NFT growing system with water and nutrient supply
The project is situated in a 150m 2 greenhouse with an NFT growing system. Eight
rows of tomato plants are placed in gullies. The gullies are covered with a lid. The
water is supplied by means of a trickle irrigation system. The layout of the water
supply system is according to the Tichelmann design (see chapter 2.2.3.). The drain
water is captured in a small return pit below the surface of the greenhouse floor and
pumped into a mixing tank. The mixing tank is kept on the standard nutrient
concentration by means of an A/B diluter system. In the A/B fluids the K+
concentration is kept on a low value (Figure 4).
3.2.3 Control of Potassium injectlon. A flow controlled pump injects potassium in the
main stream of the nutrient solution (Figure 4). From a control engineers point of view,
the potassium injection system consists of the trickle irrigation system in Tichelmann
layout with a flow controlled inlet of recirculated water, the gullies with plants, a
reservoir with run-off water and a flow controlled potassium injection pump with a
116
+ e ~~()"~~~ ------- ~ P~:::--- ~k----------'

u ! u'
~ !
- !
--+ Contnller .... Calculate - . Tichel-

; mann
..... Gully R.elU m-
pit ,
y
t
Set - ; + '
point
Buffer-
talk i
1...._... ___ ..__ ...._.._..... _.....___.... _.. __... ____ ......__.. ______________.._.._.._..._________.._. ____.__..________J.J
Figure 5: Diagram of the nutrient supply process with controller
potassium reservoir. These parts are coupled in a way that together they form a closed
loop system. In terms of transfer functions, the layout is shown in Figure 5.
The Tichelmann system is described as a first order transfer function, which is
proved by the response of the concentration on a step function at the input of the
process. All other subsystems (mixing tank, return pit and pipes) in the process are
assumed to be first order, because they can be seen as ' ideally stirred tanks ' with a
constant volume.
The program Matlab-Simulink® was used to find the process transfer function Gp(s)
from u to y.
5.9.10 6 S + 1.5.10 3 -124 .,
y(s) = 3.9.109s4 +8.5.10 6 s 3 +5.3.10 3 s 2 +s·e , u(s) (1)
The model in Eq. 1 is the basis of the design of the controller. It should be stressed
that simulation has been performed with fixed flowrates of the main stream solution
flow. In order to be able to cope with perturbations, the controller has been designed by
using the 'robust design' method (Doyle et aI., 1992). Robustness in control means that
a whole class of system models can be controlled instead of one nominal model,
although the design is based on a design for the nominal model. Here, the robust design
method deals with uncertainties in the model description of the real process, or the
variability of the mainstream flowrate and seasonal changes of the model parameters.
Loopshaping is used as a design tool to find the controller algorithm. This way of
designing a controller takes into account the before mentioned uncertainties and an
assumed performance. The loopshaping technique assumes two weighing functions Wj
and W2, which connect controller behaviour respectively to desired performance and to
uncertainty in the process models.
The frequency spectrum of nutrient application is a function of the absorption of
nutrients by the plants (the disturbance d in Figure 5) is only of interest to a certain
maximum frequency of approx. 7.2.10- 5 [rad.s- 1], namely one sinewave during a period
117
of one day as the smoothed diurnal curve of sun radiation. It is incorporated in the
weight function of W].
The controller is designed for an internally stable nominal closed loop system.
Taking into account the design considerations, the properties of the system and some
simplifications, this led to the transfer function Ge(s) of the controller:
2.9.10-6 (450· s + 1)(3600· s + 1) 4.70· S2 + 1.17 .10-2 . S + 2.9· 10-6

Gc(s) = (32s+I)2 1.02.103's2+64.s+1 (2)
Process
Figure 6: The controiioop in Matlab-Simulink®
3.3 SIMULA TION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
Tests have been performed on a simulated process with simulation runs on a controlled
process (Figure 6), using the Matlab-Simulink® mathematical toolbox (Steeghs and
Bouwman, 1996). The maximum allowable deviation from setpoint was chosen to be
10%. The disturbance of the controlled process by absorbtion of nutrients by the plant
is one period of a negative cosine function, with a period time of one day and a
maximum value of 1.2·10-4 mol·s- l • The controlled process consists of the controller
transfer function Ge(s) (Eq.2) and the process Gp(s) (Eq.l). The result of this
simulation is shown in Figure 7. The first 8 hours are used for system start up and to
reach a steady state equilibrium point. Then the negative cosine function is applied to
simulate the nutrient uptake by the plants. In addition, the data in Figure 7 shows that
the controlled system needs about 6 hours to reach steady state. The response curve of
Figure 7 does not show a visible reaction on the disturbance by plant uptake and stays
within the accepted margin of 10%. Data from tests of simulation runs with maximum
and minimum flowrates (non nominal processes) showed approximately the same
response for correction of the disturbance of plant uptake as in Figure 7. However, the
response on the step excitation showed more overshot with low flowrates of the main-
stream nutrient solution and a slower reaction without overshoot with high flowrates.
This can be explained from the fact that the controller is not designed to level out the
118
~,...., 7 ~I==~~-----,----
.El f····
Q 6
El
'-'
c
.:: 5
....
~
!:
.
~ 4
c
8 3
....
~
:E 2
=
c
o0' I; 10 15 20 25
time (hours)
Figure 7: Results of simulation with nominal flow
reaction on a step excitation on the input, but rather to compensate the disturbance by
the nutrient uptake of the plants.
4. Conclusions.
The pollution of the environment is becoming more and more of interest to the public
and as a result of it also to the politicians, who enforced legislation and made available
the needed research funds. Application oriented research produced solutions for some
of the environmental problems in horticulture. As has been shown in the review, the
closed growing system has been developed to an extend, that the grower accepts it as
an economical viable system for greenhouse production. Applying the Tichelmann
layout in the water supply system with trickle irrigation reduces the Dead Time in the
system to 'l4 of the original Dead Time.
ISFET sensors are in a stage of development, where it is possible to produce
successfully and reproducibly ion selective sensors with a lifetime of 3 to 4 months.
The simulation data of Figure 7 shows that robust control is feasible. Loopshaping
has proven to be a very useful tool in design. However, real tests are necessary to prove
overall viability of a complete system. If several times per day the setpoint of the
concentration of a nutrient ion needs to change, the controller should be redesigned for
this specific purpose. However, if only plant uptake needs to be compensated, the
controlled process operates well within the allowable margins.
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®Matlab-Simulink is the registered trademark of "The Mathworks, Inc."
RECENT ADVANCES IN PHOTOSELECTIVE FILMS WITH
INTERFERENCE EFFECTS
T.L.F. Daponte
Daponte & Co B.Y.B.A.
Consultants to the Polymer Industry
Dorp West 141,2070 Zwijndrecht, Belgium
ABSTRACT. For several years researchers have been trying to selectively alter light
transmission of greenhouse covering materials in order to create photo-morphogenetic
responses. Colouring plastics was until recently only done with absorption pigments.
But these were often too broad in the wavelengths they absorbed in order to be useful.
Working with interference effects proved to be a more discrete technique. However
results in growth chambers were difficult to imitate in large scale tests in commercial
greenhouses. The interference pigments can, and will be further improved, but
alternatively vapour depositing metal oxides on a film or multiple layer extrusion
(several hundreds of layers) are developed. These films can only be made in narrow
widths but can be slit and converted into woven screens which thanks to the horizontal
positioning in the greenhouse reduce the problem of the incidence angle dependency of
the effect.
1. Introduction
Influencing plant growth by altering the transmitted solar spectrum of a greenhouse

cover or a screen as an ecological alternative to chemical growth regulators has been
the request of agronomists for a long time. As target spectrum the agricultural film
industry was given the spectrum of a copper sulphate solution in water. There are
many ways to colour a plastic film, but apart from optical considerations there are also
practical restrictions regarding the processing of such materials and their durability.
2. Considerations upon the Selection of the Optical Technique
2.1 SPECTRAL PRECISION
The copper sulphate spectrum displays a very abrupt absorption.

123

124
%T %T
100 100
0.0 , I--'---,-----,---=;::::::-=~~
200 00
400 600 800 1000 ' .
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 1. Spectrum of 6 % CuS04 in water.
Figure 1 shows a spectrum of 6 % CUS04 in water. So the ideal technique one

decides to implement in a film should have a high transmission in the PAR (that is in
the region of 400-700 nm) and preferably no, or as little as possible in the far-red
wavelengths (700-800 nm). This spectrum is characterized by a high Red/far-Red
ratio.
2.2 DURABILITY OVER TIME
Many pigments and additives demonstrate encouraging spectra, but unfortunately

change over time under the form of bleaching or undergo photodegradation. Any
chosen effect must remain unaltered as long as the duration of the greenhouse cover or
screen, which in practice can be up to several years.
They also should not interact with the polymer matrix, where often premature
aging is one of the main problems.
2.3 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
Any material selected should provide a homogenous effect and disperse evenly in the
film. The mechanical properties should suffice for the intended application.
Conversion in a commercial form should best be possible on existing machinery.
2.4 ECONOMICS
In field trials an economic advantage should be demonstrated. Although this is not

important at the start of any new development, it should be realized that the ultimate
goal is to provide the grower a tool to control growth. So the cost of any system
selected is related to the eventual return on investment.
125
3. Possible Coloring Systems
A number of coloring systems are available to be incorporated into a plastic film.
3.1 ABSORPTION PIGMENTS
This is the largest family of pigments available on the market. They consist of both
organic and inorganic pigments and dye stuffs where inorganic pigments are usually
cheaper and more UV -stable over time. Many of them however are based on heavy
metals which today is more and more under debate, but still allowed. There is a
distinct difference between a pigment and a dyestuff. Pigments are insoluble in the
polymer matrix, whereas dyestuffs are soluble. Pigments have typical particle sizes in
the range 0.01-1 /lm. With organic pigments, some solubility can occur that
influences the extinction coefficient. Films containing absorption pigments display
the same color in reflection as in transmission. They find a broad use in many agri-
and horticultural films for such applications as to absorb all the light for weed control
(carbon black, iron oxides), reflect light (titanium dioxide), to attract insects (certain
yellow and blue pigments) etc. One of the problems is that most of them absorb too
broad and are not selective enough in the Red / Far-Red range of the spectrum. Those
that do usually suffer from too low light transmission in the PAR. Research at
pigment producers is continuing however (Hayer, 1962).
3.2 METAL PIGMENTS
These pigments consist of finely dispersed metal plaques in a polymer matrix.

Depending on the type of metal a part of the light is reflected, but there are minor
differences. Finely dispersed treated copper is used as shading film for hot climates,
whereas finely dispersed aluminium is used for repelling insects. So far none of the
metal pigments tested shows an altered Red / Far Red ratio.
3.3 PHOTOCHROMIC PIGMENTS
Materials are photochromic if, under the influence of light they become darker or
change colour. When the light is removed, they return to their original state. The
process of darkening (activation) takes about a minute, until the absorbance reaches a
certain saturation level. Light between 320-400 nm is the most effective. The return
process or clearing, also depends on ambient temperature (thermal fading) but can be
accelerated with light of 550-650 nm. Photochromism is similar to photography,
often dissociation of silver halides are involved, only the process is reversible when a
dense matrix is used where no ions can diffuse away, but can recombine when the light
is removed. Several others routes have been proposed that all have a similar
functionality namely transparent in the absence of day light but change colour when
exposed to UV. They can be obtained in different visible light spectra, ranging from
blue to red. Because thin polyolefins are used in film (which are very permeable) and
126
because of their limited UV -stability, photo chromic pigments have not found an
application in agri-or horticultural films yet (Billmeyer and Saltzman, 1981).
3.4 THERMOCHROMIC PIGMENTS
In the last ten years extensive research was performed by pigment suppliers in this
family. Thermochromic pigments change colour over a defined temperature range.
The majority of them turn lighter, but in combination with UV -light the reverse in
thicker articles is also possible. Theoretically this would be ideal for greenhouse
covers, but so far no pigment has been offered commercially (Billmeyer and Saltzman,
1981 ).
3.5 FLUORESCENCE PIGMENTS
Fluorescence pigments, also referred to as optical brightners, have been around for a
long time. They are usually combined with an absorption pigment. Fluorescence is
actually a "cold" emission of light called luminescence. Light striking such a
molecule will be absorbed and bring the molecule into an exited state. Some of the
energy absorbed goes into heat and some will be remitted according to Stoke's law
with a lower energy and wave length. Theoretically one could make a very interesting
film converting UV light or the green into red light. In practice there is one film
commercially on the market doing just that. But the problem with it is the same as
with some of the above mentioned pigments. The effect slowly reduces in time due
to photo-oxidation and after 9 months is totally gone.
3.6 INTERFERENCE PIGMENTS
Interference pigments consist of several layers of materials on top of each other that all
have different refractive indices. They selectively reflect a part of the incident light
and transmit the rest.
So interference effects can easily be recognized because the reflected colour is
complementary to the transmitted. Since the effect is governed by a pure optical law
of transparent materials, the polymer matrix does not play a role, so the effect is a
permanent one and UV -lifetime of the film is unaffected. For these reasons was this
technique selected in order to obtain morphogenetic effects in growth.
4. What is the Phenomenon of Interference
When a beam of white light strikes a very thin material (for example a petrol stain on
water), with a thickness approximately equal to the wavelength of visible light (400 -
700 nm), different colours can be observed depending on the angle of view. This
effect is caused by interference of the light at the level of the thin layer. The incident
127
light beam is split up into different rays by reflection at the upper and lower interface
of the layer (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Interference: a light beam is incident on a thin film. Distinctive

portions of light are reflected at the two phase boundaries. The
recombination of the individual portions from each side of the film
leads to minimum and maximum intensities for certain wavelengths.
These intensity differences are perceived by the eye as colours.
The thickness of such films range approximately from 50 to 1000 nm. In non
absorbing films, the colours of the reflected and transmitted light are complementary.
After recombination, a reinforcement or reduction of the light intensity occurs
depending on the wavelength and the angle of view. In reality, this is not precisely
the case, because if less light reaches a given point, more light will reach some other
points. Consequently, the phenomenon of interference rather acts as a redistribution of
the light. Interference is a well-known phenomenon in every-day life (for example an
oil stain on a water surface, soap bubbles) but it also exists in nature. The
magnificent colours of butterflies, beetles and various bird plumage also results from
the phenomena of interference.
5. Physical Deduction of the Interference Phenomenon
The perception of the colours by the eye, caused by interference is essentially

determined by two factors: intensity and phase of the interfering light portions. What
happens when a parallel beam of light rays strikes a medium (smooth surface)? A
part of the light beam is reflected at an angle equal to the angle of incidence (law of
reflection).
ao = ao' (I)
128
This is the case for metallised surfaces, but can also occur at the smooth interface
of transparent media such as for example oil and water. The percentage of reflection
depends on the angle of incidence and the difference in the refractive indices. The
reflection becomes greater as the difference between the refractive indices of the two
media increases and as the angle of incidence becomes greater. If the surface is a
medium having a greater refractive index than the initial medium, the reflected light
will go through a phase shift of A/2 (180°).
This is the case, e.g. when a light beam passes from air into oil. The light that is
not reflected passes into the second medium. When passing into a medium with a
higher refractive index (oil), the speed of displacement of the light wave is reduced and
the transmitted light is refracted. The angle of refraction is related to the angle of
incidence according to Snell's law:
no sinao = nl sinal (2)
According to these conditions, the incident light beam is split into a reflected
portion and a transmitted portion (Fig. 3).
no
n1
Fig.3. Interaction of a light beam 10 at the interface of two homogeneous

and isotropic media. The beam is divided into two : the reflected
part R and the transmitted part T. In most cases, the refractive
index of the first medium (e.g. air, no= 1) is lower than the second
one (e.g. glass, n1=1.5). Thus, the transmitted beam is bent
towards the vertical Ca 1< a 0).
In the case of an oil stain on water, there will be reflection at the oil surface with a
phase change of A/2. The rest is transmitted and penetrates into the oil film (refrac-
tion). There is further reflection without any phase change at the oil/water interface.
The two reflected rays R" and R'" (see Fig. 4), coming from the same light source,
will interact and this is known as the interference phenomenon. The rays R" and R'"
differ by a half wavelength as a result of the phase shift. In addition, the detour of ray
R'" is 2.d.n (in case of a vertical angle of incidence). The product d.n is called the
optical path length.
129
10 R1 R2 R3 R4
T1 T2 T3
Fig. 4. Splitting of a light beam at the interface of thin layers.
Reflection has taken place on the two sides of the film. The individual
light portions of the reflected and transmitted beams RI' R2, R3 ... et T I,
T2, Tl ... interfere following their phases and intensities.
'p\Vrv·
l
I + - - le -------.J
2:-'1
2
fi\P.
Fig. 5. Phase shift of a sinusoidal wave by half a wavelength.
When the optical path difference results in the meeting of two crests of sinusoidal
waves, the two rays reinforce each other.
The conditions for constructive interference are
A=~~R nd=m~ (3)

2x + 1 4
where A = wavelength
d = thickness
n = refractive index of the particular medium
x=O,1,2,3, ...
m: order of interference
130
For these wavelengths, maximum reflection is observed, depending exclusively on the

refracti ve index n, of the platelet, where
( 2 2]2
R = n~ -n~ (4)
nl +nO
This is the well-known formula for the maximum reflection on the surface of a thin
film for an angle of incidence perpendicular to the surface of the film '. Normally the
refractive index of a solid film material is higher than the one of the environmental
medium surrounding it (n, > no). Table 1 shows the maximum intensities of the
reflected light for different substrates of thin films in air (no = 1):
Table 1 Maximum intensities of the reflected light for different substrates of thin
films in air
Ti0 2
Medium Water Glass BiOCl
Anatas Rutil
n, 1.33 1.5 2.15 2.3 2.7
R (%)
- .. .
7.7
_.
14.8
~.- 46.5 57.6
However, when a peak and dip are superimposed, the two rays cancel each other
out. Destructive interference takes place under the following conditions:
A = 4dn R A
nd=m- (5)
2x 2
R = (no - nl)2 (6)

no +nl
For these wavelengths the reflection of the thin film is reduced until R = O.
1 This formula must not be confused with the more popular Fresnei equation for the
reflection at a phase boundary of two "thick" media.
131
o 11: 211: 311: 411: o 11: 211: 311: 411:
Fig. 6 Phase correlation. The "interference" of electromagnetic waves of

the same wavelength leads to a geometrical sum of their amplitudes.
a) At a phase difference of one wavelength (;\=2TI ) the intensity is
increased: "constructive interference".
b) For a phase difference of half a wavelength there is interaction
and the intensity is reduced: "destructive interference". (;\/2=2TI )
If the materials of the thin films are non-absorbent, the apparent reflected colour
and that seen on transmission are respectively complementary (Meyers-Arendt, 1984;
Roman and Manfred, 1992).
6. Use of Interference Pigments for Films for Covering Greenhouses
By use of a combination of several thin films having different refractive indices, it is

possible to obtain more intense and brilliant colours. Thus systems of superimposed
thin films are used in many important optical applications covering the whole spectrum
from the ultra-violet to the long wave infra-red, such as for example anti-reflex
coatings on lenses (cameras, telescopes ... ), coatings for maximum reflection (laser
mirrors, driving mirrors, ... ) prisms... These multi-layer coatings can consist of up to
100 single layers having thickness precisely determined to give the required optical
characteristics. By comparison, the number of layers required to obtain useful effects
with pigments is far fewer. Many interference pigments are made up of only three
single non-absorbent layers including the central part of the pigments which serve as
the substrate.
These pigments consist of fine layers of mica which are coated with a thin layer of
Ti0 2 . The figure below (Fig. 7) shows the structure of the multi-layer system of the
pigments.
132
10
d,
d,
d,
Fig. 7 Cross-section of a m ica platelet coated with a thin layer ofTi0 2 .
The colour of these pigments is determined essentially by the thickness of the

coating of Ti0 2 . Fig. 8 illustrates this, the percentage of reflection (calculated) of the
system Ti0 2/micalTi0 2 is given for different thicknesses of Ti0 2 (perpendicular angle
of incidence). The intensity of the reflection is much higher (up to 70 %) than for
uncoated platelets - reflection 20 %).
100 .... a'

b
::!!.
o --c
- . d
~
c
J9o
Q)
<;::
Q)
0::
~
/.
o 400 500 600 700 800

Wavelength(nm)
Fig. 8 Reflection spectrum ofTi0 2 coated mica platelets in air (no=l) for
different optical thickness = of the Ti0 2 coating at 550 nm.
a) d, = 60 nm; (n,d = 114)
b) d, = 120 nm; (n,d = 112)
c) d, = 180 nm; (n,d = 3.1/4)
d) d, = 240 nm; (n,d = I)
By increasing the thickness of the coating one obtains not only different colours
(Fig. 9) but also an improvement in the intensity of the brilliance because the curves
for the minima and maxima are more compressed.
133
Fig. 9 The thickness of the coating ofTi0 2 determines the interference

colour. (by courtesy of Merck GmbH)
The interference effect is also inf1uenced by the angle of incidence (see Figs. 10
and 12). When looking with an angle of less than 30°, the spectrum does not vary
nearly as much as with larger angles of incidence. So, the thickness of the layer of
Ti0 2 has a greater effect than the angle of view on the colour of the pigment.
100~--------------------------~
60°
;ft. 45°
Q) 30°
u
c 15°
<1l
t3 0°
<l>
<0::
<l>
0::
O vv.F!!'v ,' ' s · ' v,·"<y' ' c \",

i , , t I i
JII.. -'[
I
400 500 600 700

Wavelength(nm)
Fig.IO The calculated reflection spectrum (calculated) for Ti0 2 coated mica platelets
in air (no= I) at different angles of view. The spectra does not change
considerably at deviations from the vertical up to about 30. (Thickness of
mica platelet: d 2 = 86 nm; thickness ofTi0 2 coating: d l = 180 nm).
It should be pointed out that the particles never have a precise thickness determined
to the nearest nanometric unit (there is always a particle size distribution due to
134
breakdown of natural mica) and this slightly reduces the specific interference effect
(Fig. 11). This produces a difference between the measured reflection spectra and the
calculated values.
Fig. II Structure of an interference pigment and reflection/transmission.

(by courtesy of Merck GmbH)
The interference effect is of course angle dependent. (see fig. 12)
100
90
80
"#.
C
0
·in
70
60 ~~~ - 9oo
. - - 80 0
..... 7oo
- - 6oo
.~ 50
E - . - 500
VI 40 4oo
c
~ 30 3oo
I- 200
20
10
0
350 450 550 650 750 850
Wavelength(nm)
Fig. 12 Transmission spectrum at different incidence angles.
The first commercial application of this technique concerned the reflection of a part
of the green and short infra-red for climate control. (Patented by Hyplast Belgium and
Merck Germany) (Maisch and Weigand, 1992; Verlodt et aI., 1995). But several
other interference films were tested for their influence on plant growth.
7. Preliminary Findings on Growth Influence
Several commercially available interference pigments were incorporated into films and
hung in growth chambers over chrysanthemums and cucumbers. In some cases a
15 % reduction in height at equal chlorophyll concentration could be established.
135
This test was followed by a large field test where big greenhouses were built with
different interference films. This time most of the tested films came out equal or
worst than the normal LDPE reference. Total plant height, (different) internodal
length of those films demonstrating equal or better fresh and dry weight was the same
as the reference within experimental error.
8. How to Make the Interference Effect More Selective?
It should be emphasized that many of the pigments used today are commercially
available pigments most of the time developed for aesthetic applications like lacquers,
cosmetics etc. We are talking here of a functional optical property that needs to be
precisely controlled. The precision of the individual layer thickness of these large
volume types is probably too coarse and their specific reflection a bit off the actually
needed one. In laboratory preparations Merck Germany has demonstrated to be able
to come closer to what is needed. But another problem remains the angle dependency
which in practice could mean different results depending on greenhouse orientation,
geographic location and roof slope.
9. Other Interference Effects Alternatives
There are however two other techniques that could be viable alternatives, namely
vapour deposition of metal oxides on a polymeric substrate or multiple extrusion of
different polymers in more and thinner layers. Both techniques are available, but
cannot produce large widths. The polymers used however have a high modulus and
lend themselves for slitting in small strips that can later be woven into screens (similar
to the shading screens on greenhouses). The beauty of the interference technique is
that as described above, once the refractive indices are known, you can calculate for a
given spectrum the layer thickness in relation to the amount of layers. Most pigment
suppliers today have computer programs to do that.
9.1 VAPOUR DEPOSITING.
We come across materials of this technique every day. The same process makes
metallisation on films of PET, PP and others. Metallised films are used in food
packaging for their excellent oxygen and aroma barrier. If a transparent film is
needed then silicium oxides are deposited as a discrete layer on the films but also other
oxides are possible. The layer thickness needed for food packaging seldom exceeds
136
one micron. In fig.I3 is a schematic representation of such a machine.
Unwind
station
To
high ...
vacuum,.
Metalized I"
film
To ...
high ,.
vacuum. ~ Non-
metalized
film
HeatinQ crucible Vaporized Cooling
contalnmg alumlnum aluminum drum
Fig. 13 Schematic representation of such a machine.

(by courtesy of Leybold GmbH)
For obtaining the right spectrum, several layers will be needed, so either a more
complicated machine with more depositors is needed or multiple passes. The future
will indicate whether this technique is commercially viable. Practical problems
encountered with vacuum depositing are adhesion of the layers and abrasion resistance
(a growth control screen will probably need to be movable).
9.2 MICRO LAYER EXTRUSION
This technique is developed in the US and is derived from flat-die coextrusion. Two or
more polymers are co extruded on top of each other but the melt stream is continuously
split in a black box system and extruded on top of itself. Already now in thicker sheet
several thousand layers are possible giving individual layer thickness well below one
micron equalling the wave length of the incident light. If one masters the amount of
layers and their thickness correctly, one can really make anything in terms of spectrum.
Yet it is easy to loose layers due to theological mismatch etc. Commercial
applications so far are in optical devices, since in this high number of layers total
reflectivity occurs passing by far what is possible with metallic mirrors. Others include
holograms, IR screens for heat insulation etc. In fig 14 a schematic set-up of the
machine is demonstrated.
This technique is so far not yet used to make photo-morphogenetic screens, but is
by far in terms of capital investment and raw material cost one of the cheapest with
enormous possibilities in terms of precise screening. Unfortunately none of the
137
companies involved has ever had contact with the agri-and horticultural world and
since everything is well patented, it remains to be seen what the cost will be should this
change.
Die
Polymer B
Multipliers
Fig. 14 Lay-out of a micro layer coextruder for 1313 layers.
10. Conclusion
Since a few years the plastic industry is trying very hard to find ways of providing
films and screens with transmission spectra that provoke influencing growth. It was
reali zed that matching nature ' s precision keeping all other factors constant is not an
easy task, but a lot was learned and generated new ideas as to how to achieve this.
Certain techniques like improved interference pigments already made it to the stage of
film production, whilst others are produced on a laboratory scale for optical screening.
11. Acknowledgement
1 would like to thank my former colleagues of Hyplast N.V., Mrs 1. Verlodt and Mr. P.
Verschaeren and Dr. M. Weigand of Merck Germany and his co-workers who for years
shared my enthusiasm in the technique of interference for agricultural films.
138
12. References
Billmeyer F.W. and Saltzman M. (1981) Principles of color technology, 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Hayer, D. (1962) Einfarben von Kunststoffen. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munchen.
Maisch R. and Weigand M. (1992) Perlglanz pigmenten, Physicalische Grundlagen,
Eigenschaften- anwendungen (Die Bibliothek der Technik, Band 56 ) - E. Merck.
Meyers-Arendt J.R.(1984) Introduction to classical and Modern Optics- second
edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
Verlodt 1., Verschaeren P. and Daponte T. (1995) Interference pigments for
greenhouse films. Plasticulture No.l 08, 1995/4.
GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY FOR SAVING THE EARTH IN THE 21ST
CENTURY
T. Kozai and C. Kubota

Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, Matsudo, Chiba 271 Japan
Y. Kitaya
College of Agriculture, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka, Japan
ABSTRACT. Greenhouse technology is expected to contribute significantly to solving

four global issues: a shortage of food, a shortage of fuel energy/natural resources,
environmental pollution and instability of various ecological systems. These tissues will
become increasingly critical in the early 21st century, when the world population is
predicted to reach nearly 10 billion. The use of greenhouses will increase considerably
in the 21 st century when they will be used producing large varieties and large numbers
of transplants, including forestry trees, food crops, industrial crops, bio-fuel plants, and
medicinal plants. Disease-free and genetically superior transplants produced in the
greenhouse generally give higher yields and show higher quality when transplanted into
the field. In order for greenhouses to contribute to solving the above global issues in
the next century, research on two important types of greenhouse technology is needed:
1) development of multi-functional, biodegradable film for greenhouse and plant
coverings, etc. in the subtropical and tropical regions, and 2) development of transplant
production systems that use artificial lighting.
1. Introduction
Four major global issues, namely, a shortage of food, a shortage of fuel energy/natural
resources, environmental pollution and instability of various ecosystems, will become
increasingly critical in the early 21 st century, when the world population is predicted to
reach nearly 10 billion. This article will discuss the benefits and key components of
greenhouse technology for solving these global issues.
In this century, commercial greenhouses have been widely used for growing
horticultural plants, such as ornamentals, vegetables and fruit trees, and thus, for
improving the quality oflife in many countries. On the other hand, the use of greenhouse
for producing transplants has recently been increasing and will continue to increase in
the 21st century. A large number of various transplants (seedlings and vegetatively
propagated plantlets) can be produced including the following: 1) trees for reforestation
and desert reclamation, such as Eucalyptus, acacia, pine and teak trees; 2) food crops,
such as potato, sweetpotato, banana and rice plants; 3) industrial crops such as palm
139
E. Goto et at. (eds.), Plant production in Closed Ecosystems, 139-152.

140
trees and sugar cane; 4) bio-fuel plants (plants which can be used as fuel after
processing); 5) ground cover plants; 6) medicinal plants; 7) horticultural plants; and 8)
plants used for phyto-remediation, i.e., the clean-up of environmental pollution through
the use of plants which have the ability to absorb toxic substances from their
surroundings.
Disease-free and genetically superior transplants produced in the greenhouse
generally give higher yields and show higher quality when transplanted into the field.
Thus, greenhouse-produced transplants are now used in large areas of forests, crop
fields and plantations, and the total area of fields with greenhouse-grown transplants has
been increasing rapidly worldwide. Greenhouse technology has wide applications and
impacts, and demonstrates great potential for helping to solve the global issues.
Greenhouse technology has also been applied to various fields such as controlled-
environment agriculture and plasticulture in open fields, plant-factory style plant
production indoors, bio-regenerative systems in space farming, and plant tissue culture
or micropropagation. Greenhouse technology should also be extended to monitor and
control the earth's environment. The earth's ecology is considered a closed system,
and has reached its critical growth stage, and needs to be monitored and controlled to
make it ecologically stable. Greenhouse researchers are expected to develop novel
greenhouse technology with a unified concept, approach and methodology as we enter
the 21 st century. Areas of greenhouse technology to be developed for the next century
include 1) multi-functional bio-films for use in SUbtropical and tropical regions, and 2)
transplant production systems with artificial lighting. In this article, future needs for
greenhouse technology in relation to global issues of the 21 st century are conceptually
discussed.
2. Definitions of Some Technical Terms
The technical terms frequently used in this article are defined below. Greenhouse
technology is defined as an advanced technology for plant production in closed
ecosystems. Closed ecosystems are ecological systems covered or partly covered with
films or other structural materials such as glass sheets and plastic nets. Structural
materials prevent free exchange of energy, mass and/or information between the inside
and outside of ecosystems. They are not completely closed ecosystems, but actually
semi-closed ecosystems. Likewise, closed plant production systems are plant
production systems covered with or partly covered with films or other structural
materials. Closed plant production systems include tissue culture vessels, plastic
tunnels, greenhouses, plant factories, and other similar closed ecosystems. Bio-fiIms are
films made of starch or other carbohydrates. After use, these films decompose to water
and carbon dioxide mainly by activities of microorganisms and/or light. Transplants are
defined as small plants which are ready for transplanting to the field or in the greenhouse,
and include seedlings, rooted cuttings, grafted plantlets and micro-propagated plantlets.
141
3. Increase in World Population and Associated Global Issues
The world population was nearly 6 billion in 1996. The annual increase is
approximately 100 million, so that the world population will reach approximately 9
billion by the year 2025. It should be noted that more than 90% of the world
population increase is occurring and will continue to occur in developing countries.
These countries are mostly in subtropical and tropical regions.
Rapid increase in the populations in subtropical and tropical regions will result in
increases in the following problems in the 21 st century (Ritkin, 1991; Meadows et at.,
1992; Yoda, 1993; Brown, 1994):
1) a shortage of food,
2) a shortage of artificial energy (fossil fuels and atomic energy) and water,
3) environmental pollution (or a shortage of recreational or amenity space and
natural resources), and
4) an instability of ecological systems.
During the past 20 years, consumption of artificial energy in East Asia increased by
4 times. The consumption of petroleum, natural gas and electricity in East Asia
increased 3 times, 9 times and 5 times, respectively. In Asia, 40 % of the people (650
million people) will live in urban areas in the year 2010, compared to 29% in 1996.
Due to the continuous expansion of urban areas and associated environmental pollution,
recreational space will steadily decrease with time. These global resource shortages of
food, artificial energy, water and recreational space associated with environmental
pollution will definitely lead to instability of the various ecosystems, ranging from small
greenhouses to the entire earth.
As the world population increases, the amounts of food, fossil fuel (petroleum,
natural gas, and coal), water and recreational area per person in the world will decrease.
At the beginning of this century, there was a relatively abundant supply of resources per
person. But, in the next century, there will be much less resources per person for food,
fuel, water and recreation. We should also realize that the space per person available
for food production decreases as the space per person for residential, industrial and
recreational use increases, and vice versa. Thus, we cannot solve each global problem
separately from other global problems. We must find novel concepts and technologies
to solve those global issues simultaneously
It is said that in the 21 st century the average person in the world will be allowed to
consume artificial energy at a rate of 1.5 kW. On the other hand, the consumption rate
in 1995 was 11 kW in USA, 5 kW in Japan, 0.8 kW in China and 0.1 kW in Bangladesh.
We should note that both artificial energy consumption per person and population will
increase steadily in Asian, African, and Latin and South American countries in the 21 st
century. Thus, the Japanese people, for example, will need to reduce their current
artificial energy consumption rate per person by 70% in the next century if they wish to
consume energy at the world average rate.
142
4. Solving Global Issues with Plants
Then, what can we do and what should we do to help solve these global issues with
greenhouse technology? A simple but important fact is that plants in nature have only
a few basic requirements for growth. Plants can grow with only light and inorganic
materials such as water, carbon dioxide and some minerals. In other words, plants can
grow photoautotrophically, namely by photosynthesis. We need to produce as much
food, bio-fuel and raw materials for industrial use as possible solely from plants, using
high quality transplants and minimum agrochemicals. By doing so, we can minimize
the consumption of fossil fuel and atomic energy for food production, and help preserve
the environment. In addition, by increasing the phytomass or the volume of
carbohydrates as mass of plants on the earth, we can lower the atmospheric CO 2
concentration and increase the recreational areas with a plenty of plants.
From sweetpotato and cassava plants, for example, we can produce food, bio-fuel
such as alcohol, starch, sugar, degradable bio-films, etc. Figure 1 shows the
sweetpotato production in the open field and in plastic tunnels in Japan. Sweetpotato
plants, which are originally tropical plants, will become one of the important 'multi-
purpose' crops in the subtropical and tropical countries in the 21st century. The
average yield of sweetpotato crops is the highest compared to other crops (Hill et al.,
1992). Less fertilizer and less water are required for growing sweetpotato plants than
for many other crops. Sweetpotato plants also have many advantages over other plants
in terms offactors such as nutrition and physiological characteristics.
Figure 1 Sweetpotato production in the open and under row tunnels

covered with perforated plastic films (photo taken at Miyazaki, Japan in
1995).
143
5. Potentials and Current Characteristics of Closed Plant Production Systems
Greenhouse technology can contribute to solving global issues in various ways. In this
article, however, only two subjects will be discussed. One is plant production in closed
ecosystems with the use of bio-films. The other is transplant production in closed
ecosystems with artificial lighting.
Closed plant production systems have the potential to:
1) efficiently use agrochemicals by minimizing emission of waste and recycling,
2) efficiently use most parts of the phytomass produced,
3) efficiently use solar, wind and thermal energy,
4) efficiently use insects (natural enemies and pollinators) and microorganisms,
and, 5) protect plants from environmental hazards such as heavy rain, strong wind,
excess solar radiation and extremes of temperature and humidity.
All of the above characteristics can be attributed to the fact that plants are grown in
a closed structure which restricts free exchange of energy and materials. Considering
these characteristics of closed plant production systems, 'passive' plastic greenhouses
using 'multi-functional' bio-films should be cost-effective and will be suitable for wide
use in tropical and subtropical regions. In these regions, greenhouse heating using fossil
fuel is not necessary even in the coldest season of the year. A Passive greenhouse
means a greenhouse with minimum use of fossil fuel or other artificial energy. Multi-
functional film is film which serves many functions. These films will aid in efficient use
of resources and control of the environment in closed plant production systems.
As stated above, requirements of closed plant production systems or greenhouses
for tropical and subtropical countries are substantially different from those for northern
climates such as The Netherlands. Recently, a new type of greenhouse has been
introduced to Japan from Italy (Figure 2). With this greenhouse, the roof ventilators
can be fully opened to their vertical positions when the outside climate is more favorable
than the one inside. This type of greenhouse, preferably covered with multi-functional
film, seems to be practical in regions where the summers are hot.
Although closed production systems have many potential beneficial qualities,
current systems, especially closed systems for commercial plant production in northern
or temperate climates, are often characterized by:
1) excessive or inefficient use of fossil fuel,
2) excessive residue and waste from agrochemicals and plastics,
3) frequent occurrence of disease due to pests and environmental stresses, and
4) high initial and operational costs.
If closed plant production systems with the above characteristics are used
worldwide in the 21 st century, they will add to the global problems, rather than solving
them. We need to develop closed plant production systems which efficiently use
agrochemicals, phytomass, natural energy, beneficial insects and microorganisms, and
prevent plants from environmental hazards.
144
Figure 2 A glass greenhouse with the roof ventilators vertically opened

(Photo taken in Atsumi, Japan in 1996).
6. Bio-fiIm
In the 21st century, multi-functional bio-films will be used widely as covering material to
protect plants from environmental hazards, pests and diseases in subtropical and tropical
regions. The current technology for making bio-films has not matured yet, but it will
be developed more fully by the early 21 st century. Many private and public
organizations are making great efforts to develop such films for commercial use, and
there is potential for significant advances in the current technology.
The bio-films should be multi-functional, for example, in the following manner:
1) transmitting less light under hot or sunny environments, and more light under
cold or cloudy conditions,
2) permitting a high rate of air exchange between the inside and outside of the
structure under sunny environments to enhance air movement inside the structure, and
to maintain the CO2 concentration inside the structure close to the atmospheric CO 2
concentration (350 /lmol mor'),
3) transmitting more water vapor under high humidity environments and less water
vapor under low humidity conditions,
4) keeping beneficial insects and microorganisms contained inside the structure,
and preventing harmful pests from entering the structure, and,
5) protecting plants from heavy rain, strong wind, and other environmental hazards.
Figure 3 shows a small tunnel covered with unwoven plastic film. This type of film
with a high air exchange rate is widely used for various purposes in Japan and other
countries for growing plants. This film is mainly used as covering material for tunnels
and floating mulches, but can also be used as covering material for greenhouses. If we
can produce a similar but more multi-functional bio-film, its contribution to solving the
global issues will be significant.
145
Figure 3 A small tunnel covered with unwoven plastic film having high air
permeability and light transmissivity. This type of tunnel can be a prototype
of a simple closed production system covered with multi-functional bio-film
for use in subtropical and tropical regions.
7. Global Needs for Transplants
An increasing number of transplants is needed throughout the world for solving the
global problems, and we urgently need to develop large-scale and automated transplant
production systems with or without artificial lighting (Kurata and Kozai, 1992).
Currently, most transplants are grown under natural light, with micropropagated
transplants being a notable exception.
Millions of micropropagated pine tree transplants for reforestation are grown by
tissue culture and acclimatized in greenhouse before being transferred to the field. These
plants are grown commercially in New Zealand and in other countries. This culture
method is cost-effective, and therefore, commercial use of micropropagated pine tree
transplants is expanding. Millions of sweetpotato cuttings, whose mother plants were
micropropagated, are harvested as transplants in the greenhouse (Figure 4). By using
micropropagated mother plants, we can improve the quality and tuber yield by 30-50%.
Figure 5 shows sweetpotato transplants raised from micro propagated plantlets. These
transplants will be used for production of leafy cuttings in the greenhouse. For solving
the global problems, however, we need to develop much larger and more reliable
transplant production systems.
146
Figure 4 Production of sweetpotato cuttings in the greenhouse with a

hydroponic system. The cuttings with 5-6 unfolded leaves are used as
transplants for use in the field. (Photo taken at Miyazaki, Japan in 1995).
Figure 5 Micropropagated sweetpotato plantlets to be used as nursery

stocks for production of cuttings. (photo taken at Mie, Japan in 1996).
8. Transplant Production under Artificial Light
Theoretically, transplants need relatively small amounts of light energy to grow, and the
cost of artificial lighting should only be a small fraction of total production costs.
147
However, in current transplant production systems with artificial lighting, the cost of
artificial lighting is significant, because only a small fraction of light energy emitted from
the light source is received by the transplants. In other words, the light energy required
for raising transplants can be reduced substantially if (1) most of the light emitted from
the lamps is intercepted by chlorophyllous parts of the transplants (rather than by the
wall, floor, benches and other structural components of the closed plant production
system) and (2) the lamp has the optimal spectral distribution for growth so that energy
is not wasted in producing wavelenghts oflight that do not participate in photosynthesis.
Transplant production with efficient artificial lighting should be more cost-effective
than that with solar light. In the 21st century, more and more transplants will be
produced under artificial light in closed, factory-style production systems. Closed
transplant production systems equipped with efficient artificial lighting units should
minimize energy and material consumption, and thus minimize environmental pollution.
In order to prevent the earth from the potential global problems of the 21 st century, it is
anticipated that greenhouse researchers will develop such transplant production systems.
F or transplant production in closed ecosystems, the advantages of artificial lighting
over solar lighting include:
1) efficient control of transplant environment, especially light environment, and
thus transplant growth and morphology,
2) more efficient use of space by using shelves for multi-layered plant production,
and
3) facilitated production of disease-free and high quality transplants.
Under controlled environments with artificial lighting, we can measure and control
the rates of net photosynthesis and transpiration of plug seedlings and leafy cuttings
relatively easily. Kim et al. (1996) developed a special-purpose wind tunnel with an
artificial lighting system. Their results can be used as a basis for studies of optimal
environmental control in transplant production with artificial lighting.
9. Important Research SUbjects Related to Transplant Production with Artificial Lighting
Important research subjects to be investigated for improving the current transplant

production systems with artificial lighting include:
1) development of light sources and lighting systems,
2) development of reliable methods for measurement and control of air flow around
transplants, which is known significantly influence transpiration, photosynthesis and
growth of transplants,
3) photoautotrophic or sugar-free micropropagation. This is a micropropagation
system in which no sugar is supplied in the medium. With this method, healthy
micropropagated plantlets can be produced at low cost.
4) low temperature storage (several weeks to a few months) of transplants to
facilitate meeting demand with supply.
148
9.1. LIGHT SOURCES AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Recently, new light sources and lighting systems have been developed for use in plant
production with artificial lighting. Some examples are:
1) microwave-powered lamps (MacLennan et al., 1995),
2) light emitting diodes (Bula et al., 1995),
3) diffusive optical fibers (Kozai et al., 1995), and
4) sideward lighting systems (Kozai et al., 1995)
A microwave-powered lamp recently developed by an American company consists
of a spherical bulb containing sulfur gas, magnetron, and power supply unit. The
magnetron generates microwave energy. The microwave energy is absorbed by the
spherical bulb. Then, the spherical bulb emits strong plasmatic visible light. This
lamp has many advantages over conventional lamps for use in artificial lighting of plants
and will be commercially available in 1997.
The price of red and blue light emitting diodes has decreased recently. Several
research groups are conducting extensive research on the application of red and blue
light emitting diodes for transplant production with artificial light in the 21st century.
Light emitting diodes can be effectively used for controlling photosynthetic and
photomorphological responses of plants. Light emitting diodes will be widely used as a
light source for transplants.
Diffusive optical fiber
Figure 6 Schematic diagram of a prototype of a sideward lighting system with

diffusive optical fibers for use in micropropagation (Kozai et al. , 1995).
High quality transplants with short and thick stems can be obtained if light is
supplied from the sides, not downward from the top. Figure 6 shows a prototype of a
sideward lighting system using diffusive optical fibers, developed for use in
micropropagation. With this system, thermal radiation is removed by the thermal filter
and only photosynthetically active radiation is supplied through the optical fibers to the
149
culture vessels containing plants. Growth and morphology of potato plantlets cultured
in the culture vessel were much improved with sideward lighting than with downward
lighting (Kozai et al., 1995). Figure 7 shows a plant growth chamber equipped with
diffusive optical fibers for lighting micropropagated plants evenly. With this growth
chamber, plant tissue culture vessels can be stacked vertically, so that space utilization
efficiency of the growth chamber is improved.
Figure 7 A plant growth chamber with diffusive optical fibers for lighting in
micropropagation (Kozai et al., 1995).
9.2. PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC MICROPROPAGATION
In this article, photoautotrophic micropropagation means micropropagation using

culture medium without sugar. In this case, the plants in the culture vessels grow solely
by photosynthesis. In conventional micropropagation or plant tissue culture, sucrose is
supplied to the culture medium and the growth of the plantlets is dependent on the
presence of sugar in the culture medium. The advantages of photoautotrophic
micropropagation over conventional, sugar-dependent micropropagation can be
summarized as follows (Aitken-Christie et al., 1995):
1) enhanced growth and development of plantiets in the culture vessel,
2) no or minimum acclimatization is required,
3) lower loss ofplantiets due to microbial contamination of the culture medium,
4) scale-up and automation is much easier because a much larger culture vessel
with minimum risk of contamination can be used.
As shown in Figure 8, the growth of rose plantiets was much greater in a culture
150
medium containing no sucrose than in the culture medium containing 2% sucrose under
CO2 enriched and high light intensity conditions (Hayashi et al., 1993).
In photoautotrophic micropropagation, we can use a large culture vessel or a
culture box, instead of test tubes, flasks or small jars. Figure 9 shows a
photo autotrophic micropropagation box (50 cm wide, 1 meter long and 40 cm high)
with a CO 2 enrichment system (Kirdmanee et al., 1995).
Figure 8 Rose plantlets micropropagated on a culture medium with 2%

sucrose (right) and without sucrose (left) under CO 2 enriched and high light
intensity conditions (Hayashi et a!., 1993).
Figure 9 A photo autotrophic micropropagation box with a CO 2

enrichment system (Kirdmanee et al., 1996).
151
9.3. LOW TEMPERATURE STORAGE OF TRANSPLANTS UNDER DIM LIGHT
For large scale production of transplants, it is essential to establish a system whose

supply can meet the demand with the supply. This is usually done by keeping the
transplants in total darkness at a low temperature for a few weeks. Heins et al. (1992)
found that seedling plugs were better stored under dim light than in total darkness at low
temperatures. Kubota and Kozai (1995) showed that low temperature storage under
dim light was effective also for plantlets in a culture vessel. It was shown that a
decrease in dry weight and chlorophyll concentration of broccoli plantlets in the culture
vessel were more suppressed under dim light than under total darkness.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to Ms. Nancy K. Okamura of The University of Tokyo for her
valuable comments and English correction.
References
Aitken-Christie J et al. (eds.) (1995) Automation and environmental control in plant
tissue culture. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 574p.
Brown L (1994) Full House, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, USA, 256p.
Bula R et al. (1995) Light emitting diodes as a plant lighting source. Proc.
of International Lighting in Controlled Environments Workshop, Madison,
Wisconsin, USA, 255-267.
Hayashi M et al. (1993) Photoautotrophic micropropagation of rose plantlets under
CO 2 enriched conditions. SHITA Journal 4(2): 107-110.
Heins RD et al. (1992) Low-temperature storage of bedding-plant plugs (In: Transplant
Production Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands),
45-64.
Hill WA et al. (eds.) (1992) Sweetpotato technology for the 21st century, Tuskegee
University, Tuskegee, USA, 6-7p.
Kim YH et al. (1996) Design of a wind tunnel for plug seedlings production under
artificial lighting, Acta Horticulturae (Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems) (in
press).
Kirdmanee C et al. (1995) Effects of CO 2 enrichment and supporting material in vitro
on photoautotrophic growth of Eucalyptus plantlets in vitro and ex vitro. In Vitro
Cell Dev. Biol.-Plant, 31:144-149.
Kozai T et al. (1995) Use of diffusive optical fibers for plant lighting. Proc.
ofInternational Lighting in Controlled Environments Workshop, Madison,
Wisconsin, USA, 325-336.
Kubota C and Kozai T (1995) Low temperature storage of transplants at the light
compensation point: air temperature and light intensity for growth suppression and
quality preservation. Scientia Horticulturae 61: 193-204.
152
Kurata K and Kozai T (eds.) (1992) Transplant Production Systems, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 299p.
MacLennan DA et al. (1995) Efficient, full-spectrum, long-lived, non-toxic microwave
lamp for plant growth. Proc. oflnternational Lighting in Controlled Environments
Workshop, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, 243-254.
Meadows DH et al. (1992) Beyond the limits, Chelesea Green Publishing Company,
Vermont, USA, 376p.
Rifkin J (1991) Biosphere Politics, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, 386p.
Yoda N (ed.) (1993) Trilemma (in Japanese), Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, Japan,
270p.
RECENT ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENT CONTROL IN MICROPROPAGATION
C. Kubota, K. Fujiwara, Y. Kitaya', and T. Kozai

Chiba University
Department ofBioproduction Science
Matsudo, Chiba 271, Japan
'Current address: Osaka Prefecture University
Dept. ofRegional Environmental Science, Sakai, Osaka 593, Japan
ABSTRACT. Micropropagation has been an important method for producing a great

number of nursery plantlets/transplants used in agriculture, forestry, and horticulture.
Recent research has shown that controlling environment is important for producing high
quality plantlets with efficient use of energy. In this article, we discuss recent topics in
environment control in rnicropropagation. The first sections in this article include
control and measurement of in vitro environment, where their effects on plantlet growth
and morphology are summarized. In later sections including, recent topics such as
low-temperature storage and mathematical modeling and simulation of in vitro growth
are introduced.
1. Introduction
The effects of the in vitro environment on rnicropropagated plantlets have been

investigated for the past 10 years. The importance of controlling environment in
closed ecosystems in vitro has been recognized, and fundamental data have been
obtained for many environmental factors affecting the growth, morphology, and
photosynthetic ability of the plantlets cultured in vitro. The in vitro environment and
its effects are well reviewed by Kozai et al. (1992c) and Fujiwara and Kozai (1995b).
They have discussed the gas, light, water, and temperature environment inside the vessel.
In this chapter, we present a reorganization of this information, incorporating recent
findings and developments by our group in environment control in rnicropropagation.
The recent topics introduced in this article are C02 concentration profiles and air current
inside the vessel during the photoperiod, low-temperature storage of plantlets under dim
light, and mathematical modeling and simulation of CO 2 concentration inside the vessel
and the growth of plantlets.
153
E. Golo et al. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 153-169.

154
2. Control of In Vitro Environment for Mass Production of Quality Plantlets
2.l. COMPARISON OF GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF SEEDLINGS AND PLANTLETS

AS AFFECTED BY IN VITRO ENVIRONMENT
In vitro-grown plantlets have long been considered to have little photosynthetic ability
and therefore not to respond to physical environments in the same way as ex vitro plants.
This preconception can be easily validated simply by comparing the responses of in
vitro-derived plantlets and seedlings of the same species to the same environments.
Kozai et al. (1990b) reported that the CO 2 - photosynthesis response curve of
Cymbidium plantlets in vitro was similar to that of the same species grown outside.
The growth of plantlets and seedlings in vitro was shown to be substantially the same
under the same in vitro environment conditions for Brassica campestris (Kozai et aI.,
1991b) and for tobacco (Kozai et al, 1990a). In both reports, growth was promoted
under increased levels of CO 2 and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). These
results clearly showed that the low growth rates of in vitro plantlets are due to the
unfavorable environment conditions in the vessel (i.e. low CO 2 concentration, low PPFD,
and high relative humidity (RH)).
2.2. CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION, PPFD, AND MEDIUM SUCROSE

CONCENTRATION
Elevated CO 2 concentration and PPFD have often been used for growth promotion,
especially under photoautotrophic (sugar-free) culture conditions. Effects of CO 2
concentration and PPFD on the photoautotrophic/photomixotrophic growth of plantlets
have been well summarized by Fujiwara and Kozai (1 995b). Photoautotrophic
micropropagation has been successful in a number of plant species. Photoautotrophic
micropropagation has a number of advantages such as growth promotion and reduced
contamination, as summarized in Kozai et al. (1992c). Kirdmanee et al. (1995a,
1995b) demonstrated that CO 2 enrichment significantly increased photoautotrophic
growth and net photosynthetic rate (NPR) of Eucalyptus plantlets in vitro, as well as the
survival percentage and the subsequent growth ofplantlets ex vitro.
Exogenous sugar added in the medium has been considered as a main carbon source
for the growth of cells, buds, shoots, or even plantiets. However, sugar in the medium
has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis, and thus elimination of sugar has been found
to promote photosynthesis of plantlets. The effects of sugar in the medium are well
described by Desjardins et al. (1995). Fujiwara et al. (1995) showed that the
contribution of gross production by photosynthesis to the dry weight increase of potato
plantiet for the 20-day culture period was greater than that of carbohydrate uptake from
the medium even at 350 ~mol mor! CO 2 concentration (ambient level). This means
that the growth of plantlets is more dependent on photosynthesis and, therefore,
promotion of photosynthesis by environment control is most effective means for
obtaining maximum growth rates of the plantlets. De Riek et al. (1991) discussed the
155
carbon metabolism and carbon flow of in vitro cultures and estimated the portions of
photosynthesis and sugar taken up from the medium in the growth of cultures based on
the measurement using two labeled substrates, 14C-sucrose and 14C02.
2.3. TRANSITION FROM HETEROTROPHY TO PHOTOAUTOTROPHY VIA

PHOTOMIXOTROPHY
Although photoautotrophic micropropagation has been successful for a number of

species, and enhanced growth and NPR, and improved survival rates in acclimatization
stages has been reported, there remains the question of when or in which stage to initiate
photoautotrophic culture conditions.
Kirdmanee et al. (1992) examined the photoautotrophic multiplication ofCymbidium
protocorm-like bodies (PLB). The multiplication rate ofPLB under photoautotrophic
conditions was comparable to that under photomixotrophic conditions. However, dry
weight was more enhanced under photomixotrophic conditions than under
photo autotrophic conditions. NPR under various CO2 concentrations indicated that
NPR was saturated at a CO2 concentration between 10 and 20 mmol mOrl . This high
CO2 saturation of NPR is probably due to a high CO2 diffusion resistance of the PLB
caused by poorly developed anatomical structures for CO2 fixation. Stomatal density,
chlorophyll concentration, and thus NPR per gram dry weight were significantly greater
under photoautotrophic conditions than under photomixotrophic conditions. Adelberg
et al. (1995) examined the effects of sucrose, light, and CO2 on the growth and NPR of
shoot buds of triploid melon in the multiplication stage .
."
Gross photosynthesis -----.
:::- Trophic phases
u CO, exchange ---~
(1) Completely sugar dependent phase
(2) Dominantly sugar dependent-
c
E negative CO, balance phase
!! (3) Dominantly sugar dependent··
a ,... Sugar exchange positive CO, balance phase
1l (4) Dominantly CO, depcndent phase
"c-
"a
Cl) A: Photosynthesis starting point
B: CO, balance tuOling point
"ii:< C: Isoquant point of CO, and
"
. ~
sugar exchanges
Cl --~ .
t I) t2l (3) (4)
Figure 1. Conceptional changes in daily rates of CO2 exchange, gross

photosynthesis, and sugar exchange and a classification system of trophic phases
of chlorophyllous cultures in vitro (Fujiwara et al., 1990).
The number of shoot buds and dry weight were enhanced in a medium with sucrose,
high PPFD and enriched CO 2. The NPR of buds showed a transition of negative to
positive values through the 20 day culture period.
156
Reo et al. (1996) reported that the early growth of Cymbidium shoots during the
shoot elongation stage of PLB largely depended on sugar in the medium. Once the
leaves were developed, Cymbidium shoots could grow photoautotrophically and high
CO2 in conjunction with high PPFD significantly increased the growth rate. These data
agree with those reported by Miyashita et al. (1996) showing that photoautotrophic
growth in vitro of potato explants varied with their initial leaf area and stem length.
Photoautotrophic growth was much greater in leaty than in leafless explants. These
results indicated that the use of explants with a large leaf area was important for
maximizing photoautotrophic growth of explants in vitro.
The transition to the photoautotrophic phase from the heterotrophic phase via
photomixotrophic phase is observed in the form of changes in the carbon balance of in
vitro cultures. Monitoring CO2 exchange rates of in vitro cultures is a simple approach
for determining the transition in carbon balance of the cultures. As shown by Fujiwara
et al. (1990), the critical point where the CO 2 exchange rate turns from negative to
positive values can be obtained as a CO 2 balance turning point shown in Fig. 1.
Changes in sugar exchange rate and gross photosynthetic rate, both of which are also
important values for determining carbon balance and trophic phases, are shown in Fig. 1.
The time course of the daily CO2 exchange rate of potato single node cuttings in vitro
was measured at varied sucrose concentrations in the medium (Fujiwara et al., 1992).
The CO2 exchange rate was negative and turned to positive after several days of culture.
The critical points of CO2 exchange rate varied with sugar concentration of the medium.
The potato single node cuttings used in this experiment predominantly depended on
sucrose in the culture medium before the CO2 balance turned to positive. Failure to
achieve growth promotion by controlling in vitro environment would probably due to a
lack of understanding of the fact that the in vitro environment should be controlled
according to the trophic phases of the cultures.
2.4. MEDIUM COMPOSITION AND SUPPORTING MATERIAL
Nutrient media commonly used in conventional micropropagation may not be entirely

suitable for cultures grown under photo autotrophic conditions. Kozai et al. (1988)
demonstrated that photo autotrophic growth of carnation plantlets was more enhanced
on a medium with a hydroponics composition Enshi than with a conventional tissue
culture composition MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). Optimization of basal medium
composition would be needed for· photoautotrophic micropropagation. Aitken-
Christie et al. (1992) also found that the conventional medium composition did not
necessarily provide the best results for photoautotrophic micropropagation of Pinus
radiata.
Kozai et al. (1991a) examined changes in nutrient composition of the medium and
reported that the uptake ofP, N0 3, Ca, Mg, and K ions by the strawberry plantlets was
greatest under photo autotrophic and CO 2 enriched conditions. The residual percent of
P in the medium was only 3% at the end of 21-day culture period under the
157
photo autotrophic and CO 2 enriched conditions. This low P concentration for the latter
part of the culture period should suppress photosynthesis and, thus, growth of plantlets.
The phosphorus limitation of photosynthesis of in vitro plantlets is discussed below.
In experiments reported by Yang et al. (1992, 1995b), the medium NHt / N03 ratio,
medium composition, and its strength affected photo autotrophic growth of carnation,
potato, and strawberry plantlets in vitro.
Gelled media provide several advantages for plantlets such as good physical contact
with a nutrient medium; however, they are often cited as growth inhibitors. Fujiwara et
al. (1993) measured the O2 diffusion coefficient of the agar gelled media and found that
agar at a concentration of 8 g rl decreased the O2 diffusion coefficient to about 50% of
that without agar (liquid medium). Rooting of rose cuttings was enhanced remarkably
on gelled media with a continuous O2 supply into the medium to increase the dissolved
oxygen level (Fujiwara et aI., 1994). Kirdmanee et al. (1995a) examined alternative
supporting materials (Gelrite matrix, plastic net or vermiculite) for photo autotrophic
growth of Eucalyptus plandets in vitro. Growth, NPR, and ex vitro survival
percentage were greatest in the vermiculite, followed by the plastic net, Ge1rite matrix
and agar matrix (in descending order). Takazawa and Kozai (1992) demonstrated that
growth and morphology of carnation plandet were largely affected by combinations of
vessel and supporting material. The combination of the culture vessels with a high
number of air exchanges per hour and the fibrous supporting materials promoted the
growth of carnation plantlets in vitro.
2.5. RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The effects of RH on the growth, morphology, NPR, and transpiration rate of plantlets
have been well reviewed by Kozai et al. (1992c) and Fujiwara and Kozai (1995b).
Kitaya et al. (1994) examined the effects of RH on the ion uptake rates and growth of
potato plantlets. Plantlets grown in the lowest RH (81 %) transpired 50% more water
and absorbed 20-50% more ions than in higher RH treatments (88 or 96%) per unit
weight of dry matter production. The dry weight of the plantlets at 81 % RH was 20%
smaller than that at 88% or 96% RH. The stern length increased with increasing RH.
Relative humidity in conjunction with PPFD are important environmental factors in
acclimatization stage. Kirdmanee et al. (1995b) demonstrated a rapid acclimatization
of Eucalyptus plantlets by controlling PPFD and RH. They found that one-day
acclimatization ex vitro under either high PPFD with high RH or low PPFD with low
RH reduced the extent of leaf damage and chlorophyll damage. These resulted in high
NPR and consequently contributed to high growth rates and high survival percentage of
the plantlets in ex vitro culture. High PPFD with high RH appears to contribute to
maintaining high NPR while avoiding excessive transpiration.
2.6. AIR TEMPERATURE
Kozai et al. (1996b) reported the optimum temperature range for photo autotrophic
growth of sweetpotato plandets. Temperature optimization would be necessary for
158
photo autotrophic micropropagation of individual species. Kozai et al. (1992b)

demonstrated a drastic reduction in potato shoot length when the air temperature was
lower in the photoperiod than in the dark period. The shoot length of plantlets was
controlled without reducing the increments of weight and leaf area per plantlet by
regulating the difference between photoperiod and dark period temperatures (DIP).
This method was originally developed for greenhouse plant production by Heins et al.
(1988). Watanabe et al. (1993) examined the effects of DIP (DIP = -9, 0, or 9) under
different photoperiods on the shoot elongation and growth of plantlets. Three different
photoperiod/dark-period settings (16/8 h, 12/12 h and 8/16 h) were used. The
integrated PPFD was set at the same value for all treatments by changing the incidental
PPFD accordingly. The DIP did not affect dry weight. However, stem length was
enhanced with increasing DIP. The results suggest that although there are species
differences, the dry weight and morphology of in vitro plantlets can be regulated using
photoperiod, light intensity and temperature difference between the photo- and dark-
periods under photoautotrophic culture conditions.
2.7. LIGHTING CYCLE, DIRECTION, AND LIGHT QUALITY
2.7.1. Lighting cycle. Although the lighting cycle can be changed with artificial light,
the 24-hour cycle is still the most common lighting cycle in micropropagation. Based
on the first observation of the growth promotion by a shorter lighting cycle reported by
Morini et al. (1990), Hayashi et al. (1993) examined the effects of the 24-, 6-, 1.5-, and
0.375-hour lighting cycles on growth and morphology of potato plantlets cultured
photoautotrophically. The ratio of the photoperiod to the dark period was 2: 1 in all
the treatments, which gave the same integrated PPFD for 24 hours. Dry and fresh
weights per plantlet were greater at shorter lighting cycles than at longer lighting cycles.
In their subsequent report, Hayashi et al. (1995) clearly showed that the lighting cycle
affected the time courses of the difference in CO2 concentration between inside and
outside the vessel and the daily CO2 exchange rates of the plantlets. Shorter lighting
cycles resulted in a higher average CO2 concentration during the photoperiod, the CO 2
exchange rate, and thus dry weight increase of the plantlets.
2.7.2. Lighting direction Hayashi et al. (1994) examined the lighting from the side of
plantlets (sideward lighting) and showed a number of advantages of sideward lighting,
including a reduction of shoot length, an increase in dry weight due to an increase in the
amount of light available to plantlets, and a more efficient use of culture space.
Sideward lighting reduced the relative consumption of electricity for lighting by
shortening the culture period and produced quality plantlets with thick stems of reduced
length. Kitaya et al. (1995a) investigated the individual effect of light intensity and
lighting direction. Photo autotrophic growth and morphological characteristics of
159
potato plantlets cultured in vitro with sideward lighting were compared with those
cultured with conventional downward lighting at four different PPFD ranging between
30 and 120 Ilmol m-2 S-I. Shoot length of potato plantlets was shorter in the sideward
lighting treatment than in the downward lighting treatment regardless of PPFD. Dry
weight, fresh weight and leaf area of the plantlets increased with increasing PPFD to
about 90 IlmOI m-2 S-I, and then leveled off. This low saturation ofPPFD was probably
due to the low CO 2 concentration inside the vessel.
2.7.3. Light quality The effects of light quality in tissue culture have been well
reviewed by Economou and Read (1987). Under photoautotrophic conditions, effects
of red and far-red light from light emitting diodes (LED) on potato plantlets were
reported by Miyashita et al. (1994, 1995). Shoot length in the treatments increased
with increasing red region of the photon flux density to PPFD ratio (RIPPFD). Red
light affected the morphology rather than the growth of potato plantlets in vitro. Shoot
length increased with increasing far-red region of the photon flux density to PPFD ratio.
Shoot elongation was also enhanced under supplemental far-red light for Eucalyptus
plantlets (Kirdmanee et aI., 1993).
3. Measurement of In Vitro Environments
3.1. CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION
Diurnal changes in CO 2 concentration in

the vessel have been measured by several
researchers and well reviewed by s ol Lid
Fujiwara and Kozai (1995b), where the s
20
first study dealing with the changes in ]
CO 2 concentration was cited as that by ~ 40
.c
....
Fournioux and Bessis (1986). However, e
Cl
60
~ 80 r 140 80 50
the distribution of CO 2 inside the vessel,
20
caused by high CO 2 diffusion resistance,
is not well understood. Kozai et al. =loot PPFD
tl
(1996a) measured CO 2 distribution inside
the vessel as affected by PPFD and CO 2
Q 120 0 100 200 300 400
CO2 concentration inside the vessel
concentration outside the vessel. They [jlmolmo}-lj
found that the CO 2 concentration inside
the vessel decreased linearly with
decreasing distance to the plantlets during Figure 2. Effect ofPPFD on CO2 concentration
the photoperiod (Fig. 2). This means that profile inside a test tube type of vessel containing a
the diffusion resistance of the air inside sweetpotato plantlet (Kozai et al., 1996a).
the vessel is high. The diffusion rate of
CO 2 from the air to the plantlet during the
160
photoperiod is, therefore, restricted both by the high diffusion resistance of the vessel lid
and by the high diffusion resistance of the inside air. These results suggest that
enhancing air movement inside the vessel would increase gas exchange rates of the
plantlets and, thus, growth of the plantlets. In situ measurement techniques of NPR
based on the CO2 concentrations inside and outside of the vessel, as described by
Fujiwara et al. (1987), may need to be reexamined with the distribution of the CO 2
concentration.
3.2. TEMPERATURE PROFILES AND AIR CURRENT INSIDE THE VESSEL
The temperature difference between the inside and outside of the vessel is recognized as
to be 1 to 2 QC during the photoperiod under conventional culture conditions.
However, it has not been well known the temperature distribution inside the vessel as
affected by outside environment conditions such as PPFD, and the fact that the
temperature differences provide the driving force for air convection inside the vessel.
Kitaya et al. (1995c) and Ohmura et al. (1995) visualized air currents inside the vessel
and showed the air current patterns and speeds as affected by short-wave radiation flux
density, short-wave absorptivity of the medium, plantlet size, and vessel type. Fine
particles of metaldehyde were introduced in vessels as tracers and video-captured
images of the two dimensional
movement of tracers were analyzed.
In the vessels under a short-wave
radiation flux density of 10 to 30 W
25, 1 'I--------------~
m-2, downward air currents were MSA: 44% MSA: 97%
observed along the inside walls of the s
5'0 20
vessel and upward air currents were ......
observed in the central region of the ~ 15
vessel, regardless of the vessel type. c...
'-
Plantlet size affected air current B 10
'-
patterns and speeds. The examined 'GO

'-
short-wave absorptivity of the '0

'-
medium was 44% for agar medium "::: Q.,
and 97% for agar medium containing ;J oI 1 LI-.l_.L..L_L....L-..J.......J
o 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
activated charcoal. The upward
current speed was increased with Short-wave radiation flux (W m")
increasing short-wave radiation flux
density and short-wave absorptivity of
the medium (Fig. 3). Under a short-
Figure 3. Upward air current speed inside a box-
wave radiation flux density of 34 W type polycarbonate vessel as affected by short-wave
m-2, the upward air current speed in radiation flux, air current speed outside the vessel,
the culture vessel was about 4 times and medium short-wave absorptivity (MSA, %)
greater with 1.0 m S-l air current (Ohmura et al., 1995). Air current speed outside the
speed around the culture vessel than vessel was 1.0 (e) or 0.1 (_) mm S-I.
161
with 0.1 m S·I. The air current inside the culture vessel is almost free convection
induced by the difference in the density between a parcel of air and its surrounding air at
a given location inside the culture vessel. The difference in the density of air is due to
the temperature differences. The small air current speeds and, thus, small diffusion of
carbon dioxide and water vapor limit photosynthetic and transpiration rates of the
plantlets.
Charcoal was reported to have positive effects on photo autotrophic growth of Pinus
radiata shoots (Aitken-Christie et al., 1992). Enhanced air currents with increased
short-wave absorptivity of the medium by adding charcoal have the potential to enhance
growth, but this remains to be shown.
4. Environment Control System Developed for In-Vitro or Ex-Vitro Culture

Stages
Environment control systems developed for micropropagation include an acclimatization

unit developed by Hayashi and Kozai (1987). The acclimatization unit controls
temperature, humidity of the air, light intensity, CO 2 concentration, air flow rate, and
temperature of the nutrient solution on the basis of acclimatization curves giving the
diurnal changes magnified gradually towards the target environment conditions. This
strategy of control may be applicable for any stages of micropropagation, when the
environmental set point needs to be changed. Dynamic control of the in vitro
environment, where feedback from plantlet responses defines next variables, may
contribute to improving energy efficiency, especially during the transition period from
one growth/development stage to another, but this has not been examined yet.
A sideward lighting system (SLS) using diffusive optical fiber belts was developed by
Kozai et al. (1992a) for enhanced energy and space efficiencies and for elimination of
the thermal radiation problem arising from the use of fluorescent lamps for SLS. In
this new system, only photosynthetically active radiation is released from the optical
fibers to plantlets. Furthermore, this system has other potential applications such as
modifying the quality of light by introducing spectral filters; however, this has not been
investigated yet.
Kitaya et al. (1995b) developed a unique photo autotrophic plant tissue culture system
using Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes Sing.) as a CO 2 generator. Growth
characteristics were compared between plantlets cultured photoautotrophically with and
without CO2 produced by respiration of mycelia of Shiitake mushroom. A plant
culture chamber was combined tightly with a mushroom culture chamber. CO 2
concentration in the plant culture chamber was controlled at about 1000 !lmol mOrI.
Dry weight of mint and potato plantlets cultured with CO 2 from mushroom were 1.5 and
1.3 times, respectively, those without CO 2 from mushroom.
162
5. Photosynthetic or Growth Limitation by Medium Ionic Concentrations
Kozai et aI. (1995) proved that both the volume and initial strength of the medium,
which affect the initial ion content, affected the growth, photosynthesis and ion uptake
of potato plantlets over a 24-day culture period. The plantlets were cultured
photoautotrophically on different volume of liquid media (16 or 32 ml per vessel, or 4 or
8 ml per explant) with full, half or quarter strength MS. Depletions of the ions, P and
NHt, were observed during the later part of the culture period. The changes were
affected by the strength and volume of the medium. The uptake rate per plantlet gram
dry weight of N03, NHt, P, K, Ca and Mg over the culture period increased with
increasing the volume and initial strength of the medium. NPR and growth of the
plantlets were, therefore, enhanced with increasing volume and initial strength of the
medium.
In an earlier report with a similar focus, Kubota and Kozai (1991) studied the effects
of the initial concentration and amount of sugar on the heterotrophic growth of
Cymbidium PLB in vitro. The initial amount of sugar in combination with the initial
sugar concentration in the medium affected the time courses of the sugar concentration
in the medium and dry weight increase of the cultures. The growth rate ofPLB for the
entire culture period was similar with the same initial amount of sugar, regardless of the
sugar concentrations of the media. Interactive effects of the initial concentration and
amount of other medium components
such as growth regulators might exist but
they have not been investigated. 50 Ir-----------------------------,
Yang et al. (1995a) examined the
MHA40
effects of the initial inorganic ion MHA60
composition and initial total inorganic ion ~ 40
concentration of the culture • medium on J§p.. MHA20
the NPR and photoautotrophic growth of ~ 30
strawberry plantlets. The NPR and dry :: MS
weight of the plantlets showed a ~ 20
correlation with the initial total inorganic ~ I HA MHA80
ion concentration, since phosphorus in the Q
medium depleted during the 3-week 10
culture period and limited the growth. A
high correlation was therefore observed o ~-'-~...L-~_'__~_'__'___'___"___'~_..J
<-I
between the initial concentration of

o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Initial phosphorus conc. (mol-m .3)
phosphorus and NPR, and thus, dry
weight, regardless of medium
Figure 4. Dry weight of strawberry plantlets in
composition (Fig. 4). This research was vitro as affected by initial phosphorous
conducted as a series of experiments concentration in the medium (Yang et al., 1995a).
including that of Yang et al. (1 995b), HA, Hoagland and Arnon; MHA, modified HA;
where they examined ionic composition MS, Murashige and Skoog. Numbers following
and strength of the culture medium MHA denote initial total ion concentrations.
163
affecting photo autotrophic growth, transpiration and NPR of strawberry plantlets in

vitro.
6. Growth Suppression by Low Temperature and Dim Light
For production of quality plantlets by micropropagation, the crucial need for storing
plantlets is recognized for efficient use of production facilities and labor. Controlling
the environment can be applied not only for promotion but also for suppression of
plantlet growth. Kubota and Kozai (1994, 1995) showed that plantlet dry weight and
quality were best maintained during low-temperature storage under dim light (Fig. 5).
The positive effects of dim light in low-temperature storage has been shown for
seedlings of several species by Reins et aI. (1992). To examine the interactive effects
of temperature and PPFD on dry weight, CO 2 exchange concentration inside the vessel,
and quality of plantlets during storage, Kubota and Kozai (1994) stored broccoli
°
plantlets for 6 weeks at 5, 10, or 15C under (darkness) or 2 /lmol m- 2 S-l PPFD
(continuous lighting) supplied by fluorescent lamps (white light).
80~'----'-~----~'---'
Oi 60
S
:c
.~ 40
.
,..,
:0;
2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks
-0- 5"C/Lighl -6-- lO"C/Lighl -0- 15"C/Lighl

...... 5"CIDarkness 4 - lO"CIDarkness --- 15"CIDarkness
_·x-· Unslored
Figure 5. Changes in dry weight of broccoli p1antlets. P1antlets were stored for 6 weeks at 5,
10, or 15C under 2 ~mol m-2 S-1 PPFD or in darkness after 3-week photoautotrophic culture
under 23C and 160 ~mol m-2 S-I . After storage, plantlets were subsequently cultured under
the same culture conditions as before storage (Kubota and Kozai, 1995).
Dry weight and chlorophyll concentration of the plantlets decreased as temperature

increased and was maintained at higher levels in light than in darkness. Lighting at as
low as 2 /lmol m-2 S-1 PPFD was important in preserving photosynthetic and regrowth
164
. abilities and dry weight of the plantlets during low-temperature storage. They found
that the dim light at low temperature maintained the CO2 exchange rates of plantlets at
almost zero throughout the storage period. In a subsequent report, Kubota and Kozai
(1995) measured the CO2 exchange rates of broccoli plantlets at PPFD of 0 to 4 Ilmol
m-2 sol and stored plantlets at different combinations of PPFD and temperature.
Measurements of CO 2 exchange rates showed that the light compensation point varied
with air temperature and medium sugar level. A storage experiment showed that the
best storage light intensity was at the light compensation point at low temperature.
Plantlet dry weight during storage was best maintained by keeping the CO2 exchange
rate of the plantlets close to zero throughout the storage period. High transplant
qualities were successfully preserved at the light compensation points: 2 Ilmol m-2 sol
PPFD at 5 or 10C without sugar, and at 5C with sugar in the medium. Kubota et al.
(1995) examined PPFD higher than light compensation points in low-temperature
storage and found that PPFD close to or higher than light compensation points at low
temperature contributed to preserving the regrowth ability of the plantlets. PPFD
higher than the light compensation point, however, caused undesirable shoot elongation
and dry weight increase of the plantlets. A small difference in PPFD between 2 and 5
!lmol m-2 sol at 10C air temperature caused considerable differences in plantlet dry
weight and quality after storage. Effects of light quality on growth and quality of
plantlets during storage were also reported by Kubota et al. (1996). The light
environment during storage should be carefully selected for each crop.
7. Mathematical Modeling and Simulation Predicting the Effects of

Environmental Factors
Modeling along with simulation is a useful way for understanding the relationship
between growth of plantlets and environmental factors in vitro. Computer simulation
were used for planning material flow in the production process of micropropagation and
for improving production efficiency (Simonton and Thai, 1988). Hara and Kozai
(1992) developed a mathematical model to maximize the overall multiplication ratio
(OMR) of micropropagation in a given period of time. It was revealed that the
parameters of the multiplication period and the multiplication ratio had a compensatory
nature in obtaining constant OMR values. A decrease in the propagation period to
attain the same multiplication ratio may be worth the increase in the multiplication ratio
in the same propagation period.
Fujiwara and Kozai (1995a) used a simulation to examine environmental factors
affecting CO 2 concentration inside the vessel and daily CO 2 exchange rates of plantlets.
Simulations were conducted to evaluate the effects of increasing the number of air
exchanges per hour of the culture vessel and reducing the lighting cycle on the daily CO 2
exchange rates of the plantlets. The simulation showed that 1) the number of air
exchanges has to be more than about 1 h- 1 in order to increase the daily CO 2 exchange
165
rate of in vitro cultures, while there exists a range in the number of air exchanges (about
0.4 h- 1 or less) in which the daily CO 2 exchange rate decreases when the number of air
exchanges is increased, and 2) reducing the lighting cycle to less than 1.5 h increases the
daily CO2 exchange rate considerably when a high number of air exchanges (1.0 or 5.0
h- 1) is used. Niu et al. (1996) also focused on the time courses of CO2 concentration
inside the vessel and increase in dry weight as affected by environmental conditions.
They developed models to predict the hourly and daily net photosynthetic rates (P nh and
Pnd, respectively) and CO 2 concentration inside the culture vessel (C;) for plantlets in
vitro. They introduced a NPR response model that takes into consideration of CO 2 and
light compensation points. The effects of the physical environment and the type of
culture vessel on Pnh , Pnd and C; were evaluated through simulations. The simulated
time courses of CO 2 concentration in the culture vessel and NPR of Cymbidium plantlets
generally agreed with experimental data in the literature and indicated the usefulness of
computer simulations in determining the optimal physical environment to maximize the
production efficiency of in vitro plantlets.
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AUTOMATION AND SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
K.C. Ting
Department ofBioresource Engineering
Rutgers University-Cook College
P.O. Box 231
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903-0231
USA
ABSTRACT. Automation is one important aspect of advanced plant production

systems within controlled environments. Building on the successful foundation of
mechanization, automation is aiming at operating machines requiring minimum human
supervision. This means that machines need to be equipped with human-like abilities of
perception, reasoning/learning, communication, and task planning/execution. Examples
of automation research at Rutgers University will be presented to illustrate each of these
machine abilities. Systems analysis is a methodology which starts with the definition of a
system and leads to the conclusion regarding the system's workability, productivity,
reliability, and other performance indicators. In implementing a plant based engineering
system, proper and effective functioning of the entire system is the ultimate goal. The
importance of systems level analysis is therefore obvious. To facilitate the analysis, an
automation-culture-environment oriented systems analysis methodology, namely
ACE_ SYS, has been under development at Rutgers University in recent years. The
purpose of ACE_SYS is to provide a concurrent science/engineering cyber environment
for analyzing systems consisting of automation, culture of biological objects, and
controlled environment. The plant based engineering systems studied at Rutgers
University have evolved from greenhouses to integrated controlled environment plant
production systems (CEPPS) and to the inclusion of phytoremediation and
bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS for long duration space exploration
missions). The term "phytomation" has therefore been created to describe the overall,
more encompassing plant based engineering system concept. Representative
phytomation systems will be described with emphasis on integration at the systems level.
1. Introduction
For a long period of time, research on plant production within controlled environments
has been conducted with emphasis on plant physiology and cultural requirements, as
well as environmental factors which affecting plant growth and development. The
engineering research and development on the processes, devices and facilities for
171

172
providing the desired environment surrounding the plants have also been of great
importance. In delivering the environmental conditions to optimize plant production,
energy efficiency was once a very critical consideration. Recently, the efficiency and
productivity of human labor have attracted substantial attention due to its high cost and
low availability. Traditionally, mechanization is normally considered as the solution for
reducing labor requirements. Mechanized systems also perform tasks which are
normally unachievable by humans. Furthermore, they are more capable of maintaining
production uniformity. However, with the advances in plant cultural methods and
environmental control techniques, the demand on machines with a certain level of
intelligence has increased.
The added intelligence, especially due to the use of electronic, microprocessor, and
software technologies, can accomplish more than just substituting human labor with
machines in materials handling. Machine's capabilities of perception,
reasoning/learning, communication, and task planning/execution are commonly seen in
automated systems. Recent development in knowledge based reasoning, adaptive
learning, and dealing with uncertainties further strengthen digital computers' capability
of utilizing qualitative information. Automation can be viewed as an integrator of plant
production systems within controlled environments.
Mechanization in enclosed plant production systems is fairly advanced with quite a
few remarkable examples. There have also been substantial efforts made toward
automating various operations. At Rutgers University, machine vision techniques have
been developed to evaluate seedling quality and guide robots during plug transplanting.
Artificial neural networks have been applied to develop correlations between features
measured by machine vision and plant quality indicators. Expert systems have been
developed to perform heuristic reasoning in solving problems related to greenhouse
design. Robotic workcells have been designed to transplant plugs and sort somatic
embryos.
The success of systems analysis relies on the effective use of information.
Considering information at a level which involves many components (or namely a
system) is not a new activity; however, to be systematic about systems analysis and
integration requires a structured approach. Many people have developed high skills of
analyzing situations by employing various sources of information. This type of heuristic
analysis is a valuable product of experiential learning. On the other hand, there is a
formal field of study dealing with scientific methods of information synthesis and
application. Regardless of what methodologies employed (whether it is a science or an
art), the purpose is to be able to draw conclusions by considering all facts available "in
pieces". Knowledge bases from different, narrowly focused disciplines are frequently in
disassociated forms (Ting, 1994). Plant production systems within controlled
environments are no exception.
In order to facilitate the use of systems analysis technique, appropriately structured
databases along with tools for manipulating data are needed. This tool should be able to
define/unify the representation of common parameters; identify/establish the
relationships among necessary knowledge bases; modularize separate knowledge bases
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such that compatible building blocks for larger knowledge bases can be formed; and
apply optimization techniques to the whole system under consideration. Furthermore,
by the implementation of systems analysis techniques, the subject areas where new
knowledge is needed will be highlighted so that future research and development efforts
may be systematically approached. To carry the above idea one step further, the
systems analysis and outcome should be computerized to encourage a broad interest of
usage. The deliverables of such an endeavor would be computer software packages, of
proven capabilities, with expansion possibilities, containing relevant databases and acting
as decision support systems.
The interdisciplinary research group at Rutgers University has been conducting
research and development in many subject areas which can be progressively described as
greenhouses, controlled environment plant production systems (CEPPS), and
phytomation systems for more than 30 years. Figure 1 shows the current organization
chart of this activity.
Phytomation
Research &
Development
ACE_SYS: Controled Environment NJ-NSCORT for Phytoremediation

Automation-Culture- Plant Production Bioregenerative
Environment Oriented Systems life Support
Systems Analysis Systems
Figure 1. Phytomation research and development at Rutgers University.
Although the topics appear in separate boxes in Figure 1, almost all of them are
interrelated and have been expanded based on common experience and knowledge
bases. Phytomation is defined as plant based engineering systems within controlled
environments. In the greenhouses and CEPPS, plants are produced to directly meet
174
market needs. In a phytomation system, the plants may assume other roles such as
treating contaminated water in a phytoremediation system, and reducing carbon-dioxide,
supplying oxygen, and providing clean water in a bioregenerative life support system for
space exploration.
Fundamentals and applications of automation and systems analysis will be discussed
in this paper. Automation can be described using several intrinsic capabilities. Within an
advanced enclosed plant production system, automation is and will continue to be an
important aspect. Systems analysis is a concept which can be used in thought processes
to improve and ensure clear understanding of complicated situations. It is also a field
of study which develops knowledge bases, methodologies, and computerized tools to
enable and facilitate analyses at the systems level.
2. Automation
Automation adds the capabilities of perception, reasoning, communication, and task

planning/execution to a mechanized system (Ting, 1992). Automation may be designed
to assume various levels of sophistication based on the situation. Two major categories
of automation are fixed automation and flexible automation. Fixed automation systems
are cost-effective for mass production of standard items. Flexible automation offers the
potential economic advantage of fixed automation while enabling response to varying
make-to-order batch processes. Computers integrated with generic machine tools make
automation systems flexible. The key future of a flexible automation system is its ability
to perform various tasks by changing mainly the software and requiring minimum
hardware change.
2.1. PERCEPTION
In order to respond to dynamically changing situations, it is necessary to have the

capability of obtaining the awareness of surroundings. This involves the gathering,
processing and interpretation of information. The devices which are used for this
purpose are called sensors. Information about surroundings may come in many different
ways and mean many different things. It is essential to know the purpose of information
gathering before correct sensing devices can be selected Gathering information to
describe a physical, chemical or biological situation can be done either directly or
indirectly. Indirect measurements require some kind of correlation between the acquired
signals and the physical quantities of interest. Some sensing methods are destructive
and/or interfering, some are non-interfering or even non-contacting. Sensing involving
biological objects is non-trivial and has been a major research emphasis in recent years.
In plant production, sensors for temperature, light, humidity, and CO 2' as well as
nutrient solution temperature, EC, and pH are common. Recently, the detection of plant
growth, development, and quality is gaining substantial interest. The measurement of
plant quality is frequently used for young plant screening and final product sorting. The
175
monitoring of plant growth/development is important in determining whether the plants

are being produced as expected. Sampling and destructive measurement of plant
materials for plant conditions has been a generally practiced technique. In recent years,
non-destructive, non-interfering techniques, such as machine vision, have been a popular
topic of research. Efforts have been made to correlate morphological and spectral
information with plant quality indicators. The sensing part of machine vision tasks
emphasizes acquisition and digital processing of image signals. CCD cameras are
commonly seen "sensors" for this purpose.
Machine vision techniques and systems have been developed to evaluate quality of
plant seedlings and somatic embryos, as well as provide guidance for robot motions.
Ruzhitsky and Ling (1992a) developed a methodology based on the gray level ratio of a
given pixel on images of two wavebands to derive a feature invariant to ambient lighting.
The feature was applied to identifY green, light green , and yellow tomato seedling
leaves and rockwool cube growth medium under different lighting conditions. Ruzhitsky
and Ling (1992b) implemented an adaptive Otsu threshholding method to extract the
stem-leaf portion of a tomato seedling from an image consisting of stem-leaf, a
rockwool cube, and background. The purpose of this research is to facilitate the
measurement of projected top area of seedlings for quality determination. In related
research, Giacomelli et al. (1993) implemented a machine vision tomato seedling sorting
process. The purpose of sorting was to select the seedlings of similar quality with the
expectation that they will grow and develop with acceptable uniformity.
Cheng and Ling (1994) applied machine vision techniques to extract features of
somatic coffee embryos for quality sorting purposes. A "Y" shape skeleton feature was
used to determine the viability of embryos. They developed an improved thinning
algorithm to obtain single-pixel-width skeletons from embryo images. In addition to the
static morphological features used for quality evaluation of somatic embryos, Ling et al.
(1996) also studied the dynamic features of embryos based on their growth. Two
registered images of the same embryo acquired at two different times were analyzed to
determine the rate of growth. This growth feature was found to correlate well with the
germination rate of the embryos.
2.2. REASONINGILEARNING
The ability to analyze and interpret the gathered information and derive conclusions is
equally important as the sensing capability for an automated system. Reasoning is
normally accomplished through logical deduction, mathematical analysis, and heuristic
inference. The purpose of these activities is to make decisions and issue instructions to
guide the system's operation. Control strategies of greenhouse environment, algorithms
for image processing, knowledge based expert systems, and various forms of decision
support systems are excellent examples of reasoning capabilities applicable to plant
production systems. The inherent challenges with systems which involve biological
processes, such as plant production, are the need to use variable, incomplete, imprecise,
and uncertain information in reasoning. Another important aspect of plant production
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systems is that there has been a substantial amount of qualitative and individualized
knowledge in dealing with situations. Techniques have been under development for
handling issues related to heuristic reasoning. Another area of interest is to increase the
machine's capability in learning from information without prior knowledge of
correlations. Artificial neural network (ANN) is a method of machine learning.
Recently, there have been many cases that ANN is applied to agricultural and food
production.
During her internship at Rutgers University, Louwsma (1996) conducted a research
project on utilizing artificial neural networks to classify lettuce seedling images. Two
morphological (top projected leaf area and top projected leaf perimeter) and one
dynamic (growth rate) features of lettuce images acquired at various seedling stages
were correlated with the dry weight of the final products. One perceptron and four
backpropagation neural networks provided by NeuralWorks Explorer (a software
package from Neuralware, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) were used in this study.
The results were compared to the prediction of a human expert. It was found that the
best performing backpropagation network could achieve the same accuracy level as the
prediction by the human expert.
Humphreys et al. (1994) developed an expert system, Glazing Selector, for
greenhouse glazing selection. The knowledge base for Glazing Selector was developed
from reviewing the literature, as well as interviewing domain experts. The criteria used
in the expert system were crop requirements, geographical location, and greenhouse
function. DOS-based Personal Consultant Easy software developed by Texas
Instruments, Austin, Texas, USA was used as the shell for this expert system
development.
Through an innovation partnership grant from the New Jersey Commission on
Science and Technology, Ting et al. (1995) developed a mathematical model for
Thermal Bank ™ energy storage systems. Within a Thermal Bank 1M , phase change
materials are packaged in tube-sheets hung in parallel in a rectangular chamber with
water circulating vertically between adjacent sheets. The mathematical model accounts
for energy transfer from the surface of each tube-sheet element to the circulating water
which moves the energy into and out of storage. The model also calculates the energy
transfer within the phase change materials and accounts for the temperature, energy
content, and phase of each portion of the storage material. This model is the basis for
two software packages which serve as a computer aided design tool for optimizing
parameter selection and analyzing life-cycle economic benefits derived from utilizing off-
peak electricity rates.
Chiu (1996) conducted a study on evaluating the performance of three different
control strategies for operating supplemental lights within a single truss tomato
production system. As a result a Visual Basic based decision support system was
developed. The software will accept local solar insolation conditions and a grower's
production plan as input data. The output of the software will be the sizing of required
lighting systems to be installed in the greenhouse and the comparison of different light
operating strategies regarding their capability of achieving the production goals. The
177
specific production goal considered in this study was to achieve the production of
tomato plants from emergence to first flowering within the desired number of days at a
minimum electricity cost.
2.3. COMMUNICATION
To understand a system, it is likely to require information from many sources. The

complexity of plant production systems continues to increase. In the interest of
automating the operations of these systems, the status of many components must be
known and coordinated. It is therefore very important that the flow of information be
maintained at the most effective level. The question frequently asked in setting up
communication is what information needs to be made available to what unit at what
time. Computers have been well known for their usefulness in high speed computation.
However, recent rapid growth of internet activities indicates that computers' role in
communication may be even more valuable. Practical computer integrated
manufacturing (or CIM) systems have been implemented in the manufacturing industry.
Business, technical and operational information is made available in a real-time fashion
to be integrated using the CIM concept. Many advanced commercial greenhouses have
started to utilize systems with CIM like capabilities.
Tai et al. (1994) developed a machine vision algorithm to detect missing plugs from
plug flats after transplanting .. The communication between the independently operated
machine vision system and the robot was established so that the machine vision
algorithm was able to send the information of mis-transplanted locations on the flat to
the robot controller for re-transplanting actions.
2.4. TASK PLANNINGIEXECUTION
Two major functions performed by mechanical devices in an enclosed plant production

system are control activation and physical work. Materials handling is the most common
type of physical work. To effect the operation of these mechanical devices
automatically, proper task planning is essential. A robotic system is a good example for
illustrating the importance of task planning. The execution of an algorithm for
greenhouse environmental control can be viewed as another type of task planning at
work.
Planning is required when electrical and/or mechanical devices are to be activated in a
certain sequence to accomplish control actions or materials handling tasks. Many plant
production systems involve precise control of environmental factors and labor intensive
operations. In addition to properly functioning hardware and software components, a
computer control system for production environment needs a well thought out control
algorithm. Plant culture requirements and dynamics of greenhouse environment are the
major considerations in designing a control strategy.
The variable sizes and shapes of plant materials create a unique challenge in the
development of automated systems for their handling. Robot workcells have been
178
developed to handle young plants. A series of projects have been conducted in the
effort to develop a workcell for transplanting of seedling plugs and a workcell for
quality sorting of somatic embryos (Ting et aI., 1996). The accomplishments to date
include a conceptual design of workcell layout and materials flow, a patented end-
effector, a machine vision algorithm for detecting mis-transplanted locations on a flat, a
stochastic workcell simulation model, and software for economic analysis (Ting, 1995).
Bolkestein and Ting (1993) also developed a layout for an integrated fixed and flexible
automation system for transplanting seedlings and performing quality assurance tasks on
the finished flats.
The machine vision developed by Cheng and Ling (1994) and Ling et al. (1996) has
been integrated into a robotic workcell for quality sorting of somatic embryos (Chen,
Ting, 1994). The workcell has been conceptualized and a 3-D model has been built
using a commercially available simulation software package IGRIP (Deneb Robotics,
Inc., Auburn Hill, MI). The workcell allows the visualization of the workcell's
operation. The workcell may be programmed to operate in several different modes
depending on the requirements of machine algorithms.
3. Systems Analysis and Integration
A system is a set of interrelated components organized to achieve certain goals. A plug

production greenhouse is a perfect example of a system: plants are being cultivated with
a properly designed growing facility; a greenhouse structure is used to separate the
controlled environment from the ambient environment; equipment and machines are
used to handle and distribute information, energy and materials; human and material
resources are managed to keep the production on schedule and deliver quality products
to the market; and experience gained from operating individual components and
understanding their interactions forms a basis for further improvement of the entire
greenhouse system. It is obvious that a system may be considered as a component of a
larger system and a component is a system for smaller components. The components of
a system may be physical objects or knowledge bases. Systems analysis is a technique
structured to emphasize systems level thinking. The performance of a system as a whole
is of particular interest. There has been substantial amount of effort made to develop
methods for analyzing systems to draw conclusions regarding systems characteristics,
behavior and performance (Ting, Giacomelli, 1992).
Methods of systems analysis can be classified into two interrelated paradigms:
procedural analysis and heuristic analysis. Procedural analysis is guided by a set of step-
by-step instructions involving logical and/or mathematical processing of information. It
is most suitable for solving problems which require the manipulation of large amounts of
quantitative data. On the other hand, heuristic analysis is mainly for handling
experiential, qualitative information. Regardless of which paradigm is used in the
analysis, effective information processing is the key to success. With recent rapid
development of information distribution capability, access to information is no longer a
179
major limitation; however, this makes effective identification and integration of

information into useful knowledge a very important task. This is the concept of value-
added information.
The commonly followed guidelines of systems analysis include: (1) define the system
and its objective, (2) identify descriptors of the system, (3) establish the relationships
among the descriptors, (4) designate system performance indicators, (5) develop a
model to represent the system, (6) verify and validate the model, (7) perform simulation
using the model, and (8) draw conclusions about the system. Each of the above aspects
involves considerable technical skills. To encourage a broad use of system analysis
methodology, two things need to be done: (1) communicate the importance and power
of systems analysis as opposed to narrowly focused information, and (2) create and
deliver a user-friendly, effective computerized system analysis tool. To this end, an
automation-culture-environment oriented systems analysis (ACE_ SYS) methodology
has been under development at Rutgers University in recent years.
3.1. ACE_SYS
The importance of information gathering can normally be evaluated by how the

information will be processed, presented and utilized. Systems analysis is a technique
which processes pertinent information for the purpose of understanding the behavior of
a system as a whole. The result of this analysis can only be as valid as the accuracy of
the available information. The ACE based systems analysis is a method specifically for
analyzing plant based engineering systems within controlled environment. One of the
ultimate goals is to enable users to perform systems analysis on any given plant based
system without having to be an expert of systems analysis algorithms.
The structure of ACE _ SYS consists of four components to deal with specific aspects
of information processing They are (1) systems abstraction, (2) production
scheme, (3) informational modules, (4) functional modules. Each of these components
of this systems analysis tool will be discussed in detail in the following:
3. 1.1. Systems Abstraction. The first task of analyzing a system is to define the system
by identifying its components and their relationships. This task also requires that the
system be described in a way compatible with the information processing methods
used in the steps to follow. Basically, system components need to be described by
using appropriate parameters and their mathematical, logical or knowledge-based
relationships. The ACE model represents a general abstraction of plant
production systems containing the components of automation, culture, and
environment. The model is somewhat generic because any plant production system can
be represented by a certain subset derived from it. It serves as a check list for
organizing a description of a given plant production system under study, which, in turn,
becomes the starting point of this systems analysis. An inverted tree-type framework will
be developed as an effective presentation of the ACE model. Figure 2 shows the top
portion of this model. As expected, the top most level of the framework is the entire
180
system and the next level shows the three fundamental categories of automation, culture
and environment. The lower the hierarchy within the model framework the more
specific the component description becomes. Ideally, the model should be complete
and truly generic. However, the model can be very useful and still is of manageable
size and form. With the aid of this model, the effort required to initiate ACE based
systems analysis on plant production is substantially reduced.
Figure 2. The top portion of the ACE model.
3.1.2. Production Scheme. Prior to analyzing a particular plant production system,

the production system needs to be organized and presented in a certain format called
"production scheme". Essentially, a production scheme contains five aspects of a
production system. They are:
i. Entities: The objects that flow through the production system, and which are
generally developed and/or transformed into the end product of the system.
ii. Resources: The objects that act on the entities and the supplies that support
the growth and development of the entities as they progress through the production
process. Human workers, e1ectricaVmechanical devices, energy, and nutrient
solutions are some examples of the resources.
iii. Stations: The physical spaces which make up the layout and environment of the
production facility. A physical location where plants undergo a certain stage of growth
and development is considered as a station.
iv. Materials flow: The pathways in which the entities and resources interact
through the stations of the production facility.
v. Constraints: These are the requirements and restncttons for the
production system, such as space, time, budget, the rate of production, and governing
relationships among components of automation, culture, and environment. A workable
production system must satisfy all the imposed constraints.
181
A production scheme is presented in a format consisting of a series of time-domain

production "stages". Stages are designated based on how the materials flow
through stations during the entire production period of a crop. Within each stage,
the entities are transformed (growth, development, packaging, etc.) from one of the
initial conditions (states) to one of the final conditions (decision variables) depending
on what ACE resources available. The move from a state to a decision variable is called
a policy decision. Each policy decision has associated measures of systems
performance (technical workability/reliability, resource requirements, environmental
impact, and economic viability). An objective function may be defined to be functions
of certain combinations (sums, products, etc.) of these measures for all stages. A
dynamic programming procedure may then be employed to search for a particular
production scheme which yields optimum values of the objective functions.
3.1.3. Informational Modules. As stated above, systems analysis is a technique for

information processing. Information must be made available so that systems analysis
can be performed. In the effort of making information available, several important
issues must be addressed: (i) what information is needed? (ii) where and in what
format the information should be stored? and (iii) how the information is to be
processed and presented? Informational modules are software units created in
response to the issues (i) and (ii). Therefore, the informational modules are the
computer memory locations containing pieces of information relevant to the
production system. These modules will be built based on the required parameters,
relationships, and configurations indicated in the ACE model and production scheme.
3.1.4. Functional Modules. In order to process information contained in the

informational modules and present the result, algorithms will be needed. The functions
of these algorithms may include data retrieval and storage (from and to the informational
modules), procedural and heuristic manipulations of data, and display of raw data or
processed information. Functional modules will be designed to contain these algorithms.
The separation of functional modules from the informational modules allows them to
be modified independently and used as individual building blocks.
The effort made to analyze a plant production system is aiming at drawing

conclusions which will enhance our understanding of the system. The result of the
analysis may be used for various purposes; however, the following are typical
conclusions: (1) technical workability/reliability, (2) resource requirements, (3)
environmental impact, and (4) economic viability. The ACE_SYS may be used to
carry out parametric analysis to study the effects of key factors affecting the
performance of plant production systems. In the parametric analysis, key factors will
be varied over a range normally anticipated of a greenhouse system. The influences
of technologies available in the areas of automation, plant culture, and environmental
control may be investigated. The desired features of this systems analysis tool are:
completeness, consistency, flexibility, expandability, and universality.
182
3.2. CONCURRENT SCIENCEIENGINEERING
Ultimately, the implementation of ACE_SYS is to provide a cyber-environment for

knowledge integration. The existing information will be made available in a useful
manner to the users through networked computers (such as internet). The information
which is being generated will be entered by the contributors using the same network. A
near real-time information sharing and utilization environment will be the most effective
means in carrying out systems analysis, planning, design, management, and operation of
plant production. Of course, the source of information will have to come from the
experts from all related disciplines, such as horticulture, engineering, economics,
marketing, etc. In addition, experts who specialize in systems methodology and
integration of multiple disciplinary information will have to be involved.
The concept of ACE_ SYS, similar to the one described above, is being implemented
within a five year project funded by NASA of US. The New Jersey NASA Specialized
Center Of Research and Training (NJ-NSCORT) for Bioregenerative Life Support
Systems (BLSS) consists of four research teams: Biomass Production, Food Processing
and Nutrition, Waste Processing, and Systems Studies & Modeling. The ultimate goal
of BLSS is to provide a sustainable environment to support human activities for long
duration space exploration missions. One task of the Systems Studies & Modeling
(SSM) team is to develop a cyber environment to facilitate the integration of information
generated by the entire project. The ACE_ SYS methodology will be applied for this
purpose. The current goals of the SSM team are to integrate information and knowledge
from the NJ-NSCORT research group, perform systems analysis, design, and operation
within the NJ-NSCORT, and evaluate system level interaction and performance for the
NJ-NSCORT. Due to the dual-use emphasis of NASA projects, the outcome of this
development is expected to be also applicable to ground based phytomation systems
including greenhouses.
3.3. DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Over twenty microcomputer program modules have been developed to provide

informational and computational needs for CEPPS (Fang et aI., 1992; Ting et ai, 1993).
They are categorized into five subject areas:
3.3.1. Structure and Environmental Control. Heating and ventilation requirements;

phase change materials energy storage devices; psychrometry; solar radiation and
photosynthetically active radiation calculations.
3.3.2. Crop Production. Cultural practices and cost/revenue databases for potted plants;
decision support software for single truss tomato production systems.
3.3.3. Greenhouse Layout and Materials Handling. Greenhouse layout design;

interaction/utilization of man/machine; databases of greenhouse internal transport
183
devices and the required relocation times for plant units between devices; robotic plug
transplanting simulation.
3.3.4. Labor Utilization and Resource Allocation. Calculation oflabor time requirement
for an assigned series of labor tasks within a user defined layout and user selected
materials handling equipment; optimization schemes including linear programming and a
search method for determining optimum types and numbers of plants to be produced for
maximum profit with resource constraints.
3.3.5. Engineering Economics. Economic feasibility of automated operation versus

traditional manual operation; calculation of return on investment and payback period for
greenhouse projects.
3.4. A PLANT NURSERY SYSTEM FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION
Phytoremediation is the utilization of plants to cumulate contaminants from soil or

water. Rhizofiltration is one form of phytoremediation, which treats contaminated water
by exposing plant roots to the water in a fashion similar to hydroponic plant growing
systems. The development of the plant root system is one important aspect of a
rhizofiltration operation. By integrating the requirements specified by several plant
scientists from the AgBiotech Center at Rutgers University, a nursery system was
developed for concurrent production of multiple stage plant seedlings for continuous
supply of plants to be used in rhizofiltration processes (Giacomelli et al., 1995). The
final design of the nursery system consists of four individually controlled tanks
(approximately 1 m x 1 m x 1 m) connected to a common nutrient solution reservoir.
The inside of each tank has a custom fitted, PVC, 0.5 mm thick flexible liner. Under the
liner is a 2.5 cm layer of polystyrene insulation board. Each tank may be operated as an
aeroponic and/or hydroponic plant growing system with an adjustable nutrient solution
level within the tank. With a 1.12 kW water circulation pump, there is no need for a
water heating device. However, a 8.4 MJ/h capacity water chiller was installed to cool
the nutrient solution. Up to four different stages of plants may be grown simultaneously
using the nursery system. On top of each nursery tank, there is a cover with four cutouts
for four plant trays. The entire cover with the four plant trays may be lifted up as one
unit from the nursery tank. Each individual plant tray may be lifted up from the cover
and hung on a frame for root inspection. A variety of plant species were successfully
grown using the nursery system: corn, pea, sunflower, Indian mustard, and rye. With
funding from Phytotech, Inc., Monmouth Junction, New Jersey, a decision support
software package is being developed to aid in design of rhizofiltration systems.
3.5. A COMMERCIAL PLUG PRODUCTION GREENHOUSE
Kube-Pak Corporation in Allentown, New Jersey has been a cooperator of the

Bioresource Engineering Department at Rutgers University on various CEPPS projects
184
for many years. The 5.6 ha greenhouse complex produces plug transplants, spring
bedding plants, fall poinsettias, and several other perennial crops (Roberts, Swanekamp,
1992). Kube-Pak has successfully addressed the issues related to plant culture,
environmental control, and automation, as well as their integration through many years
of experience. Figure 3 shows a simplified version of the Kube-Pak production scheme.
Ingredients
Soil
Mixing I
LSoil
Mix
Empty
Flats ~I
Seeds
Germination Seeded Seeding

& Growing Trays
Water
Filled Plug Trays
Figure 3. Simplified production scheme of a plug production system.
It is obvious that the entities are plants which are being transformed from seeds to
seedlings. The boxes represent the stations and the arrows indicate the flow of materials.
The transport of materials between stations is mainly a subject of automation. However,
at each station, the issues of automation, culture, and environment (A,C., and E.) must
be taken into consideration. It is not difficult to realize that the interactions among A,
C., and E. at each station have to be properly coordinated. As a simplified example, the
proper integration of an automated watering boom, properly formulated soil mix, heated
floor (on which the trays are directly placed), and supplemental lights at the
"Ge>mination & Growing" station depicts the importance of systems integration. To
achieve the optimum economic goal, the A, C., and E. resources need to be properly
allocated and shared throughout the entire production system. Therefore, the integration
needs also to be considered at levels above the stations. Based on a clearly presented
production scheme and assisted by a complete generic ACE_SYS model, the specific A.,
c., and E. characteristics of a production system can be systematically compiled (i.e. a
185
case specific model). Consequently, the required informational and functional modules
can be identified and developed. In this case, the outcome of this systems analysis tool
building effort will be a computerized decision support software package for
understanding and studying plug production systems.
3.6. A RESEARCHIDEMONSTRATION GREENHOUSE
A 0.3 ha prototype research and demonstration greenhouse has been constructed at the
Burlington County Resource Recovery Center, Florence, New Jersey, USA. The Center
includes a waste material landfill site which is capable of generating methane gas as an
energy source. The greenhouse is planned to be part of an integrated Eco-Complex.
Many CEPPS technologies developed at Rutgers University will be scaled up and
integrated using this greenhouse facility (Roberts, Manning, 1995). The greenhouse is
especially equipped with automation and environmental control capabilities to implement
the Rutgers single truss tomato production systems (STTPS) (Ting et aI., 1993). A 10.9
m by 27.4 m nursery greenhouse was built in addition to the main production
greenhouse. The nursery and the production areas are separated by a headhouse. A
transportable bench system was completed to form a network throughout the nursery
area, the headhouse, and the main production area. This facility is expected to be fully
utilized for further development of integrated greenhouse production systems.
4. Concluding Remarks
Due to recent technological advances, information, material, and human resources have
become widely available for designing, constructing, managing, and operating plant
production systems within controlled environments. More technical and business
information will undoubtedly continue to be generated. Information will be one of the
most valuable resources in our activities. While the quantity and quality of information
are of great importance, knowing the methods of its usage can actually enhance the
usefulness of the information. Systems analysis and integration is one method of
creating value-added information and knowledge. It will prove to be beneficial for
everyone participating in plant production to be aware of the concept of systems
analysis. ACE_ SYS is being developed to facilitate systems analysis. Automation is
important to ACE_ SYS in two related aspects: automation is part of a plant production
system and the delivery of ACE_ SYS requires computerized platform which is one form
of automation.
The application of systems analysis/integration and automation techniques to
controlled environment plant production systems is a complicated task. There have been
many promising concepts and technologies as the results of automation, culture, and
environment research. While it is equally tempting to either unconditionally accept or
reject new ideas, a systematic approach by involving interdisciplinary experts in
186
evaluating all available technologies and their integration will prove to be the most
productive endeavor.
5. Acknowledgment
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Publication No. 1-03232-21-96.
6. References
Bolkestein GB and Ting KC (1993) Assuring completeness of transplanted seedling flats

using a robot. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth National Agricultural Plastics
Congress: 19-24.
Chen FS and Ting KC (1994) Robotic workcell for quality sorting of somatic embryos.
Proceedings of SPIE: Optics in Agriculture, Forestry, and Biological Processing
2345:59-70.
Cheng Z and Ling PP (1994) Machine vision techniques for somatic coffee embryo
morphological feature extraction. Transactions of the ASAE 37(5):1663-1669.
Chiu HC (1996) Computer simulation of supplemental light control strategies in a single
truss tomato production system. NJAES Publication No. P-03232-08-96,
Bioresource Engineering Department, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NI.
Fang W et al. (1992) Computer software development for greenhouse design and
management. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computers in
Agricultural Extension Programs, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE: 274-279.
Giacomelli GA et al. (1993) Greenhouse plant growth monitoring with machine vision.
NABEC Paper No. 93-208, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
Giacomelli GA et al. (1995) Design of a plant nursery system for phytoremediation
techniques of contaminated water. Paper No. 957659, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
Humphreys M et al. (1994) Expert system for greenhouse glazing selection.
Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth National Agricultural Plastics Congress:52-58.
Ling PP et al. (1996) Quantification of somatic coffee embryo growth using machine
vision. Transactions of the ASAE 38(6): 1911-1917.
Louwsma LS (1996) Classification of lettuce seedlings using machine vision and
artificial neural networks. NJAES Publication No. R-03232-03-96, Bioresource
Engineering Department, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NI.
Roberts WJ and Swanekamp W (1992) Production of plug transplants at Kube-Pak
Corporation. Acta HorticuIturae 319:473-476.
Roberts WJ and Manning TO (1995) Use oflandfill gas for co-generation in a one acre
research and demonstration greenhouse. Paper No. 954540, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
Ruzhitsky VN and Ling PP (1992a) Machine vision for tomato seedling inspection.
Paper No. 927020, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
187
Ruzhitsky VN and Ling pp (1992b) Image analysis for tomato seedling grading. Paper
No. 923588, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
Tai YW et al. (1994) Machine vision assisted robotic seedling transplanting.
Transactions of the ASAE 37(2):661-667.
Ting KC (1992) Mechanization, automation, and computerization for greenhouse
production. HortTechnology 2(1):59-63.
Ting KC and Giacomelli GA (1992) Automation-culture-environment based systems
analysis of transplant production. Transplant Production Systems, Kluwer Academic
Publishers: 83-102.
Ting KC et al. (1993) Decision support system for single truss tomato production.
Proceedings XXV CIOSTA-CIGR V Congress, May 10-13, Wageningen, The
Netherlands: 70-76.
Ting KC (1994) Systems session introduction. Proceedings ofInternational Conference
on Greenhouse Systems-Automation, Culture, and Environment, July 20-22, New
Brunswick, NJ:227-230.
Ting KC (1995) Systems analysis of robotic workcells for plug transplanting and
somatic embryos quality sorting. Proceedings of International Symposium on
Automation and Robotics in Bioproduction and Processing 2: 181-188.
Ting KC et al. (1995) Finite difference model of phase change thermal storage. NABEC
Paper No. 95-9525, St. Joseph, MI:ASAE.
Ting KC et al. (1996) Research on flexible automation and robotics for plant production
at Rutgers University. Advances in Space Research 18(1/2):(1/2)175-(1/2)180.
FOOD PRODUCTION IN SPACE: CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES
T. W. Tibbitts D. L. Henninger
Department of Horticulture NASA 10hnson Space Center
University of Wisconsin Mail Code EC 3
Madison, WI53706-1590 2101 NASA
Houston, TX 77058-3696
ABSTRACT. Our next century will undoubtedly see the exploitation of plant growth
in space to provide food, supply oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and purify water. An
area of 25-40 m2 will provide life support for one person. A large mass will have to be
transported to space to provide the lighting, environmental control, nutrient and water
supply, and the systems for recycling of all waste products. The system will be highly
automated and be maintained with sophisticated, intelligent monitoring and control
systems to insure effective and reliable life support. A major challenge is the recycling
of the solid and liquid wastes to insure 95%+ reuse of all elements. Other challenges
are compatibility with reduced gravity environments, capability to grow effectively at
reduced pressures, interaction among all components of the life support system (plants
(humans, microbes, physiochemical processors, and mechanical systems), production
of multiple plant species in the same growing unit, and exploitation of on-site raw
materials. The challenges are many, but these are challenges that provide real
excitement for plant scientists, and there is a confidence that these challenges can be
met.
1. Introduction
The exploitation of space in the coming century will provide a continuing, and likely
expanding effort, toward the utilization of plants for life support. Whether excursions
into space are for exploration, to obtain useful resources, or for pure enjoyment and
recreation, the problems of life support for space travelers are a major concern. This
concern has led space scientists to direct a significant effort toward the use of plants as
a major component of the life sustaining systems in space.
The value of plants in life support systems extends signifi~antly beyond
providing food, for plants can supply other essential life support functions, supplying
of oxygen, removal of carbon dioxide, and purification of water. While plants are
being grown to produce food, the energy storing process of photosynthesis, releases
oxygen and consumes carbon dioxide from the air. When a system provides the food
189
E. Goto et at. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 189-203.

190
needs of a person, it will essentially provide all of the oxygen one person requires for
breathing and absorb all of the carbon dioxide that a person breathes out. In addition,
gray water from human activity; water from washing, bathing, even toilet water, can be
used for watering the plants. Then as plants transpire (evaporate) this water into the
air, the water can be condensed out on a cold surface and very clean, potable water is
produced.
The importance of plants for life support in space led the Russians to develop
elaborate test systems during the 1960's and 1970's, first as a one-man unit in Moscow
and then a 3-man unit in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia (Gitelson et al. 1976, Gitelson et al.
1989). The initial United States efforts were initiated during the Apollo years (1960's)
and then discontinued until the program had a resurgence in the late 1970's. The
bioregenerative efforts of the United States and Russia have continued to grow with
encouragement from European Space Agency, Canada, and Japan.
The research to date has documented that chambers can be sealed with humans
inside and that carbon dioxide and oxygen balance can be effectively maintained. The
study at Krasnoyarsk Russia, provided life support for three people for 6 months
(Gitelson et al. 1976, Gitelson et al. 1989). A smaller system at Johnson Space Center
has provided gaseous exchange for one person for 3 weeks (Edeen and Barta, 1996).
The closed Russian system encompassed 150 m2 and had two 37.5 m2 plant growing
modules, 37.5 m2 algae module, and a 37.5 m2 crew area (Figure 1).
r-----------------------~----.--------.-------~--~
'=:i. \
Phytotron I Phytotron 11
~{ ~ 'H~ I{,
~i '1 /. F~ 0
L...-----'---=:::::,u ~~~:-_~-. ~~f:--= i ..
I ..:.: .. -:=--G~ ~1i -,":'1)
f L(f"-f-.\r~- 9 I
cab;;;:l
Living "J
ltfompartment cabi~
\.\- - ! L_II.....
c,j"-'
~.......
'!".(J
~ .,
<.:.
i,J
I·~
cabm
Figure 1. Closed Bioregenerative life support test system constructed at
Krasnoyarsk, Russia (Adapted from Gitelson et al. 1976)
191
In the plant growth area, wheat predominated but beets, carrots, turnips and other
vegetables were also grown and produced some food. The lohnson Space Center
(lSC) unit involved a 11 m2 plant growing area and a 9 m 2 living section (Figure 2).
At lSC the plant area was dedicated to a single crop (wheat) and no effort was made to
obtain food from the plants. Neither of these systems involved any effort to reprocess
solid wastes, however in the Russian unit, dry leaves were incinerated to produce
needed carbon dioxide and also urine was returned to the plant growing system.
Root Zone
Lamp Lamp
Bank Bank
COLUMNS
Figure 2. Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC) at the lohnson Space Center.
This sealed, air-tight chamber grows approximately 11m2 of plants and is
attached to a 9 m2 human habitation area.
Figure 2. Closed bioregenerative life support test system constructed at lohnson Space
Center, Houston, TX.
A facility is under construction at the lohnson Space Center at Houston, Texas to

develop a totally self-contained and recycling system for 4 persons (Figure 3). This
will involve five 11.3 m meter long cylinders of 4.6 m diameter to provide continuous
complete closed life support for up to 12 months (Henninger et al. 1996).
192
Figure 3. Schematic of one of five 4.6 m x 11.3 m cylinders of the Human-

Rated Test Facility under construction at NASA's 10hnson Space Center.
This paper will emphasize the perspectives and challenges that are being
realized in the ongoing efforts and also that are being anticipated in the future use of
plants in space. The concern for construction and control of the bioregenerative life
support systems will be detailed by Sager and Drysdale in this volume.
2. Perspectives for the future
2.1. SYSTEM SIZE
The previous studies have shown that one person's life support requirements can be
obtained from a growing area less than 25 m 2 but that a system should be designed
with nearly double this area to insure some redundancy to avoid problems during its
operation (Gitelson et al. 1976, Salisbury 1991, Tibbitts et al. 1994). This area would
provide adequate food to meet the daily energy and total protein requirements,
although the menu would likely need supplementation with minerals, and vitamins to
provide a balanced diet. This plant growing area would, at anyone time, provide
considerably more oxygen than needed for breathing by humans and similarly would
consume considerably much more carbon dioxide than respired by the people;
however a large amount of oxygen would be consumed and carbon dioxide released in
the waste processor as the inedible plant parts and human wastes would have to be
recycled. Therefore the net area required for gas exchange for humans is essentially
similar to that required for food requirements.
193
An area of 25 m2 is capable of producing significantly more clean water,

through evaporation from the leaves than one person requires. It has been shown with
wheat that 3-4 m 2 will satisfy the potable water requirements of one person (Gitelson
et al. 1989, Wheeler et al. 1993, Bugbee 1992). The space requirement of this size, 25
m 2 , dictates that biological life support systems have their best application in large
installations on the Moon and Mars. Many of the designs for Moon and Mars stations
have incorporated plant growing systems (Figure 4). Studies have been made of
incorporating small scale units aboard orbiting space stations and particularly the Mars
transit vehicles. A system using only algae has been proposed for a Mars voyage to
provide the gaseous exchange for oxygen and carbon dioxide atmospheres with all
food obtained from stowage (Gittelson 1992, MacElroy et al. 1992, Mezhevikin et al.
1994).
Figure 4. Proposed design for Moon base incorporating a plant

growing unit.
2.2. SELECTION OF CROPS
Interesting questions arise concerning what crops will be grown. Of primary need will
be to provide for the food requirements that are needed in the largest amounts in the
diet. These being carbohydrates (70 %), proteins (20 %) and fats (l 0%). Thus
carbohydrates supply for the persons diet will have principal emphasis in space
facilities. This will likely be supplied from wheat, potatoes, rice and/or beans and the
194
percentage grown of each particular crop being controlled to a significant extent by the
preferences of the astronauts living and working in the facility. The growth of
different species providing similar nutritional factors for the diet would provide variety
to menus and also provide a useful redundancy in the event that problems developed in
maintaining optimum growth and yields of a particular species.
The emphasis in the system must be upon crops that produce high quantities of
digestible food per unit area and time. Portions of foods eaten but not digested, will be
returned to the system as feces and will have to be broken down in the waste
processing units. There will be no particular advantage to having a fast maturing crop
unless it has a greater production per unit time than a slow maturing crop. It has been
found that wheat and potatoes have similar production per unit time even though
wheat matures in 60 days and potatoes require 120 days. There is actually some
advantage to crops with a long growing period for there would be less frequent
planting and harvesting and thus likely less time devoted to the longer growing crop.
2.3. MULTIPLE GROWING UNITS
There will likely be multiple growing units constructed with separate controls on each
so that one unit can be stopped for maintenance while other units can continue to
operate. This also provides a needed redundancy in the event that one unit fails, as a
result of failure of the mechanical systems or particular plant growth or disease
problems. There would be an advantage to having the individual growing units in
separate rooms or chambers so that the environment could be optimized for different
species in each separate room, and/or so that units could be alternately lighted to
provide better atmospheric gas balance for the facility.
2.4. GROWING MEDIA
Considerable study has been focused on the use of both solid media and hydroponic
systems for plant growing in space. The choice is dictated by several concerns; first is
the need to have a small mass and volume, second to maintain optimum plant
productivity, and third to have a system that can be predictable and effectively
automated. Thus much effort has been directed toward hydroponic systems which
provide the potential of very small amounts of mass and can be readily automated.
Hydroponic systems have been emphasized in past biorenerative test units (Gitelson et
al. 1976, Prince et al. 1987). Nonetheless there are serious limitations to the use of
hydroponic in that it is difficult to insure that sufficient fluid and oxygen are delivered
to all of the roots as they continue to enlarge and also because plants in hydroponic
systems are particularly vulnerable to injury if the liquid circulation is disrupted for
any length of time.
195
The difficulty in insuring optimum growth in pure hydroponic systems has

encouraged many scientists to sudy the utilization of a small amount of essentially
inert media. This has been accomplished for microgravity by burying porous tubes
within a media matrix and keeping nutrient solution within the tubes under a slight
negative pressure so that the roots are watered through capillary movement of liquid
from the porous tubes (Morrow et al. 1993, Tibbitts et al. 1995). The use of solid
matrix also permits the possibility of providing a matrix that is preloaded with the
desired nutrients and acidity control for the crops being grown. Considerable study
has been made of different forms of zeoponics for solid matrix use. (Ming et al. 1994).
Study has also been made of potential of utilizing native materials present on Moon
and Mars to provide the solid matrix (Sullivan and McKay 1991) and also zeoponics
for nutrient and pH regulation (Ming & Henninger 1994).
2.5. INSECTS AND DISEASES
A distinct advantage of closed growing systems in space over open growing plantings
on the earth is the freedom from most damaging insects and diseases. Plants will be
multiplied initially from tissue that is sterile. Thus all common species of pests
involving crop-specific insects as beetles, worms, mites and aphids and crop-specific
diseases as rusts, mildews, anthracnose, and blights should be avoided in the space
systems. Nonetheless the system will not be operated in a sterile mode and thus non
species-specific organisms, particularly microorganisms that could be carried by
people, will likely be present and have the potential of causing problems. This is
anticipated particularly for microorganisms that colonize nutrient solutions as
phythium and soft rot organisms.
2.6. PROPAGAnON
Initially plant propagules will be carried into space for the initial plantings but it is
anticipated that follow-on plantings will be made with propagules generated in space.
It is anticipated that micropropagation techniques will be utilized for regeneration of
propagules in space to provide the most space efficient and labor efficient procedures
for the plantings of each crop. Considerable effort is presently underway to develop
efficient and predictable procedures for the propagation of white potatoes and sweet
potatoes that are maintained vegetatively to meet demands on the earth.
Micropropagation procedures have been developed for most seed crops (Zimmerman
1986) however considerably more effort is needed to provide efficient and predictable
procedures for each of the seed crops.
196
2.7. PSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANTAGES
The importance of plants in a small enclosed space facility for the psychological health
of crew members has received considerable attention. It has been reported that small
plantings in the Mir space station provided a significant pleasure to the cosmonauts.
(Lebedev 1990). The development of a small plant growth facility at the isolated
South Pole outpost has been recognized to be of significant physiological well-being to
the scientists there and is leading to the development of a bioregenerative life support
system at that location funded cooperatively by NASA and the National Science
Foundation (Straight et al. 1996).
It is suspected that certain space personnel will want to commit a portion of their
work time, and possibly even free time, to maintaining and harvesting of the "space
farms". This tangible psychological impact of plants will undoubtedly have some
impact on the procedures that are developed for planting, maintaining and harvesting
the plants. It may be desirable to have systems developed that require humans
interaction rather than installing totally automated systems for each crop.
Psychological considerations may also have a direct impact on the selection of species.
Species may be selected to effectively channel human interaction as in picking fresh
strawberries or harvesting vine-ripe tomatoes. It is anticipated that certain crops may
be grown in limited amounts purely for their psychological value and to provide
variety and pleasure to a menu, as strawberries for a desert, and certainly tomatoes for
flavoring, and cress or basil for spicing dishes.
2.8. PLANT IMAGING
There will be a distinct value to developing systems for full color video imaging of
the growing plants that will permit close interaction and scrutiny by specialists on
Earth to help solve problems as they develop (Hetzroni et al. 1994, Ling & Giacomilli
1996). This should include binocular imagining of tissue parts and microscopic
imaging of microorganisms. Also an essential part of the diagnosis and solving of
plant problems on the space stations will be the availability of analytical equipment for
determination of nutrient concentrations of tissues and solutions.
2.9. HYPOGRAVITY
The reduced gravity environment in space has always been a concern to scientists
maintaining plants in space facilities. Gravity is essentially zero, (microgravity) in
orbiting satellites and during flights to Moon or Mars. However at locations on the
surface of Moon and Mars, there will be a gravity environment, one-sixth of the earth
on the Moon and one third on Mars. The initial concern has been for plant orientation,
however light is effective in maintaining shoot orientation and roots can be contained
197
and will branch effectively within any moist media. However, there are two concerns.
One is for the effective supply of nutrients and water to the plants with procedures that
provide adequate water without flooding and oxygen starvation. Several procedures
have been developed and evaluated in space, the most effective being the use of
porous tubes in the rooting zone through which nutrient solution is pumped under a
slight negative pressure (Morrow et al. 1993, Dreshel and Sager 1989). The second
concern involves the lack of convective air movement that reduces air mixing and thus
reduces thermal exchange and water vapor exchange. Thus greater forced air
exchange is required when systems are operated in space compared to on earth. This
will be discussed by Sager and Drysdale in this volume.
2.10. REDUCED PRESSURES
Plant systems being maintained in space will be subjected to varied atmospheric

pressures primarily with reductions from 14.7 psi (lOlkPa) to 10 psi (70 kPa). This
will result from the space facilities at times being operated at 10 psi to reduce air
losses due to leakage and to facilitate extravehicular activity (EV A) in low-pressure
space suits. The reduction in pressure has not been shown to have any major effect on
plant growth and development although it has been shown that water loss from plants
is increased (Daunicht and Brinkjans, 1992)
3. Challenges
3.1. WASTE PROCESSING
There are many challenges to be mastered in the development of an operational system

in space. Of primary concern is the inclusion of waste processors to effectively recycle
95+ % of the gaseous, liquid and solids that are utilized for life support. The portion
that is not recycled must be replaced, either by resupply from the earth at a very high
cost, or from raw materials present at the location of the space facility (Sullivan &
McKay 1991). There are many efforts being directed to waste processing in several
different locations around the world. Biological systems, in combination with
physical/chemical systems, are being studied intensively (Binot et al. 1994, McElroy &
Wang 1989, Oguchi & Nitta 1992, Sirko et al. 1994, Takahashi & Tanaka 1992).
These efforts will be coordinated into an integrated functioning system using
anticipated food crops in combination with humans in the human-rated test facility
being developed at the Iohnson Space Center (Henninger et al. 1996)
198
3.2. CONTAMINATION
A second major challenge in closed life support systems is the maintenance of

atmospheres and liquid systems that are free of contaminants that weaken plants or
injure humans. Thus detailed systems are being evaluated for air revitalization and
liquid decontamination. The atmosphere concerns center primarily around volatile
hydrocarbons produced by construction materials, plants, people and microorganisms
(Batten et al. 1995). Of known concem for plants is ethylene, a gaseous compound
released by living plants, and toxic to certain plants in concentrations of 50 ppb or less
(Peters en et al. 1996). Of greater concern are unrecognized contaminants that may be
present only in certain facilities because of the particular construction materials that
were used or because of the particular biological organisms being maintained in the
growing units or waste processors (Tibbitts, 1995). It will be necessary to test fully
integrated systems in tightly sealed chambers for long durations in order that toxic
trace contaminants are identified.
3.3. MICROORGANISM CONTROL
The significance of microorganism accumulation in the nutrient solution is being

researched by several different groups (Gitelson et al. 1989, Koenig et al. 1994,
Strayer 1991, Strayer 1994). It is generally assumed that it is essentially impossible,
and thus impractical, to attempt to maintain a sterile atmosphere in space facilities as
long as there is human habitation. Thus it is recognized that there will be
microorganisms present that are capable of producing toxic reactions to plant and
people and that control strategies will be directed toward keeping populations below
toxic levels. Study of continuously recirculating systems for months at Krasnoyarsk
(Gitelson et al. 1989) and at Kennedy Space Center (Strayer 1994) appear to
document that microorganisms accumulate to a particular level and then maintain a
reasonably stable popUlation of toxic and beneficial microorganisms that do not cause
problems if the system is maintained in a healthy manner. Considerable study has
focused on different types of control measures to reduce microorganism populations;
filtration, ultraviolet irradiation, gamma irradiation, and other procedures (Evans 1994,
Vestegard 1994). Each procedure has the limitation of adding mass to the life support
system, additional maintenance time, and increased material costs. Thus
bioregenerative systems will likely be developed and operated with a natural balance
of microorganisms but with provision for installation of specific control procedures if
problems develop.
199
3.4. PLANT COMPATffiILITY
There is a need to establish if there are incompatibilities (alleopathy) between crop

species when grown together in the same unit. The most significant concern is
exudates from the root system of one plant that cause toxicity to other species when
maintained with the same recycling nutrient solution. Studies at present with potatoes
and wheat, have not demonstrated any significant incompatibility between these two
species (Tibbitts et al. 1994, Wheeler, personal communication).
Of interest are the results with successive potato crops being grown at the
Kennedy Space Center (Stutte 1995) and the accumulation in the nutrient solution of
an exudate from the roots that has produced smaller plants and promoted rapid
tuberization in successive plantings. Undoubtedly, as systems are developed and
operated for long periods of time, unique responses will be obtained and need to be
understood to sustain high productivity.
3.5. ENERGY
A major challenge for the operation of the life support system is the provision of
adequate energy on a continuous basis to keep systems operating and life support sub-
units in balance. The plant growing system has a large demand for energy to provide
lighting for plants. This will require about 2.1 kW m- 2 for plant lighting, a similar
amount to cool the plants, plus energy to drive circulating fans and pumps and to
condense out the moisture evaporated from the plant leaves (Drysdale et al. 1993).
Considerable thinking and discussion has been directed toward using sunlight directly
for lighting plants but this poses serious problems in different space growing
situations. An orbiting satellite is constantly changing it orientation with the sun
during each 90 minute orbit so that it would be difficult to collect and direct the light
to the plants. Also the 60 minute light and 30 minute dark periods during each orbit
would be limiting to growth of many plant species ( Morrow et al. 1988).
On the moon the light: dark cycle of 14 days of light and 14 days of dark poses
severe limitations on plant growth. However, a Russian group showed that different
crops, including wheat, could be produced under this lighting regime if plants were
kept at 3 C during each dark period (Gitelson et al. 1989). On Mars, although the light
:dark cycle is 12: 12 hours, it is suspected that the dust storms would seriously limit the
quantity of available sunlight (Drysdale et al. 1993).
Thus it is generally considered that solar collectors, with battery storage, will be
utilized on orbiting satellites and that some combination of solar collectors and
generated electricity, possibly with small nuclear reactors, will be required at
permanent bases on Moon and Mars.
200
3.6. INTELLIGENT CONTROLS
An excltlllg challenge in bioregenerative life support systems for space is the

development of intelligent controls that will sense or monitor the many process and
maintain a balanced, stable system for long periods of time (Cornett 1994, Drysdale et
al. 1994, Goto and Takura 1995, 10hnson 1996, Modell et al. 1989). These controls
must be automated to reduce human time requirements but be intelligent so that the
best options are selected to maintain a balanced systems for long periods of time.
Additionally, these bioregenerative life support systems are very complex and errors
will propagate through such a system manifesting itself in some sort of failure such
that without accurate predictive models, avoidance of failure will be difficult.
4. Summary
It is a foregone conclusion that humans will explore space. The challenges lie in doing
so in an economical and safe manner. A key enabling technology for human
exploration and development of space is bioregenerative life support systems. Such
systems will be developed and tested so that missions to return to the Moon and
missions to Mars are possible.
201
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populations grown in closed plant growth chambers. Phytochem. 39,1351-1357.
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Bugbee, B (1992) Steady state gas exchange in controlled environments. HortScience
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Daunicht, H.J. and H.J. Brinkjans (1992) Gas exchange and growth of plants under
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Johnson, IR (1996) Canopy photosynthesis in response to environmental conditions.
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Koenig, DW et al. (1994) Microbiological characterization of a regenerative life
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Ming, DW and DL Henninger (1994) Use of lunar regolith as a substrate for plant
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Ming, DW et al. (1994) Zeoponic plant growth substrates. Amer. Inst Aero Astro
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13l.
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(Abst) ASGSB Bulletin 1,30.
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control of the WCSAR porous tube nutrient delivery system. 23rd Inter Conf
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Paper Series 932282.
Oguchi, M. and K Nitta (1992) Evaluations of catalysts for wet oxidation waste
management in CELSS Adv. Space Res. 12 (5), 21-26
Peterson, BV et al. (1996) Ethylene production throughout crop studies in NASA's
biomass production chamber. Adv Space Res 18, 193-196.
Prince, RP et al. (1987) Design and performance of the KSC biomass production
chamber. 17th Intersoc Conf. Environ. Systems, Seattle, Washington, July 13-
15, 1987 SAE Tech Paper Series 871437.
Salisbury, FB (1991) Lunar farming: Achieving maximum yield for the exploration of
space. HortScience 26(7), 827-833.
Sirko, RJ et al.( 1994) Lunar base CELSS design and analysis. Adv Space Res. 14 (11),
105-112.
Straight, C et al. (1996) CELSS Antarctic analog project (CAAP): A new paradigm for
polar life support and CELSS research. Adv Space Res 18.
Strayer, RF (1991) Microbiological characterization of the biomass production
chamber during hydroponic growth of crops at the controlled ecological life
support system (CELSS) breadboard facility. 21st International Conference on
Environmental Systems. San Francisco, California, July 15-18, 1991.
Strayer, RF (1994) Dynamics of microorganism populations in recirculating nutrient
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203
Stutte, GW. (1995) Plant Growth Regulation Strategies in Controlled Ecological Life
Support Systems. Proceedings of Plant Growth Regulator Society of America.
23,252-257.
Sullivan, TA and DS McKay (1991) Using Space Resources. NASA lohnson Space
Center US Govt. Printing Office 1991 :561-653.
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system for space use: Its issues and waste. Adv. Space Res. 12 (5), 65-73
Tibbitts, TW (1995) Injuries from contaminants in controlled environments. Adv.
Space Res. 18(4/5), 197-201.
Tibbitts, TW, et al. (1994) Growth of potatoes for CELSS. 190 pages. NASA
Contractor Report 177646, Ames Research Station, Moffett Field, CA
Tibbitts, TW, et al. (1995) Development of a siphon system with porous tubes for
maintaining a constant negative water pressure in a rooting matrix. Biotronics
24,7-14.
Vestergard, B (1994) Establishing and maintaining specific pathogen free (SPF)
conditions in aqueous solutions using ozone. Adv. Space Res. 14 (11), 387-394.
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horticultural Crops. U.S. Dept . Agriculture Symposium, Oct 20-23, 1985.
Beltsville. Mirtinus NijhofflJunk, The Hague
CONCEPTS, COMPONENTS, AND CONTROLS FOR A CELSS
1. C. Sager
NASA, Mail Code MD-RES, Kennedy Space Center, FL, USA
A. E. Drysdale
McDonnell Douglas Space and Defense Systems, Kennedy Space Center
FL, USA
ABSTRACT. If humans are to explore the universe and establish bases on the Lunar
surface, Mars, and other extraterrestrial bodies, development of an advanced life
support system (ALS) is essential. A bioregenerative ALS is the basic concept of a
controlled ecological life support system (CELSS). The selection of the components in
a CELSS for long duration missions would most likely be a combination of
bioregenerative and physico-chemical components. Requirements for design and
development of an ALS system include modularity, open architecture, autonomous
control, and high reliability. Autonomous control is needed to maintain appropriate
environments and provide robutsness in the event of a communication failure, and
must be capable of recognizing and modifying the control environments based on the
observed biological responses and life support requirements. The development of
CELSS components meeting these requirements will result in an advanced life support
system that can enable the exploration of space and human colonization of the
universe.
1. Introduction
The NASA Strategic Roadmap includes three primary missions. One is to explore,
use, and enable the development of space for human enterprise (Goldin, 1996). Five
strategic enterprises have been established to achieve these missions. The Human
Exploration and Development of Space enterprise (HEDS) mission defines four goals.
One of which is to explore and settle the solar system (Littles and Holloway, 1996).
Advanced Life Support systems are critical for continued exploration of the universe
and establishment of a human presence on the moon, in the Martian System and
elsewhere in the Inner Solar System (Littles and Holloway, 1996). Historically
missions have utilized a high technology form of backpacking, relying on life support
commodities either prepackaged or derived from stored materials through physico-
chemical processes such as fuel cells for supply of water. Life support on these
missions has evolved from the earliest US and Russian orbital capsules to the present
205
E. GOla et al. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 205-223.
206
day status of the shuttle and the MlR Space Station. It has long been considered that
advanced physico-chemical systems will be developed prior to bioregenerative
systems. Future life support systems will evolve from the physico-chemical systems
presently used through much more sophisticated physico-chemical systems, and,
ultimately, to bioregenerative components and hybrid systems (Henninger, 1996). A
NASA program for bioregenerative life support system development was begun in
1978 as the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program (Averner
and Salisbury, 1993). The CELSS concept was based on the integration of biological
and physico-chemical processes to develop safe and reliable life support systems that
will produce nutritious and palatable food, potable and hygiene water, and a breathable
atmosphere by recycling metabolic and other wastes.
2. Concepts
2.1. BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN SPACE
Bioregenerative life support will depend on the performance of biological systems in

space. Some data on the performance of biological elements in space has been obtained
through the scientific experiments flown from the earliest orbital flights to the present
day (Halstead and Dutcher, 1987). The earliest complete plant cycle in space was with
Arabidopsis on the Salyut Orbital Station in 1982 (Merkies and Laurinauichyus, 1983).
Present day missions with biological specimens have included all types of biological
components from cells to higher plants (Dutcher, et aI., 1994). Shuttle missions in the
last ten years have included higher plant research on day lily, Arabidopsis, soybean,
bras sic a, and wheat (Brown, 1995). The Russian experiments on MlR and Soluyz have
included numerous plants, the most notable of which used SVETOBLOCK for
growing wheat (Dutcher et al., 1994) and on a more completely instrumented SVET in
a collaborative experiment by Salisbury et al., (1996a). An understanding of plant
growth in space is vital if a bioregenerative life support system is to be used in space.
2.2. LIFE SUPPORT COMMODITIES
A life support system must provide the primary life support commodities of water, air,
and food. The requirement for water, depending on the data source, ranges from 20 -
30 kg per day, for oxygen about 0.8 kg per day, and for food about 0.6 kg per day based
on a 3,000 kilocalorie diet. The quality of the water is stated in STD 3000. Design of a
bioregenerative system depends on the components, the processing elements, and the
type of crops. The energy input and the atmospheric moisture are of the greatest
importance as indicated in the system description by Corey and Wheeler (1992) and
Drysdale et al. (1994a). The description of the food commodity is difficult, and will
require a change from the current operational procedures whereby the crew describes
exactly the menu and quantities that they desire (Salisbury and Cl ark, 1996b).
207
However, the proximate compositIOn and the total diets are extremely important
(Kihm-Leyques et aI., 1996). The composition of plants from controlled environments
is similar to field grown plants, but with slightly higher proteins and lower
carbohydrates (Wheeler et aI., 1996a). These differences in composition may require
further study to determine if they are significant factors in human nutrition.
2.3. DESIGN APPROACHES
A number of design approaches can be used. However, redundant modularity will

decrease the probability of failure and increase the control fidelity. An open
architecture will enable the expansion of the life support system to accommodate
increases in the number of crewmembers and the inclusion of new and different
technologies as appropriate for specific missions. Autonomous control is important to
provide a reliable and secure response to system failures or modifications and will
result in greater fault tolerance and the ability to recover automatically. These three
approaches will enable us to define a highly efficient, reliable and secure life support
system. Present testing of the life support systems for International Space Station
Alpha (ISSA) has not included testing the effects of human occupation on oxygen and
carbon cycling or on atmospheric contaminants from the physico-chemical processing
elements (Reuter et aI., 1996). The first tests with humans and higher plants in a NASA
facility were performed to measure carbon and oxygen cycling and contributions to the
volatile organic compounds (VaC) in the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) at
Kennedy Space Center (KSC) with wheat and potato crops in 1989 and 1990 (Corey
and Wheeler, 1992; Doerr et aI., 1995) and at lohnson Space Center (JSC) in 1995
(Edeen et aI., 1996).
2.4. HUMAN TESTING
The earliest tests to develop bioregenerative life support were begun in Russia (former
Soviet Union) in the 1950s by chief designer S. P. Korober (Mashinsky and Nachitailo,
1996). The work began with algae systems but was expanded to include higher plants
early in the program. The algae systems provide a means of atmospheric regeneration
and potential for water recycling, as shown by Eley and Myers (1964) and Miller and
Ward (1966). The designs of algal systems have been extensively investigated and are
discussed in Adachi (1996). Extensive algal work has been done and current work is
progressing by Russian investigators Gitelson and Rodicheva (1996) and Bolsunovsky
and Zharoronkov (1996) and the Breadboard Project has initiated an investigation on
algal productivity based on cell culture and LED lighting. The earliest long term tests
began in the mid-70s in Krasnoyarsk at the Institute of Biophysics in a special facility
(BIOS) for up to 180 days with a crew of four and both higher plant crops and algae
(Gitelson et aI., 1976). Present program plans for advanced life support include human
testbeds to be located at lohnson Space Center (lSC). These will test the ability of
plant and physico-chemical systems to provide adequate life support for the human
208
Table 1. T fHab ·
Type Typical Advantages Disadvantages
delivered mass
Dedicated 70 kg/m' Significant experience. Least efficient use of deli_ered ma'S
aerospace Already out filled and checked Must wi thstand launch loads. possibly at a different
stIUcture ou1 . orie ntation from operational use .
Minimal sparing. Volume/form-factor limited deli_ery
Erectable 70 kg/m' As above. but mass-limited Mechanical complexity.
ded icated delivery. Reliability
aerospace Does not have to withstand Some manpower & eq uipme", for outfi lling.
structure launch loads In deployed Manpower & equipment for checkoul.
configuration. Increased sparing.
Fabricated 70 kg/m ' Mass-limited deli_ery. Manpower & equipmenl for conslruction .
on-site Does nol have to wi thstand Manpower & equi pment for oUlfilling.
from launc h loads in deployed Manpower & equipmenl for checkoul.
deli vered configuration. Highest level of sparing.
components More local repair capability in
place.
Inflatables 5 - 10 kg/m' Lower rna..~s. Perceived higher risk.
Mass limited delivery. More manpower & equipment for outritting.
Does not have 10 wi thstand May requi re secondary support in evenl of collapse.
launch loads in deployed Manpower & equipment fo r checkou!.
configuration. Highest level of spari ng.
Reused 0 - 10 kg/m' Low dedicaled mass Manpower & equipment fo r outfilling.
aerospace (dedicaled ) Primary or secondary fun ctions may be impaired
structure Must wilhs tand launch loads. possibly al different
e.g. STS orientallon from operational use.
ET. Lunar Manpower & equipment for checkou!.
log mod ule. Increased spari ng .
Fabricated About 1% of More inherent shielding from Raw malerial availability limited at some locations.
from local manufaclured manufaclured SlrUCl ures. Pollulion. environmenlAl drunage. loss of scientific
components mass for Large amount of available da ta.
manufac luring malerials. Manpower. energy. & equipmenl for manufacturing.
infrastructure Requires pressure membrane.
Habitat Manpower & equipment for construction. i
structure Manpower & equipment for oUlfiuing..
probably quile Manpower & equipment for checkout.
m3...~sive . Highest le_el of spanng .
Use of local Mass limited to Very good shielding possible. Requires prior site survey.
features pressure Site preparalion may be minimal. Reslricted sile location.
such as membrane .nd EnvironmenlOl damage. loss of scientifi c data.
lava lubeS related hardware Sile preparation manpower & equipment .
and Manpower & equipment for oUllini ng.
additionnl Requ ires pre,sure membrane.
equipment . Manpowe r & equipment for checkout .
Vari ous sizes. shapes and inclinalions of tunnels -
ma.y require extensive site improvcmcnI .
Highest level of sparing.
Creation of Mass limited to Not as site dependent as natural Requi res more machinery.
local tunneling tunnels_ Most power intensive. especially rock melt concepts.
features equipment. Beue r geometry of lunnels. Requires prior s ite survey _
such as press ure Poll ulion. environmental d.mage. loss of scienlific
tu nnels membrane d.lO.
and related Terre..trial experience is of limiled applicability.
hardware and Requires pressure membrane.
additional Site preparatIon manpower & equipment.
equipment. Manpower & equipment for outfiuin g.
Manpower & equipment for chockout
Highes t level of sparing.
---
209
occupancy, Long term human tests are planned, called Early Human Test Initiative
(EHT I) during the next two years (Henninger, 1996). A test using physico-chemical
systems with a crew of four with a duration of 30 days was just completed on July 12,
1996. The next human test will replace some of the physico-chemical systems with
those planned for use on ISSA. This test (EHTI-IIa) is planned for November 1996
(Henninger, 1996). Ultimately, development of a human rated test facility is planned
for the continuation of these experiments beginning in the year 2000 (Tri et aI., 1996).
The human rated test facility will be built of modules similar to those to be used on the
space station. However, the design and optimization of enclosures for life support
continues to be based on a variety of options including the space station module,
inflatable enclosures, and more sophisticated approaches. The advantages and
disadvantages of these different types of construction are shown in Table 1 ( Drysdale,
1995b).
3. Components
3.1. BREADBOARD PROJECT
Much of the existing data on performance of higher plants in closed chambers has been
collected in the Breadboard Project at KSC. The Breadboard Project was conceived
and a project plan approved at the Life Science Division level at NASA Headquarters
in 1986. The Project began with an emphasis on higher plant crop production utilizing
growth chambers and defining the requirements for plant culture. Specific crops
recommended for a CELSS diet were described by several studies (Hoff et aI., 1982;
Tibbitts and Alford, 1980; Salisbury and Clark. 1996b). The keystone of the
Breadboard Project has been the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) which began as
a hypobaric test chamber for Mercury and Gemini modules and was refitted as a plant
growing system. It has undergone significant and continual modification during the
last ten years of utilization (Wheeler, et aI., 1996b). Development of the
complimentary systems for resource recovery have been ongoing from the earliest
stages of the Breadboard Project and have included saccarification of inedible biomass
and its use in edible fungus production (Strayer, 1993) and the development of an
agricultural system to utilize the inedible biomass and produce an animal protein
source (Dreschel et aI., 1991). An approach using anaerobic reactors (Schwingel and
Sager, 1996) and producing edible yeast has also been developed (Strayer et aI., 1996).
More recently emphasis has been placed on recycling inedible mass directly to the
plant production system through the use of a leaching system with aerobic treatment
(Garland et aI., 1993). The efficiency of these resource recovery components have been
enhanced by utilization of a mixed microbial beds with photosynthetic components
(CueUo and Sager, 1995). The development of small aerobic reactors for rapidly
recycling of plant nutrient minerals and long term decomposition of the recalcitrant
210
carbon utilizing high solid density aerobic (composting) reactors have also been
studied (Finger et aI., 1996).
Breadboard controls have been continuously upgraded and improved beginning with
the development of an atmospheric control system (Sager et aI., 1988) and leading to
the present control system embodied in the UNDACE software package (Bledsoe et aI.,
1993; Little and Drysdale, 1996). The Breadboard Project has contributed significantly
over the past ten years in development of data for specific crop culture, system
productivity, closed system operation, and composition of the atmosphere, water and
food components, and the development of control and reliability databases. The
Breadboard will continue to provide data integrating the life support components to
provide the required elements in a large scale nonhuman testbed (Sager, 1994;
Henninger, 1996).
3.2. CONNECTIVITY
The components of an advanced life support system are intimately interconnected. This
connectivity of components is described in Table 2 (Drysdale et aI., 1994a).
3.3. HIGHER PLANTS
The primary focus in the advanced bioregenerative life support program has been crop
production using higher plant. Crops investigated in the Breadboard Project have
included wheat, soybean, lettuce, white potato, sweet potato, tomato, peanut, and
strawberry (Wheeler et aI., 1996b). Crop plants selected for a life support system will
vary according to the system constraints in lighting, temperature, and nutrient delivery.
Breadboard data will be used for design of an advanced life support system based on
the production of life support commodities by crop systems. The capability of a
bioregenerative life support system to produce the required life support elements are
shown in Table 3 (Wheeler et aI., 1996b).
3.4. FOOD PROCESSING
In the matrix of component connectivity, Table 2, one of the components is, food
processing. Although, this has received extremely low priority in the advanced life
support program, a complete volume of recipes was developed by the Breadboard
Project, Biomass Processing Panel (AIBS-KSC, 1989). Also, the Bioregenerative
NSCORTs (NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training) at Purdue University
(Fa and Nelson, 1994) and at Rutgers University have emphasized food processing and
recipes development (Karel, 1982). The development of specific processing tools and
the necessary capabilities are defined in the discussion on food processing by Hunter
and Drysdale (1996a and 1996b).
Table 2. CELSS C - --- .... ------ C v· •••"' ...... l' ."J
to Primary Food Wa ter Atmosphere! Crew Resource System S upport Monitor a nd control
from production process ing processi n)l )las ..chan!!" r eCovery components
frilnilct I'hoIn<YDI_ ~ Qu.wl hi!lj"ib~ QiQIm\.~s l:lw raUI' EDit n~blllle~
~ f.iJ:liU2n.in& I!.ilmllw ~ nutrient PPlate
II[lnS!i[J l~] 1[11" £GDIIJwiDlaOIS ~
Rt<nlratlon CQ,
Food PTOdfl.wmt Waltrv{Jpor Food Proctssing W(15/el H~at Daw; food produ.ction
p rocessing ol/ood/ffltJ CO, - solid
.dibu • liquid
biom4SS
Wa ter ~1.lIri'OI mlKCI.!lJ ~ Produdlon Dry air Porab/~ -,..'C]/U ~ lIt>at Qio\lJr !DU~[ ~U2Shl~LigD !k
p r ocessin g li!.lDlidifit[~11i.[ ~ otpoioble, CO, lIyg;eltt water ~ !UIlIIiIx
It,,itJu, ,&
III!lS:SEi
wllter
Atmospher e !;;Q, 0, GM ucluJIIge 0, 0, 1f.00,~ Data : ~
HllIIUII compo.~nlt J-/eut 83 kglmodulelyr ~&.UStrvtJ
Igas
excha n!!e ~a.'i ~Urr~DDI Qverpt'eSSure dump
Crew ~ Work Worl< CO, Work Worl< Worl< Data.' mtlabolic rau, gaJ
IItOl fR..piralio,,/ Urint txchongt,/o{)d &: Wole'
WOltf WJpor Ftces uplOkt
Tma C()n ltlmrnUl1ls Hygitnt M'Oler
Resource ~uu:i~D!Dlr.1~pg CO, Bs:IIIDl mall:dl15 H~tJI, Unncavuabt~ Data: gas t xclwngt.
r ecovery lIem tg Bk (Q(m. milluials r .g_ash IDDI,riais hilimg;
Wa,ervo.pm mandI:tBif Excess nwterials e,g, carbo"
Tra ct Cl)ntam,nuflls IlM'dlbr. blom_
System Power ... Initial Power, Power, Power, Equipment 'Supplied foods Power. Equipment P",wlslon 01' powu, cooling, Data : power usage and heal
Support setup: modules, Equipmen., Equipment Spare.< e,g. slwk, spices, Spares rommunl<atlom, rejection., dala transmission
Componen ts equipment. waler, Expendable.s Expendables Makwp gos coffee toOSIIlIIables, expe.....bIes Data: comm(xUly use &.
nulr sailS. seeds pares e.g. ion Medic.1 supplies ''' 1'fS,&< packag\.ol, tracking Spare.s Data, mass
elc. spares. exchange RtmOYlIi 01' uo...nted dumped
makeup salts materials materials
So.,...
Monitor .nd CQWlllIllldsc I: C&mmltnl4 C&mmltnl4 ~mllRllds C E Q Sysumdala Commands e • I Communications, Supply Monll0ri", &< tOfttrol 01'
control tll~imDIlltDlal ~ ~ UWiJkdn:lciJS!;; Recommend-ed bioreaCIQ( sparl!C GUt rqmlS an CEL.'>S
S<2J\lmIs ~ ditl
=or.s
to.)
-
212
TABLE 3. Results from crop tests conducted in NASA's Controlled Ecological

Life Su~~ort Sl:stem {CELSS} Biomass Production Chamber.
Crop! Date Days of Total Edible C02 l 0 21 Water
°Eeration Biornass Fixed Produced Collected
(d) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Wheat 881 2 77 23.06 9.24 35.5 25.8 3615

Wheat 8823 64 26.14 early harvest 40.3 29.3 57004
Wheat 891 86 37.76 11.01 58.2 42.3 6903
Wheat 892 85 44.24 13.12 68.1 50.7 7809
Wheat 931 85 64.11 18.25 98.7 71.8 75004
I Wheat 941 5 84 66.68 19.07 102.7 74.7 7600
Soybean 891 90 26.62 8.58 45.0 32.7 7758

Soybean 901 97 18.94 6.34 32.0 23.3 8211
SO~bean 902 97 20.80 7.79 32.5 25.6 8450
I So bean 951 7 90 13.51 5.18 22.8 16.6 2594
Lettuce 901 28 sequential harvest study

Lettuce 902 28 2.84 2.60 4.2 3.1 976
Lettuce 911 28 3.54 3.24 5.2 3.8 998
Lettuce 921 28 3.57 3.36 5.2 3.8 10004
I Lettuce 931 30 3.99 3.71 5.9 4.3 1074
Potato 911 105 45.58 14.89 68.4 49.7 8778

Potato 912 90 50.67 22.03 76.2 55.4 9361
Potato 921 105 55.42 37.64 83.1 60.5 7954
Potato 931 105 55.88 34.12 83.8 61.0 8546
I Potato 941 6 418 272 167 409 296 28446
I Tomato 951 7 (84) 5.88 4.97 8.8 6.4 3426
Total 1820 841 392 1286 937 136690
Estimate from total biomass and the percentage of carbon in tissue.

2
Only the upper half of the chamber used.
3
3/4 of available growing area used; plant harvest prior to maturity.
4
Some missing data; totals estimated by interpolation of water use trend.
s Data collected from level four only; water estimated until final data compiled.
6
Studies enclosed in box indicate tests where half the plants were grown on recycled
nutrients from an aerobic bioreactor.
7
Simultaneous test with tomato (10 m 2 ) and soybean (10 m 2 ).
213
3.5. WATER PROCESSING
Water processing in a physico-chemical system is a large component of the system and

large user of energy. The recently completed EHTI-II physico-chemical tests, had
problems based on total organic carbon and the system was modified in place to
achieve a final concentration that met STD 3000 (personal communication, Don
Henninger). In a bioregenerative system with the high transpiration rate resulting from
optimized productivity in higher plants, the water is a by-product. The water produced
from plants is comparable to the highest quality required for the Russian MlR and
meets US municipal standards (Drysdale et aI., 1994a). A comparison of the
condensate from the Biomass Production Chamber for three crops indicates the quality
of water meets all of the standards except for bacteria, as shown in Table 4 (Drysdale et
aI., 1994a). In a bioregenerative system, the water quality is heavily dependent on the
materials used fabrication. The water quality from the BPC has very low levels
inorganic constituents other than copper, cadmium and tin (Table 4), which are
attributable to direct leaching of from the system components since copper
condensation coils and solder with cadmium and tin were used in their fabrication.
Design for a human rated system would easily avoid introduction of these elements.
3.6. ATMOSPHERIC GAS EXCHANGE
An example of the gas exchange characteristics for the diurnal cycles of individual
crops are shown in Table 3 (Wheeler et aI., 1996b). The gas exchange rates for wheat
vary dramatically during the crop cycle with a maximum at anthesis (Wheeler et aI.,
1993). Of particular interest is the development in higher plant production systems of
volatile organic compounds of abiotic and biotic origin. Techniques have been
developed to identify these compounds (Berdis et aI., 1993) and low levels of
numerous compounds have been identified in the Biomass Production Chamber
(Batten et aI., 1995). The biogenic production of ethylene in closed systems is a
problem (Edeen et aI., 1996). The production of ethylene has been quantified for the
crops grown in the BPC, with wheat being the highest (Wheeler, et aI., 1996c).
3.7. CREW HABITATION
The crew habitation component assumes that the life support system is as autonomous
and as reliable as possible. The main functions of the crew are not to operate the life
support system, but are to perform mission operations such as are necessary to
accomplish a specific mission of exploration, development of an extraterrestrial surface
and exploitation of human presence in a unique environment (Littles and Holloway,
1996; Drysdale, 1995a). The critical functions of water and atmospheric recycling, and
food production are given in NASA STD 3000 and are embodied in the mass
equivalent requirements for an individual (Drysdale et aI., 1994a). The inclusion of
214
Table 4. Comparison ofBPC Condensate Water and Water Standards
Parameter Units BPC Condensate NASA STD Comments

3000
wheat potato potato potable hygiene
pH 6.5 6.6 7. 1 6· 8.5 5·8.5 OK
ammonia ppm ? ? ? 0.5 0.5
Ag ppm 0 0 0 .01 0.05 0.05
As ppm 0.06 0 0 .02 0.01 0.01
Ba ppm 0 0 0 1 1 OK
Ca ppm 1.26 0 0 30 30 OK
Cd ppm 0.049 0 0 0.005 0.005
Cl ppm 200 200
Cr ppm 0.01 0 0 0.05 0 .05 OK
Cu ppm 0 .96 1.06 0.44 1 I
Fe ppm 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.3 0.3 OK
Hg ppm 0 .002 0 .002
I ppm 15 IS
K ppm 7.31 0.42 0 340 340 OK
Mg ppm 0.09 0.03 0 50 50 OK
Mn ppm 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.05
Ni p~m 0.02 0.01 0 0.05 0.05 OK
N03 ppm 0.11 0.09 0 \0 \0 OK
Pb ppm 0.02 0 0.02 0.05 0.05 OK
Se ppm 0.03 0 0.02 0.01 0.01
sulphate pQm 250 250
sulphide ppm 0.05 0.05
Zn ppm 1.86 0.72 0.13 5 5 OK
TOC ppm ? 2 0.5 500 500 OK
CFUJIOO ml
bacteria \06.\07 \06.\07 \06.\07 1· 1· high
anaerobes 1 1
coliform <1 <1 <1 1 1 OK
virus 1 I
yeast & 1 I
moulds
* under review
215
human waste with a much larger mass of inedible biomass from the crop production
systems presents a unique challenge for the resource recovery components.
3.8. RESOURCE RECOVERY
CELSS wastes (e.g., biomass, inedible biomass, and processing waste) have extremely
recalcitrant components in the lignin, hemicellulose, and non-labile cellulose
components. Also, plant and animal elemental requirements are not compatible. A
unique challenge in the resource recovery system is removing the sodium from the
crew waste stream and supplanting it with the potassium necessary for plant
productivity that is derived from the inedible biomass. However, the total mass of
these particular elements is estimated to be less than 10kg per year per crew member
(Drysdale et aI., 1994a). Resource recovery components may include direct extraction
of the plant nutritional elements with aerobic processing to remove any toxic organic
compounds (Finger et aI., 1996; Mackowiak et aI., 1996). Several intermediate
compounds are of concern as well as the loss of critical elements in this resource
recovery stream. These include conversion of nitrogenous compounds, specifically
nitrate to nitrogen oxides and elemental nitrogen. To prevent a net loss, approaches for
nitrogen fixation have been studied by Tsuji et al. (1996) and Finger and Alazraki
(1995). Of special interest is the processing of inedible biomass at the Institute of
Biophysics (Manukovosky et aI., 1996). This system is based on the biotransformation
of biomass utilizing composting, secondary food production with mushrooms, and
utilization of hemicellulose by earth worms, resulting in a carbon storage buffer with
extremely diversified biological components. As mentioned previously the
components of resource recovery systems may be extremely simple in that a rapid
aerobic reactor may be utilized to remove large masses of elemental constituents and
return them to the nutrient system for plant growth. This may be extremely complex
not only in the number of steps, but also in the number of biological components as
indicated by Saulmon et al.(l996) and Ashida et al. (1996).
3.9. SYSTEM SUPPORT COMPONENTS
System support including provision of energy, thermal control and communications is

extremely important to the design of a life support system but the details are highly
dependent on the specific mission, the menu, the mission duration, and life support
components of the system (Drysdale, 1995b). The development of a bioregenerative
life support system is based on assumptions that physico-chemical components will be
a backup and, ultimately, maintain an emergency capability. However, the degree of
closure of the life support system, specifically the atmospheric and food supply, are
undefined. Plans vary in relation to the degree of closure of the life support system and
closure of the food loop of from 50% to 95% has been discussed in numerous scenarios
(Drysdale et aI., 1994a). Trade-off studies by numerous investigators have concluded
that the mission and venue are extremely important in describing the trade-off between
216
total resupply, the inclusion of physico-chemical systems with high mass consumables
and resupply requirements, and a fully defined bioregenerative system with closure
approaching 90% (Dooley et aI., 1995).
3.10. CONTROL AND MONITORING
The final component in a bioregenerative life support system is the control and
monitoring component. Such a system must control the operation of the physical
systems providing the primary parameters of temperature, humidity, and pressure in the
atmospheric environment for crew habitation. The system must also control the
parameters for crop production, food production, and resource recovery components. It
must be modular, robust, embody a highly reliable architecture and software structure,
and have fault tolerant capability. Autonomous systems using model based control and
utilizing artificial intelligence for prediction of the system operational limits and
responses will be flexible and meet expanding user requirements. Currently, system
control is based on the capabilities of the sensors to measure the parameters in question
and relating the measurements to a set point which mayor may not vary diumally.
Most existing control system are based on standard feedback control theory with
combinations of proportional, integral and differential algorithms. We are now on the
threshold of utilizing directly measured parameters using IR or visible imaging, or
calculated biological parameters such as photosynthetic and transpiration rates for the
higher plants or microbial growth rate in the bioreactors (Little and Drysdale, 1996;
Finger, et al., 1996). Critical to development of control systems for advanced life
support are the utilization of models for describing the system performance and
predicting the response of the system components (Drysdale et aI., 1994b). Initial
models have been based on empirical data and are now being based on in-depth crop
physiological process models applicable to life science and life support biospherics
(Volk et al.,1995). These mechanistic models have also incorporated several
components in a single system model (Funabashi et aI., 1996; Drysdale et aI., 1992).
Several unique approaches have been developed in these models. Of specific interest
is the development of nondimensional constants for biological systems analogous to
the development of physical constants used in characterizing mass flow in physical
systems, such as Reynolds number (Greenkorn and Kessler, 1972). The process of
developing non-dimensional constants for biological sysems was initiated by P. K.
Seshan and G. Ganapathi at JPL in 1991. Ultimately, the combination of control and
monitor functions integrated with these models will provide the basis for artificial
intelligence applications to provide feed-forward or intelligent control systems.
Several applications are now operation in utilizing an intelligent system shell such as
G2, (Gensym, 1995). Examples include 3T, as developed by Johnson Space Center
(Bonasso and Kortenkamp, 1995), and in the applications under development by
McDonnell Douglas at Kennedy Space Center in the control and monitoring unit
(CMU) (McDonnell Douglas, 1995). These open-architecture control systems are the
217
enabling technology for providing reliability in the control and operation of advanced
life support systems.
3.11. RELIABILITY
The theoretical basis for optimal reliability has been presented by Bartsev et al. (1996)
and Drysdale et al. (1996). In order to fully understand the components in a reliability
study qualitative terminology, such as critical, marginal, or minimal must be used to
describe the specific parameters in the reliability equation (Forts on et al., 1994). The
reliability of a higher plant production system to produce the critical life support
functions would be affected by stresses introduced by deviation of environmental
parameters from their setpoint for some critical period. These effects due to stesses are
shown for three environmental parameters in Table 5 (Forts on and Stutte, 1995). The
effects listed in Table 5 are permanent. The definition of "high" or "small" deviation,
and "short" or "long" duration, depends to a large extent on the crop, but may also
depend on the particular stress. In general, a "small" deviation is one or two
measurement units from setpoint, and a "high" deviation is beyond that. A "short"
duration is measured in minutes to a few hours, and a "long" duration is measured in
many hours to a few days.
The development of a hybrid advanced life support system encompassing the
technologies of physico-chernical components as well as the robust reliable nature of
the bioregenerative components will be developed over the next decade to enable
humans to explore and establish bases beyond earth. We must look at life support
components relative to their efficiency, relative to their capability to recover from
anomalies and the inherent reliability of each component in the system. We have a
large number of questions, undefined capabilities and operational requirements. But
looking to the future and into space we must also remember that each of these
capabilities for exploration and establishment of bases beyond earth is a requirement
for the survival of the human race on the surface of the earth. We have immediate
applications in our terrestrial environment for the life support elements that recycles
water, air, and food. Our capabilities for culturing and optirnizing productivity in
higher plants, for reducing the labor requirement through mechanization and utilization
of robotics will have direct application. The specific seed varieties and growth
regulators developed for higher plants in advanced life support systems also have direct
applications. The application of the chemical analysis and the physico-chernical
interface for contaminant control and filtration have immediate applications in our
control of food production and waste management and, ultimately, the resource
recovery capabilities for recycling with minimum energy and maximum efficiency will
have wide spread use in reducing the negative impact of our human presence in
Biosphere I (the Earth).
218
Table 5. Effects on the life support functions of plants due to stresses in nutrition,
light, and temperature
Deviation Duration Effec.\ on Effect on water Effect on gas Comments

from of stress food production exchange
setpaint production
Nutrition
high + long greatly greaLly reduce greatly reduced stunted or
reduced water gas exchange dwarfed
yield plants
.,,'
hilth - 10nJ( un un
small + long little effect little effect little effect assumes

critica1
value not
exceeded
small - long .... • •n . lH u ot
high +
high -
short
short
..,
ut!
no effect
H"
no effect
iUI
un ,u '
small + short no effect
un
small- short uu ..H
Light
high + long reduced reduced water reduced CO/ Ol depends on
yield exchange photoperiod
sensiLivity
high - long reduced reduced watcr rcduced COl/O l
yield exchanJ(e
snail + long reduced reduced water no effcct
yield
small- long reduced reduced water no effect
yield
high + short no effect no effect no effect
H"
high - short Hn HH
small +
small-
short
short
Uft
'it' ..,
u"
""
H" I
Temperature
high + long no food increased water reduced CO/ 0 2 depends on
production production exchange stage of
crop growLh
high - long no food decreased water reduced CO/ 0 2
production production exchange
small + long reduced increased water slight effect
yield production
small- long reduced decreased water slight effect
yield production
high + short little effect increased water slight effect
production
high - short little effect decreased water slight effect
production
small + short no effect no effect no effect
small - short .... ,.' . .It
219
4. Summary
An advanced life support system based on bioregenerative components is feasible and

will be built in the near term. There are many details specific to the components of a
bioregenerative system which are as yet poorly defined or missing. However, with a
continued emphasis by the international community on developing and defining these
components and critical parameters, man will have the capability to venture beyond
this world and to stay for long periods of time on the surface of the nearby planets.
Cooperative research by an international cadre of researchers is absolutely necessary in
this effort. It is apparent that we have assembled many appropriate biological
components and we are developing the technologies for building an advanced life
support system based on these components. The cost, efficiency, and reliability of
specific components are yet to be determined for any specific mission, but it is the
hope of the authors that with appropriate resources and time, the international
community will explore, colonize and exploit the nearby planets for the benefit of
mankind, and in reaching this goal will have provided new technology and new
approaches applicable to our earth.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of the members of the
CELSS Breadboard Project Team. The contribution to the US Space Biology Program
of Dr. Richard S. Young, who continues to support the bioregenerative life support
program and emphasize good science, is gratefully acknowledged.
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GAS TURNOVER AND GAS CONDITIONS IN HERMETICALLY CLOSED
PLANT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
H.-J. Daunicht
Institute for Horticultural Science, Humboldt University Berlin
Konigin-Luise-Str. 22, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
Abstract. Materially closed crop production systems are needed for long-term space
missions and as research tools. Within life support systems they need to be characterized
by a) very high crop production rates pc;f unit air volume, b) by being directly or indirectly
linked to heterotrophic compartments, and c) by procedures to counteract accumulations
of gaseous contaminants. This review is concentrated on the aspects of the crop
production system. For illustrating gas turnover and gas conditions, a "reference unit" of a
biological life support system is introduced, in which plant production just meets the food
demand of a crew. For the plant habitat the turnover of CO 2 , O2 , and N2 is explained.
Then, the desired values for CO 2 & O2 , plant responses to air pressure, and aspects of gas
exchange between the compartments of a life support system are discussed. Finally, the
critical but less understood issue of accumulating harmful trace gases, as being emitted by
plants & microorganisms (ethylene being the most relevant), is briefly reviewed.
1. General Features of Hermetically Closed Plant Production Systems
Here, closed habitats are defined as materially sealed enclosures (at least with respect to
the carbon and water cycle) for rigorously controlled plant production under normal or
unnatural conditions. For what are they needed?
a) For life support systems oflong-term manned space missions or space stations, thus
mostly being exposed to vacuum-like pressure. Simplified versions could also be
feasible for submarines or stations below the ocean, if ever built.
b) As a research tool for investigating gas conditions greatly deviating from biospheric
ones or for studying rates and effects of gaseous plant emanations (Daunicht, 1990).
There is very little probability that hermetically sealed high efficiency plant pro-
duction systems could become feasible for commercial use, because the necessary oxygen
removal and internal waste recycling are too expensive compared to air exchange with the
atmosphere and common waste recycling, respectively. But, perhaps systems for applying
reduced oxygen concentration may become economic, provided that the enhancement of
the growth rate compensates for the gas handling expenses. In this paper we are
concentrating on high efficiency plant production systems that are actually closed and
225

226
constitute an element of a life support system as trinity of one autotrophic (plant food
production) and two heterotrophic compartments (human & waste recycling).
Except certain versions of systems for research purposes, hermetic plant enclosures
are characterized by the following features (the aspect of material off-gassing is omitted
here):
a) Carbon dioxide turnover and thus oxygen evolution are high up to the maximum
achievable. The same applies to metabolizable trace gases/vapors and plant
emanations, respectively.
b) They contain an extremely low pool of gases (specific gas mass or volume), leading
to very high turnover rates per unit volume. Consequently, steady and strict gas
management (injection, removal, storage, control) is a necessity for maintaining
favorable growth conditions including the exclusion of harmful contaminant
accumulations.
c) They rely on material flows from heterotrophic habitats (human & waste recycling),
whose turnover rates typically are not synchronized with the plant needs. On the
other hand, the rate of plant products (0 2, food and water) will not always match
with human needs.
d) Gas and climate conditions being managed for maximum plant productivity could
be incompatible for humans and technical systems, like electronics, leading to the
need of separating the respective habitats.
We are assuming a totally gastight life support system, though in reality there will always
be a certain leakage through the hull and in space also by locks for extra-vehicular
activities.
2. Reference Unit of a Hermetically Closed System
For illustrating masses and flows of metabolic gases it appears helpful to introduce a
simplified "reference unit" of a plant production system that is linked to the other
compartments of a life support system. The reference unit (Fig. 1) constitutes 1 m 3 air
space of a plant production system and the corresponding air space of the others
compartments. It is based on the following assumptions and relations:
- In average 1 m 3 of air is needed per m2 plant stand: 0.6 m3 for the aerial plant parts; 0.2
m3 for lamps, air ducts etc.; 0.2 m3 for the cultivation system, piping etc ..
- Air conditions: 20 0 C, 70 % RH, 1000 mbar total gas pressure, 1000 vpm CO 2 (for CO 2
concentration see sect. 6). Details of air composition are given in Tab. 1. These
conditions further on will be called "reference air conditions", RAC.
- Plant production rate: Theoretically, a maximum production rate of about 130 g·m-
2·d- I total dry mass can be expected for the highest yielding plants (Bugbee and
Salisbury, 1989). But in practice, and for a mixture of more or less productive plants to
227
be grown in a life support system, a value of about half of that appears realistic. We
assume 60 g.m- 2·d- 1 total organic mass.
- Plant "harvest index": For the crops interesting in this context a fraction from 0.2 to 0.9
of the totally produced dry matter is edible. For a crop mixture dominated by cereals or
potatoes an average of 0.5 appears justified.
- 1 g organic plant dry mass represents 1.74 g CO 2 , because
- 1 g organic dry mass on average contains 47.5 % C,
- 1 g C """ 3.67 g CO2
- Per mole CO 2 (44.0 g) processed, plants are releasing about one mole O 2 (32,0 g) (for
details see sect. 4). Thus, the production of 1 g organic plant mass leads to a net O2
release of 1.27 g.
- Human metabolic rates are taken from Sauer (1985). Food organic content is assumed
to be 90 %, of which 577 g are consumed daily per crew member.
- The ratio between the air volume of the plant and human habitat is based on food
demand: Using the aforementioned data leads to 19.2 m 3 plant air space per crew
member. Per crew member the same air space is assumed for the human habitat
(including the air space for waste recycling & other technical facilities). Thus, per m 3
plant habitat air space there is I m 3 human habitat air space, representing 1/19.2 =
0.052 the metabolic turnover of a crew member.
- For waste recycling we assume complete oxidation of carbon into CO 2 .
For such a life support system the following general features are noteworthy:
- Only about 47 % of the C02 processed by the plants is of human origin (53 % come
from recycling).
- Only 55 % of the O 2 produced is consumed by the crew (45 % is needed for waste
recycling).
- Within the plant compartment, the daily amount of CO 2 consumed is about 50 times
the content of the air.
(For details of gas transfer between habitats see sect. 6.)
This model unit is meant to show the ruling principles and the magnitude of
turnover rates probably to be achieved in the future. But, before such a model can be
applied for designing a realistic life support system, much better knowledge of rates and
conversion coefficients is imperative. Besides, in our model unit an equilibrium between
the autotrophic and heterotrophic elements arbitrarily has been assumed while in reality
deviations will occur, at least temporarily. It also remains open, whether a purely
vegetarian diet is acceptable, and which other food sources could be given. - There are
several publications elaborating the modules of a life support system in detail, e.g. for
stoichiometric relations (e.g. Yolk and Rummel, 1987), for consequences of different
recycling modes, or for the gas cycle of complete life support systems (e.g. Nitta et aI.,
1988).
228
3. Crop CO2 Turnover
Production by higher plants is an accumulation of greatly reduced carbon in an organic

mass with a proximate molar composition CO o.7H 15 (resembling COH 2), plus 6 ... 10 %
minerals. It results from photosynthesis driven by photons being absorbed by the chloro-
plasts. The photosynthates are used for creating new organs, for maintaining cell
functions and for repairing cell structures. In most plants (C 3 type) a considerable fraction
ofphotosynthate is lost by the light-depending "photorespiration". Maximum short-time
"apparent" photosynthetic rates for single leaves are 3.2 to 6.3 for C3 plants and 4.8 to 9.5
g.m- 2·h- 1 for C4 plants. These rates are not attainable in stands of adult plants, mainly due
to mutual leaf shading and increasing average leaf ageing. The daily photosynthetic gain
of a plant is the integral of leaf photosynthesis minus the integrals of (all-day) respiration
of other organs plus the leaf respiration in darkness.
Plant matter accumulation over time follows a sigmoid curve as schematically

shown in Fig. 2, together with the derivative for the instantaneous growth rate (more
extended scale). The relative length of the initial "lag phase" and the period after the
turning-point (growth rate begins to slow) are dependent on the species, the latter being
short for dwarf wheat and long for tomatoes with consecutive harvests. The CO2
consumption follows the same pattern, with little deviations due to the increase in C
content as plants mature.
The "reference unit" helps us to demonstrate the dynamics of the system. As

mentioned above, an average daily gain of 60 g·m- 2·d- 1 total organic biomass is a
reasonable estimate for high efficiency crop production in near future. This represents an
average CO 2 consumption of 57.5 LRA c·m-3·d- 1 (104.5 g-m- 3.d- 1). However, for a great
deal of the growth cycle the consumption rate is much higher. When assuming two times
the average rate during the key production phase, 115 LRAC CO 2·m-3·d- 1 are consumed
with continuous lighting. This means a theoretical concentration drop rate of 79.9
vpm'min- 1• This is a relevant value for managing CO 2 transfer into the canopy, and for
control. For achieving the same daily production rate within less hours of illumination per
day, momentary consumption rates even have to be higher, because the sum of
photosynthesis and night respiration has to be attained within a shorter period.
Normally, plants are exposed to a light & dark cycle which leads to a gas exchange
time course as schematically outlined in Fig. 3. Then, on average, the nocturnal respira-
tion rate is 20 to 30 % of the preceding net photosynthetic rate at favorable conditions.
Many plants need a light & dark cycle, because otherwise their reproductive growth is
disturbed. In such cases net photosynthesis rapidly decreases when extending the pho-
toperiod. Without removing nocturnally produced CO 2 , undesirable impacts on the
system would occur. This may be exemplified for the plant space of our reference unit,
229
using the daily CO 2 consumption rate for the abovementioned phase of elevated growth
rates, and assuming a light/dark cycle of 16:8 hours. Then, the consumption rate during
light time is 7.2 LRAC CO 2·m-3·h- l (120 vpm'min- l theoretical concentration drop). If the
respiration rate in the dark is assumed to be 25 % of the average net photosynthetic rate, it
amounts to 1.80 L RAC CO 2·m- 3·h- l and 14.4 LRAc·m3.nighfl. This leads to a concentration
rise of 1800 vpm.h- I , or from 1000 vpm to 1.52 vo!. % until the end of the night (if no
feedback with plant respiration occurs). Concomitantly, the CO 2 concentration of the
human habitat on average would increase by 0.88 vo!. % per 8 h night (RAC assumed).
Hence, the average concentration of the whole system would reach almost 1.25 vo!. %.
Thus, one common dark period for all the plants is not permissible, unless the surplus of
CO 2 is removed (and stored for the next light period).
Some species of crops (e.g. wheat), or particular cultivars (e.g. potatoes) can be
grown succesfully under continuous light. They make a good extra-gain during the
additional light time, though their average hourly rates are typically somewhat lower than
during a normal photoperiod. Naturally, these plants are especially useful for a life
support system, by excluding nocturnal CO 2 accumulation. Nevertheless, other plants
have to be included for achieving a balanced and variable diet.
Of course. CO 2 turnover should be as even as possible. This will require plant

cultivation at regularly spread seedings, at best daily. For example, Yolk and Rummel
(1986) have demonstrated the advantages of such "conveyor-culture" in a life support
system. For crops requiring dark phases, stepped photoperiods in the different growing
areas are the choice. Mathematical models are an effective means for optimizing crop
planning and stepping of photoperiods. but only after rates of growth and gas exchange
are sufficiently known.
4. Crop Oxygen Turnover
Oxygen is the other gas being turned over in great quantities. It originates from water.
(Water is consumed and must be resynthesized with photosynthetic O2 during recycling,
one of the serious problems of materially closed systems.) Unfortunately, experimental
data on O 2 turnover in relation to CO 2 turnover is limited (mainly on single leaves, fruits,
and roots in nutrient solution), and practically non-existent for whole plants or canopies.
This is due to the fact that meaningful O 2 exchange measurements in the gas phase are
very difficult at the high background concentrations of O 2 to which plants have to be
exposed. Because of this. as far as we know, also in CELSS research no measurements
have been carried out yet, though being the relatively best occasion to do so. Thus, we are
depending on theoretical estimates.
230
In the basic equation of photosynthesis the molar ratio of CO 2:0 2 is unity

(practically the same applies to the volume ratio, but the mass ratio is 1.38:1). For single
leaves it was found to be very close to that value. In respiration the CO 2:0 2 ratio, called
"respiratory quotient", depends on the organic composition of the substrate being respired
and on the degree to which it is oxidized. When completely oxidized, it is around 1.0 for
carbohydrates and can be as low as 0.6 for fats (higher hydrogen content). Now, plant
growth results from a combination of photosynthetic and respiratory processes so that an
intermediate ratio has to be expected. Therefore, we make the following assumptions:
- For night respiration of whole plants, a CO 2:0 2 ratio of 1: l.l1 = 0.9 appears realistic
(high proportion of carbohydrate oxidation).
- For photoperiods a CO 2:0 2 ratio of 1: l.03 = 0.97 can be assumed. This value implies
that the ratio for photosynthesis is 1.0 and 25 % of the phosynthetically produced O 2 is
consumed by respiration with a respiratory quotient of 0.9. Thus, the overall ratio (R)
IS:
R = (P-RQoF) : (P-F) P photosynthesis

F fraction of photosynthetic O 2
being consumed in respiration
RQ respiratory quotient
Then, a continuously irradiated crop processing 57.5 LRAcC02om-3.d-1 releases 59.7
LRAc02om-3od-l, which is 29.0 % of the initial O 2 content. Without removal, in a constant
volume this produces a daily rise in volumetric O2 concentration from 20.58 % at 1000
mbar to 25.1 % at 1060 mbar. Such increases should not be allowed, because of the
negative effects on plant productivity. In a life support system this oxygen will be
regularly consumed by humans and recycling, and if not, it has to be removed for storage
(assumed in our model).
For a dark phase of a 16:8 hours cycle we calculated a CO 2 evolution of 14.4

LRAcom-3onighrl. Applying a respiratory quotient of 0.9 leads to an oxygen consumption
of 16.1 L RA cm-3. nighrl. If the CO 2 concentration is maintained constant and the volume
remains the same, that O 2 consumption causes an O 2 concentration drop from 20.58 to
19.3 vo!. % (pressure drop to 982 mbar). Under the same conditions, within the human
habitat the O 2 concentration drop is only about 0.8 %.
In a complete biological life support system the gas turnover of plants and humans
plus waste recycling as much as possible has to be brought into equilibrium, at least on
average. This is only achievable a) if plant oxygen production is strictly tuned to human
demands, even if this means overproduction of plant food (to be recycled), and b) by
converting all carbon in human excrements and inedible plant mass into C02. If this is not
attained, a mismatch of CO 2 and O 2 rates does occur, causing a need for extra-supplies of
gases and an accumulation of organic waste.
231
5. Gaseous Nitrogen Turnover by Crops
By the higher plants themselves, atmospheric nitrogen is not metabolizable, thus

behaving like a noble gas. But. there are three more or less compensating processes
affecting the atmosphere. Some N2 is fixed into nitrogenous compounds by free-living
microorganisms like Azotobacter. Much greater amounts of molecular nitrogen can be
fixed in leguminous (and some other) plants by help of symbiotic Rhizobium into organic
compounds. Spontaneous "N-fixation" in the air will be negligible here, but can result
from electric arcs. On the other hand, N2 and oxidized nitrogen (ultimately greatly
converted to N 2) are released by microorganisms via "denitrification" of nitrates as the
prevailing form in soil and nutrient solutions. This also occurs in biological waste
recycling and human metabolism. For field conditions the order of magnitude of those
flows is fairly well known. Generally accepted values are given e.g. by Baeumer (1992).
In plant enclosures of the kind interesting here, fixation and release of N2 have not
yet been investigated. So, to give an idea of possible impacts, we only can speculate by
using generally accepted values found for field crops. - The following relations do apply:
100 kg N per ha = 109 N per m 2 ,
109 N are equivalent to 8.70 LRAC N 2,
8.70 L addition or removal represents 1.134 % change ofN 2 content per
m 3 in the reference unit.
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. High yielding leguminous crops can bind 400 kg N per ha
by symbiotic N2 fixation; this may include some fixation by free-living microorganisms.
This is equivalent to a drop in N2 content from 767.3 to 732.5 LRAC in our reference model
plant space of I m 3 If this occurs within 60 days in a high efficiency system, a succession
of such crops causes a drop to 555 L RAC within one year (72.4 vol. % of initial N2 content),
provided that no feedback effects are being given. When maintaining partial O 2 pressure
constant, it means for the plant habitat:
- the total air pressure drops from 1000 to 788 mbar,
the volumetric O 2 concentration increases from 20.6 to 26.1 %
(probably impeding plant productivity).
For the whole system (2 m 3) the effects would be half of that.
Of course, there are two reasons to expect lower impacts:

- Only part of the crop area will be occupied by leguminous plants.
N 2-fixation easily can be suppressed by elevating mineral nitrogen
supply (impeding Rhizobium nodulation) which typically occurs in
hydroculture.
Denitrification. Primarily microorganisms (like Agrobacterium) convert mineral nitrate

into N2 and N 20, mainly under conditions oflimited oxygen supply to the rhizosphere. In
heavily fertilized fields releases corresponding to up to 100 kg·ha·1·yf 1 have been found.
232
Small amounts are exhaled by the plants themselves, but this is not yet sufficiently
investigated (which best could be done in hermetic chambers). Substantial denitrification
also occurs in hydroculture with a high supply of nitrates, mainly by rhizospheric bacteria
fed by root exudates, lysates and so on. Such substrates can account for 20 % or more of
the photosynthates translocated to the root system (Marschner, 1986).
For year-round culture in highly enhanced plant production we cannot exclude de-
nitrification rates similar to those eventually found in fields without restricted soil
aeration. When assuming 100 kg'ha,l'y(l, we get one quarter of the impacts estimated for
leguminous crops, but in the opposite sense. Then, with 25 % of the growing area
occupied by leguminous crops (as to be expected), N2 fixation and loss by denitrification
would compensate. - Impacts on the system will never be as drastic as with carbon dioxide
and oxygen. Nevertheless, in the long run they deserve attention, and possibly lead to the
need for countermeasures. But, first of all the rates have to be experimentally verified.
(For ammonia see below.)
6. Aspects of Gas Management
6.1. DESIRABLE GAS CONDITIONS
6.1.1. Natural atmospheres (~l bar)' carbon dioxide optimization.

For natural air it is well established that its CO 2 content (~350 vpm = 0,35 mbar) by far is
not optimum for plant growth (review by Kimball, 1983). Under these concentrations the
photosynthetic apparatus is not working at full capacity. So, increased ambient
concentrations cause a higher C02 influx, but not proportional to the raise of the
concentration gradient, because the diffusive resistance increases due to gradual closure
of the stomates. But, long-term maximization of photosynthesis is disadvantageous
because chloroplasts are overloaded with assimilates (mainly starch) and the
photosynthetic capacity is "changed down".
For a few hours photosynthesis is enhanced by CO 2 concentrations up to about

10000 vpm = 1 vol. %, but long-term optima are much lower. For young, fast growing
plants - up into the greater part of the exponential growth phase - optima are ranging from
2000 to 3000 vpm, depending on irradiation, temperature, mineral supply, and species.
For a whole developmental cycle, optima are only around 1000 vpm, which is below
those concentrations occcurring in spaceships so far. Knowledge about optimum shift
during plant development is still insufficient, and also for the optima under saturating
light combined with otherwise optimized growth conditions. Plants of the C4 type (like
maize and rice) show a lower CO 2 promotion, if at all. - Root systems are rather tolerant to
CO 2 concentrations up to about 2 vol. % of the root zone air being in contact with a
nutrient solution.
233
6.1.2. Unnatural atmospheres

The atmosphere could deviate from normal with respect to a) "N2:02 ratio" (commonly
referred to as "0 2 concentration"), b) by replacement of nitrogen and c) concerning total
aIr pressure.
Oxygen Concentration. Oxygen concentration in truth is a matter of the N 2 :0 2 ratio by

volume (being 3.73 under RAC), a better expression for the gas conditions, at least for the
bulk gases, than just to cite the oxygen concentration. In natural atmosphere, it is also not
optimum for plant growth (see e.g. Gerbaud and Andre, 1987). As far as known, a
decrease of the ratio will reduce plant productivity, especially of C 3 plants by enhancing
photorespiratory losses. In C 3 plants, the dominating plant group, it is considerably
promoted by elevating the ratio to above 15 (5 % O 2 by vo!.) by suppressing
photorespiration. But reproductive growth only is achieved with ratios below about 6
(12 % O 2 by vo!.). - Besides changing the diffusion gradients of O 2, the diffusion
coefficient of O 2 is changed due to decreased density of nitrogen.
Optimum root function needs a relatively high oxygen concentration, in nutrient

solution at best that corresponding to more than 12 vo!. % oxygen in air (about 7 mg O 2
per L nutrient solution at RAC). At normal O 2 partial pressure of the air, the uncommonly
high 02 consumption rates of dense root systems produced by high efficiency plant stands
make special aeration techniques necessary (Salisbury and Bugbee, 1988).
Air Pressure. Knowledge on air pressure effects is underdeveloped, especially involving

unnatural N 2 :0 2 ratios. As far as properly examined, plant productivity remains more or
less unaffected when total pressure is lowered to less than 50 % of atmospheric pressure
as long as the N 2 :0 2 ratio and the volumetric CO 2 concentration remain unchanged. There
are indications that the same conclusions apply to overpressure. All this was only
investigated for short treatment periods so that nowbody knows, what effects will result
over a whole life cycle of the plant. The relatively low plant response to air pressure
reductions (without changing the N2 :0 2 ratio) is brought about by a reciprocal increase of
the diffusion coefficients. Contrary to gas diffusion, transpiration is clearly enhanced by
pressure reduction (due to the absence of a mesophyll resistance for water vapor
diffusion) so that it becomes excessive at high vapor pressure deficits. This can bring
about secondary effects on the plant. Key results on reducing air pressure of Brinkjans
(1992) are shown in Fig. 4. In these investigations, the transpiration rate was enhanced by
30 .. .40 % when air pressure was reduced from 1000 to 400 mbar (VPD = 12.7 mbar at
both pressures). - The very limited experimental data on varying the N 2:0 2 ratio under
reduced pressure is not yet conclusive, but we can assume that impacts will be
comparable to those with a normal ratio. So, a pressure reduction involving the elevation
of the N 2 :0 2 ratio (reducing the O 2 concentration) could be interesting. The
aforementioned results apply to an unchanged volumetric C02 concentration. If under
reduced pressure the volumetric CO 2 concentration is elevated in order to get the same
partial pressure of CO 2 as under normal pressure, this means there is "C0 2 enrichment". -
234
If the system is surrounded by vacuum, a lowered air pressure seems worthy of

consideration to reduce gas losses by leaks.
Revlacing Nitrogen. N2 is the air component responsible for limiting diffusion rates of the
"physiological gases". Theoretically, it could be replaced by another inert gas, but plant
responses to other inert gases have never been investigated so far. Probably, the effect of
other gases will fully depend on the resulting diffusion coefficients of CO 2, O2, and water
vapor. For example in helium the diffusion coefficient for CO 2 is over 4 times higher than
in N 2. The effect should be similar to reducing "air pressure". - Such a noble gas could
also be interesting if the exclusion of symbiotic N-fixation by leguminous plants was
desirable.
In summary, best plant productivity could be achieved in an atmosphere not

breathable for humans. The feasibility of applying such conditions on one hand depends
on the extent of growth enhancements achievable, and on the other hand on the extent of
problems by having plant enclosures not being freely accessible for humans.
6.2. COMPARTMENTATION
The first question is whether partitions are needed within the plant production system.
Even if one common air mass with the same pressure is circulated through the plant pro-
duction system, there are several reasons for sub-dividing the space, i.e. mainly:
- applying distinct cycles or levels of irradiation and/or temperatures,
- impeding the spread of inoculum and to permit rigorous sanitation without affecting
the whole system,
- avoiding a possible occurrence of negative allelopathic impacts.
An additional reason could be to maintain different air pressure within certain sections of
the plant habitat.
The second question is how the habitats of a life support system could be linked.
Typically, temperature and air humidity within the plant habitat will be far from the
"comfort zone" for humans and electronics and the like so that separate conditioning will
be needed. Also, each compartment will have its own filter for contaminants and for dust
(also being produced by crops, the most at harvest).
6.2.1. Common atmosphere

Gas Transport bvAir Exchange onlv. So far, the dominating opinion seems to be that one
common atmosphere could be given (Fig. SA), with large air volumes exchanged between
the habitats, at least between the human and plant habitats. The question is whether this is
realistic. Three aspects have to be taken into account:
a) Do human and plant gas demands match to each other?
235
Humans tolerate CO 2 concentrations (up to 0.5 %, perhaps even continuously) not

allowable to plants for more than some hours (except in darkness). And the same
applies to a lot of contaminants, especially ethylene.
b) Is the gas turnover of humans & waste recycling sufficiently synchronous with the
gas turnover of the plants?
Typically, they will not be, because human metabolic activity is irregular, or
because organic waste is recycled batch-wise, or because photosynthesis is not
evenly distributed over the whole day. As shown for our reference unit, applying
dark periods could lead to a rise in CO 2 concentration to 0.5 % within about 2.5
hours, thus leaving the range tolerable for men.
c) No greatly differing O 2 concentrations or air pressures would be allowed.
A common atmosphere only could be utilized if overall net photosynthesis of the plant
habitat is steadily maintained by applying continuous light or stepped photoperiods.
Otherwise the CO 2 concentration would (temporarily) increase to a range intolerable for
humans. Arranging conditions to human needs would considerably limit plant
productivity. - If one common atmosphere within life support systems has to be accepted,
the decisive research goal would be how to maximize plant growth under conditions
dictated by human demands, and not how to reach absolutely best plant growth.
The necessary air exchange rates between human and plant habitat are very low as
long as human habitat CO 2 concentrations reach 0.5 %, because this means a high
proportion of CO 2 being available for plants. But, if it is limited to only a little above that
within the plant habitat, the necessary air exchange is increased. In our reference model
almost 110 air exchanges per hour would be needed with a concentration gradient of 10
vpm. Much energy would be needed to cool and dry great air masses when being
transferred to the human habitat.
Additional Use o(Bufjers. Most problems of the aforementioned sytem would be solved
by adding concentrators and reservoirs ("buffers") for CO 2 and O 2 (according to Fig. 5B).
Then greatly differing gas conditions could be maintained, on one hand being adapted to
men and on the other hand for optimized plant production. Recycling of organic wastes
could be irregular. But, oxygen concentration within the plant habitat also could not be
reduced, due to the need of intensive air exchange with the human habitat. Owing to the
same reason, maintaining reduced air pressure would consume too much compressor
energy.
6 2.2. Separate atmospheres

If air mass exchange between plant and human habitats is not utilized (according to Fig.
5C), several possibilities are given to optimize plant habitat conditions, and to transfer
refined gases. Energy expenses for air transport is excluded, but this is much less than the
energy consumption for the buffering processes. This arrangement of separate
atmospheres is at least recommended for research systems.
236
Separate atmospheres offer an attractive opportunity in that the CO 2 input flows

into the plant habitat can be measured. Provided that its CO 2 concentration remains
constant. the measured injection rates should just compensate plant consumption. Thus.
the instantaneous plant productivity can be followed. This even could be utilized for
control according to the "speaking plant" mode.
7. Trace Gases, Contaminants
The bulk gases considered so far plus water vapor and noble gases, make up about 99.97
vol. % of the air. The remaining 100 ± 100 mL·m· 3 of trace gases is by far not irrelevant. In
the biosphere and even more in a materially closed system, this small volume is composed
of a multitude of gases and vapors, and anyone of them can decide about success or
failure of a crop. The possible sources of trace gases can be as follows:
a) initial air
b) outgassing from paints, plastics, lamps etc.
c) synthesis by catalysis or electric arcs
d) photolysis or conversion by UV
These four sources are not further considered here (a recent review of contaminants
in growth growth chambers has recently been published by Tibbitts, 1996). Only an
example from our own experience shall be mentioned. NoftKe (1980) found in a
gastight small growth chamber that 78 ~L'h" ethylene were generated by hot
constantan heating coils in contact with the air.
e) physico-chemical waste recycling
f) plants
g) microorganisms in soil, nutrient solution, bioreactors or forming biofilms on wet
heat exchangers etc ..
The fate of the emitted compounds can be different:

a) spontaneous decay into harmless compounds like CO 2 or N2
b) accumulation
c) conversion by reacting with other components of the air, possibly forming harmful
secondary products
d) uptake by plants and microorganisms, also of own emanations after certain
accumulation
e) absorption by construction materials etc. (e.g. metal oxides) or soil particles
f) removal by absorption or physico-chemical transformation.
Plants emit a multitude of trace gases and vapors (and very much the same applies
to microorganisms). Many of them are potentially toxic in the sense of restricting plant
productivity, without necessarily producing typical injury symptoms. The list of
237
compounds found becomes longer and longer, depending on scientific attention and
refinements in sample and analytical techniques. As far as is known, mainly the following
substances are released: H 2, NH 3, N 20, N0 2, NO, C 2H 2, C2H 4 , C 2 H 6, aldehydes, alcohols,
and many other "volatiles" from the wide spectrum of secondary metabolic products
(even e.g. including di-methyl-selenide). The still fragmentary knowledgc about volatiles
emitted by plants is reviewed by ChalTon et ai. (1995). Several volatiles are pcrceived as
obnoxious odors molesting the crew. Certain compounds have been detected from
stressed plants, but possibly also occur under more favorable conditions, though in
smaller quantities. After certain accumulation, several ones (e.g. NH 3) are entering the
plant again (mainly through the stomates) and are metabolized. Thus, plants are capable
of counteracting a certain level of accumulation (thus limiting further built up), but only if
accumulation does not lead to a deleterious level within the tissue. Other substances
remain at low concentrations because they spontaneously decay or transform, or react
with other compounds, respectively. This applies e.g. to N 20 which can react with
hydrocarbons to form peroxyacetyl-nitrate (PAN), a toxic substance occurring in smog.
All in alL this is a field with many unknowns. With the partial exception of
ethylene, presently nobody can effectively foresee the nature, chemistry, amounts, and
harmfulness of the contaminant complex for certain species or certain growth conditions.
Research is also pressingly needed to clarify whether, besides ethylene, more allelopathic
substances occur. which are transferred via the air and lead to specific effects of one crop
on another. Such agents are fully missing in the most recent reviews of allelopathy (Rice,
1984, Rizvi and Rizvi, 1992), but this is no evidence for their non-existence.
At the first sight our fears perhaps seem exaggerated, but they are induced by the
very special features of plant enclusures of life support systems. Minimized air volume,
very high physiological activity, and closure for months or years imply the very best
conditions for resulting in a significant mixture of gaseous contaminants. Despite a
certain accumulation of contaminants, Batten et al. (J 995) did not observe apparent
injuries in lettuce and wheat within the NASA Biomass Production Chamber, but the
closure period was short and the system was not fully gastight.
The most prominent and best studied contaminant is ethylene. Acetylene has similar
effects, but is less active and less toxic. Both are released by plants and several
microorganisms, although certain other microorganisms are able to metabolize them.
Ethylene is so dangerous because it is a hormone accelerating plant development and
senescence, which at concentrations exceeding about I vpm leads to drastic effects like
leaf abcission, fruit drop, and growth reduction (Abeles et ai., 1992). Its presence is easily
detected in some broad-leaved plants by the epinastic curvature of the leaves. Release
rates differ very much depending on the species and the plant organs and their
developmental stage, being highest during anthesis and for maturing climacteric fruits.
The serious effects of phytogenic accumulations probably have been first investigated in
our lab (Noffh, 1980). Some results on tomato plants are shown in Fig. 6. This is a plant
238
showing relatively high release rates and being rather sensItIve to C 2 H4. First plant
responses observed were on photosynthesis and commenced at concentrations of about 10
vpb. (Other unidentified substances also accumulated, but did not reach detrimental
levels). - An extended study on ethylene built-up was conducted in the NASA Biomass
Production Chamber at the Kennedy Space Center by Wheeler et al. (1996). Despite
leakage and the elevated specific air volume of the system (about 3.4 m 3 per m2 crop area,
more than to be expected in a realistic life support system), they found 40 to 120 vpb at the
end of lettuce, potato, soybean and wheat growth cycles. What might have been
encountered for staggered culture of each crop without leaks, and after one year or so?
Within a more gastight system Tani et al. (1996) found higher emission rates. - Sup-
pressing C 2H4 release by high CO 2 concentration, enzyme blockers or other hormones
obviously is no solution in this context, because such measures would likely restrict plant
productivity.
It is generally accepted that at least ethylene has to be artificially removed from

gastight plant enclosures. Effective ways to reduce the concentration to a few vpb
(mm 3'm-3 ) are beds of a porous matrix impregnated with KMn04, or by photocatalytic
oxidation (Graf, 1995). With these procedures many other oxidizable compounds will
disappear. Still, it is not known whether similarly simple methods could be used for other
contaminants. Unfortunately, a lot of energy is consumed for frequent passing of large air
volumes at low velocity through a reactor.
The other contaminant of specific concern is N0 2 as a produce of denitrification and

the most toxic of the nitrogen oxides, with injury threshold values between 0.1 and 0.3
vpm depending on the species (Guderian and Tingey, 1987). But, its occurrence and
relevance in gastight enclosures is not yet examined.
8. Closing Remarks
Basically, we understand the processes of gas turnover and resulting gas conditions in
hermetically closed plant habitats, and recognize the fundamental differences between the
gas environment of biological life support systems and other systems being open to our
biosphere. Nevertheless, very much additional research is needed to provide sufficient
knowledge to effectively integrate a plant production module into a life support system
that insures well-being of the crew. Fortunately, there is some time left until this will be
required. In the meantime new enclosures should be developed with minimized air
volume per unit plant stand, maximum affordable gastightness, equipped for tracking
turnover and accumulation of all relevant gaseous components, and operated for extended
periods exceeding one crop cycle. Such enclosures will also permit to verify whether
allelopathy is an essential issue. They will make scientists aware of the full spectrum of
problems possibly arising in life support systems and will contribute to a better
understanding of the role of plants in the biosphere.
239
9. References
Abeles FB et al. (1992): Ethylene in plant biology, Academic Press, New York, 2nd. ed.
Batten JH et al. (1995): Effect of crop development on biogenic emissions from plant
populations grown in closed plant growth chambers, Phytochemistry 39(6): 1351-
1357
Baeumer K (1992): AlIgemeiner Pflanzenbau, Ulmer Veriag, Stuttgart, 3rd ed., p. 190 ff.
Brinkjans HJ (1992): Wirkungen des Luftdruckes auf Gaswechsel und Wachstum von
Tomatenpflanzen (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), (Air pressure effects on gas
exchange and growth of tomato plants), do et. dissertation, Technical University
Berlin, Faculty ofInternational Agricultural Development, pp. 174
Bugbee BG and Salisbury FB (1989): Current and potential productivity of wheat for a
controlled environment life support system, Adv. Space Res. 9(8): 5-15
Charron CS et al. (1995): Volatile emissions from plants, Horticultural Reviews 17:43-72
Daunicht H-J (1990): Crop production systems in space: Characteristics and further
biological research needs, Proc. DARAICNES Workshop on Artificial Ecological
Systems, Marseille, p. 76-90
Daunicht H-J (1990): Principles and feasibility of hermetic growth chambers, equipped
for compensational gas exchange measurement, in: CEC Air Pollution Res. Rep. 26
(Int. Symp. Environmental Research with Plants in Closed Chambers, Munchen-
Neuherberg, 1989), p. 72-79
Gerbaud A and Andre M (1987): Closed system physiology: role of oxygen in the
development of wheat. ESA Publication SP-271, p. 117-123
Guderian Rand Tingey DT (1987): Notweendigkeit und Ableitung von Grenzwerten fUr
StickstotToxide (Necessity and derivation of threshold values for nitrogen oxides),
Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin
Graf lC (1995): Photocatalytic oxidation of airborne volatile organic contaminants, SAE
Technical Paper #951660
Kimball BA (1983): Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: an assemblage and analysis of
770 prior observations, WLC Rep. 14, US Water Conservation Laboratory,
Phoenix, AZ, pp. 71
Marschner H (1986): Mineral nutrition in higher plants, Academic Press, p. 462 ff.
Nitta K et al. (1988): Gas balancing method for minimizing the volume of O 2 and CO 2
reservoirs in CELSS, Proc. 16th Int. Symp. on Space Technology and Science,
Sapporo,p.1731-1741
Noff1<e K (1980): Untersuchungen iiber Emanation, Akkumulation und Wirkung
phytogener Schadgase in geschlossenen Kulturraumen (Investigations on
emanation, accumulation and effects of phytogenic contaminant gases in plant
enclosures), mimeogragh of paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the German
Society for Horticultural Science, Hannover, pp. 11
Rice EL (1984): Allelopathy, Academic Press, New York
240
Rizvi SJH and Rizvi Y (1992): Allelopathy, basic and applied aspects, Chapman & Hall,
London
Salisbury FB and Bugbee B (1988): Plant productivity in controlled environments,
HortScience 23(2): 293-299
Sauer RL (1985): Metabolic support for a lunar base, in: Mendell, W.W. (ed.): Lunar
bases and space activities of the 21 st century, Lunar and Planetary Institute,
Houston, TX, p. 647-651
Tani A et al.(1996): Measurements of trace contaminants in closed-type plant cultivation
chambers, Adv. Space Res. 18(4/5): 181-188
Tibbitts TW (1996): Injuries to plants from controlled environment contaminants, Adv.
Space Res. 18(4/5): 197-201
Yolk T and Rummel JD (1986): Mass and energy dynamics, reservoir sizes, and scaling
relationships for lunar life-support ecosystems, in: ANDRUS, G.M. (ed.): 1st Lunar
Development Symp., Lunar Development Council, Atlantic City, NJ, pp. 11
Yolk T and Rummel JD (1987): Mass balances for a biological life support system
simulation model, Adv. Space Res. 7(4): 141-148
Wheeler RM et al.(l996): Ethylene production by plants in a closed environment, Adv.
Space Res. 18(4/5): 193-196
Table I: Composition of the "reference air"
Conditions: 20 0 C, 70 % r.h. (7.0 mbar YPD), 1000 mbar, 1000 vpm CO 2

component -3
L'm-3 I) mol'm- 3 g·m mass %
N2 767.3 31.49 882.30 74.7
O2 205.8 8.45 270.46 22.9
H2 O 16.4 0.67 12.10 1.0
noble gases 9.2 0.38 15.07 1.28
CO 2 1.0 0.041 1.82 0.15
others 2) 0.004 0.0001 0.002 0.0002
2.: 41.04 1212.7
N 2 :0 2 3.73 3.72 3.26
by volume molar by mass
I) based on the average contents in dry atmospheric air (CRC Handbook)
2) H2 • CH 4 , N 20
241
A) PLANT HABITAT B) HUMAN HABITAT ETC.
I m' air/m2 canopy I m' air/0.052 humans

42. I moles gases 42.0 moles gases
1--41.9 O2
outputs: inputs:
60.0 org. plant matter 41.9 O2
75.9 O 2 I- 48.6 CO2 30 org. food
inputs: outputs:
104.4 CO 2 48.6 CO 2
3.1 org. solid wastes
3. I I org. solid wastes
L-55.8 CO2 1 C) ORG. RECEYCLING

l...--34.0 O 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - . 1 - air included in B
L---30.0 org. ined. plant matter 11
Fig. I: "Reference Unit" ofa biological life support system: Turnover rates in g per m' plant
air space per day
(for explanations see text)
+10,
Y • 0,038889 x - 24,222222
· sr ,·n,
12)
X
6
7
,,0.85-1<
o X
_ 5' X
-10
-151 X
-20
o 400 700 [hPa)
Fig 4: Relative change (%) of dry mass increase of fast growing young tomato plants
after 7 days by reducing air pressure from 1000 to 700 and 400 mbar.
Other conditions (identical)
25° C 400 vpm CO 2
12.7 mbar VPD atmospheric N 2:0 2 ratio
330 llmol'm'2's'l PAR 543g'm'2's'l air mass flow ("wind")
242
Fig. 2:
Growth curve and
corresponding instantaneous
growth rate (schematic)
time --+
) stomata opening
(+)
net photosynthesis
o
respiration
(- )
-----
------
light dark -l Fig. 3:

Diurnal course of CO 2
exchange (schematic)
243
A) COMMON ATMOSPHERE
-{}- -ill-
-B- -8-
I
ORG. - - - RECYCLING - -- ORG.
T
MEN PLANTS_
B) COMMON ATMOSPHERE
-{}- -ill- with buffers
-B- -8-
MEN PLANTS
C) SEPARATE ATMOSPHERES
-{}- -0- connected via buffers
-B- -8-
-{}- contaminant I dust
filters
-f1- heat exchangers
MEN PLANTS :1>- concentrators
Fig. 5: Different modes of managing gas transfer between habitats (for explanations see text)
tv
t
o-o~o with C2 H4
_ _ • _ _• _ _ _• _ _ ._.~I' le 20
:0-
*
6 Cl
o:s photosynthesis
:e. .---. ....
,,- -----
8u --.--- __ e----- 16 ~
--0-----.- / e/ "8.
~ /"----IDl!!m!t C214 ,/ ~
c c
,/ 0
.2 ~ . '.0
4 ~ / C214 12 g
'0.. e /" /
Vl 0'" '" 5u
~ c
o(j 8
.~ ~
Vl
., / 8 ::r::N
-5c
;' ~C2H4 u
2 ~ I /
".--_0___ .
.9
·-o _____e_ ------7------'-----
~ /. respiration
0. 4
L.~- ---.---- .----....-----.-----.-----•
•-----.-/.....;.I..,..~. - m C2 H4
/' 1st leaves drop flowers drop all leaves dropped

.. -A
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I days
Fig. 6: Response of tomato plants bearing one truss of young fruits with and without accumulation
of C2H4 exhaled by themselves (2 and 4 pl~ts, respectively),
Conditions: - gastight chamber with "" 1.2 m air volume, compensational C02 control and
measurement
- = tOO Jlmol*m- 2*s-1 PAR, 12 hid
- 25 C, 9.5 mbar VPD, 400 vpm C02
- C2H4 removal by wet KMn04
CELSS RESEARCH: INTERACTION BETWEEN SPACE AND
TERRESTRIAL APPROACHES IN PLANT SCIENCE
M. Andre and P. Chagvardieff

CEA-Direction des Sciences du Vivant,
Centre de CADARACHE, F-13108 Saint Paullez Durance, France
ABSTRACT. Sustainable functioning of Life Support System in Space, is based on the

concept of Artificial Ecosystem associating producer (plants) and consumer (men)
compartments, with a recycling process of wastes. During the last 10 years, the main of
studies have concerned the exploration of the limits of plant productivity. Very high
yields were obtained in continuous and high lighting, without reaching any limit.
Nutrition concepts were renewed. CELSS activities induce now a development in the
techniques of image processing applied to plants in order to follow growth, to detect
stresses or diseases or to pilot harvesting robots. New equipments were developed. The
C23A system (Chambres de Culture Automatiques en Atmosphere Artificielle) is
described as an example of closed growth chamber system. It is liable to quantify the
main exchanges of matter between plant canopies and above or underground
environments. Advantages of closure are emphasised in comparison with open flow
systems. The interest of multiple systems is illustrated by the twin chambers method able
to compare growth rates, or environmental effects on plants, at the 1% level.The concept
of Artificial Ecosystems developed for space project is more and more taken into
account by the scientific community. It is considered as a new tool to study basic and
applied problems related to ecology and not only concerned by space research. An
accurate example concerns the etfect of C02 enrichment on the system Plants-Soil-
Micro-organisms.
1. Introduction
The concept of Artificial Ecosystem, associating producer and consumer compartments

with a recycling process of wastes, has been developed by CELSS (Controlled
Ecological Life Support System) programmes initiated in the sixties in the USSR and in
the USA (Golueke 1962; Gitelson et al. 1963; Dole 1964). USSR initiated the first
closed ecosystems with the successive improvements of a ground system BIOS
(Gitelson et al. 1975). On the other hand, most known data concerning plant physiology
245
E. Goto et al. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 245-26 J.
246
and agronomy related to CELSS were mainly issued from USA researches. An important
step was marked by the CELSS's 1985 Workshop (MacElroy et al. 1986) with a
collection of results improved afterwards in scientific journals and in successive
COSPAR proceedings (in Advances in Space Research). The main steps of that research
will be illustrated below by some examples relating space research to terrestrial research.
We will examine successively examples of i) improvement of horticultural science and
plant physiology; ii) instrumentation and experimentation of closed chambers, iii)
experimentation on artificial ecosystems.
2. Horticultural Science and Plant Physiology
Production of food on CELSS is based on growing plants in a producer compartment.

The first studies have concerned the improvement of yield per unit of surface or of
volume which determines directly the weight (and the cost) of launch CELSS in space
(Tibbitts 1988; Salisbury and Bugbee 1988).
2.1. EXPLORATION OF THE LIMITS OF PRODUCTIVITY
2.1.1. Quality of irradiance. Effect of artificial light was carefully studied (Tibbitts et al.
1983). The use of high-pressure sodium lamps was led by the requirement of very high
level of irradiance to increase the yield, inducing some problem linked to
monochromatic light and imposing supplementary blue light (Wheeler et al. 1991a;
Barnes and Bugbee 1992). The needs of very compact lighting system in space was
solved by the use of light emitting diodes (Morrows et al. 1989).
2.1.2. Photoperiod. Manipulations of photoperiod were made in parallel with the

screening of varieties and the breeding. For example, in potatoes crop (Tibbitts and
Wheeler 1986; Wheeler and Tibbits 1986) there was a great difference in screened
varieties. So, it appeared that the adaptation to the terrestrial photoperiod was absent or
lost for some genotypes. The production of edible biomass was 2l.9 g.dw. m- 2 .dail.
Similar results were obtained from the cultivation of sweet potatoes (Hill et al. 1989)
which also have an excellent harvest index (~ 90 %). In addition to the yield
improvement, theses studies gives some bases to analyse the regulation of the
tuberisation and the genetic adaptation to terrestrial photoperiod (Wheeler et al. 1988).
2.1.3. Intensity of irradiance. Applied to wheat cultivation, the suppression of the dark
phase permitted to reduce the life cycle from 120 to 60 days. A new improvement of the
energy input was obtained by the increase in irradiance up to 2000 ~mole m- 2.s- l,
equivalent to the maximum of sun irradiance. After selection of varieties and breeding, it
was shown that wheat plant can tolerate an input of energy three time higher than the
247
terrestrial values. The improvement of yield follows the increase of light input and a
maximum limit was not reached (Bugbee and Salisbury 1988).
2.1.4. Density ofplants. During the canopy formation, a part oflight is not intercepted by
plant and lost. In the example of wheat, the solution was to use a very high density of
sowing, i.e. 2000 plant -2. m -2, instead of around 400 in the field. The interception oflight
reached 90%, 5 days after sowing in Bugbee's experiments, instead of about 50 days for
a spring wheat in the field.
2.1.5. Breeding. The previous result on wheat was registered after a selection among 600
varieties. Plants having a vertical shape were chosen to tolerate a high density as well as
to have a canopy exhibiting a good efficiency for the light trapping. Excess of leaves
reduces the carbon balance and explains the curvature of the function production/input
of energy. It also favours the development of diseases. That explains the selection of
short varieties having a limited tillering. After successive records of grain production by
unit of surface, the yield obtained both in Russia and in the USA (Bugbee, Salisbury
1988) was 60 g. m- 2.da/ (averaged for one year of cultivation). That indicates that an
area of 3x4 m (12 m-2 ) could be sufficient to feed a man, in comparison with 178 m- 2
calculated from the world record in field.
2.2 SYSTEMS OF CULTIVATION
The increase of yield by unit of area or volume is limited by the irradiance and by the
system of cultivation, including the nutrient delivery system. Cultivation of lettuces up
side down (Kiyota et al. 1989) was a way to increase the efficiency of lamps and to
reduce the volume of cultivation, the same bed of fluorescent tubes illuminating two
crop areas. An other performance of this experiment was the nutrient delivery process,
because nutrient solution was supplied in small blocks of rock wool, in a manner to
strictly compensate for plant transpiration, i.e. without over flooding on lamps or on the
lower bed of lettuces. That supposed the nutrient medium was very well adapted to the
requirement of plants, to avoid any limitation of growth neither any detrimental
accumulation of salts. Such methods are an indication of possible improvement in the
future evoked later on with the AMAC system.
2.2.1. New nutrient delivery systems. In space like on earth, the wastes produced by the
worn-out support of roots have to be managed. A first solution to avoid inert medium
was the cultivation on film of nutrient solution (Wheeler et al. 1991 b). The management
of nutrient solution on porous tubes maintained under low depression was developed to
solve the problem of hydroponics cultivation under micro-gravity in space. Another
advantage is that the nutritive solution remains in closed circuit (darkness, isolation from
sources of pollution like algae or diseases). The manipulation of pressure determines the
consumption of water. Water limitation or stress can be simulated without interference
with nutritional status. (Tibbitts et al. 1988). Expensed clay was used to contain roots
248
and tubers. Cultivation on porous tubes without any other inert medium was an
interesting approach to solve the problem of very compact and re-usable nutrient
delivery system (Anonymous 1989).
2.2.2 . Studies related to nutrition. The prospect of space cultivation was stimulating
studies related to hydroponic cultures. More recently, researches on artificial soils were
leaded by the necessity to conceive new inert substrates for space (Bennett et al. 1989;
Ming and Henninger 1989). An example of particular study issued from CELSS
program is given by the problem of ammonium nutrition of plants. It was admitted that
exclusive ammonium nitrogen nutrition depressed the yield of most of crop plants. A
re-examination made by Raper (1982), with a careful regulation of pH, shown there was
no difference in growth of soybean with either pure ammonium supply or pure nitrate or
a mixture of both. The same results of tolerance were obtained with low or high
photosynthesis obtained by different irradiance or by C02 enrichment. It was concluded
that the toxicity of ammonium often observed was generally the secondary effect of a
low pH, observed if the nitrogen is under ammonia form (Chaillou et al. 1991).
2.2.3. Environmental requirements - the AMAC process. Nutrient solution recycling was
an obligatory way in the prospect of space cultivation to reduce the consumption of
fertiliser and of water. CELSS concepts promote studies related to recycling of used
water including wastes processing in advance to the probable terrestrial requirements
(Bubenheim and Wignarajah 1994). In countries where soilless culture is more and more
developed, the wastes of worn-out nutrient solutions induce serious pollution in the
environment. Exigency of fast growth and good yield, imposed by the market, imposes
to not limit the uptake of nutriments. Over consumption of nutrients often induces the
presence of nitrates in foods, for example. From the pressure of consumers, legal
standards of quality are more and more severe. If empirical horticultural practices are
able to reach high level of quality, that concerns more often the art of gardening than
horticultural sciences. Method of nutrient supply using the concept of dose, in stead of
the control of concentration, was introduced by Ingestad (1982). The criteria to
determine the daily doses is the RGR, so that the increase of doses follows the increase
of growth rate. RGR is assumed to be constant, with the hypothesis of an exponential
growth during the vegetative phase.
In practice, RGR is generally decreasing (Andre, in that symposium) and the
AMAC method (Alimentation Minerale Asservie cl la Croissance as : Mineral
Alimentation Assigned to Growth was introduced (Tourneux 1991). The mineral
nutrition of plants are considered like the nutrition of animals: taken into account of the
size or the age, a daily ration of food is supplied. Considering that a good feeding of a pet
can be provided even if the plate remains empty, the control of daily doses with AMAC
replaces the control of concentration i.e., the level of "food on the plate".
249
At first, the method supposes the mineral composition of plants is known at typical
steps of the growth. The composition of nutrient solutions can be calculated for all or
part of the growth.
Secondly, the growth rate must be known, (measured, predicted by experience or
calculated by model). If nitrogen content is the test for quality of the produced biomass, a
CiN ratio of each period of increment of biomass can be calculated for all or part of the
growth. Then the daily nutrient supply is calculated according to the CiN ratio and the
growth rate. Of course the measurements of pH and conductivity of nutrient solutions
remain possible, but they are not the driving forces of the nutrient delivery system.
In closed systems, like C2 3A, where the growth rate is known by principle from the CO 2
consumption, the method is easier to apply. Using an incremental method of CO 2
delivery by pulses, for a given number of CO 2 pulses, a calibrated injection of nutrient
solution is made on the root compartment, according to the CiN ratio calculated for the
growing period. But it could be used in modern horticultural practices, because the plant
growth is more and more well predicted by models linked to environmental parameters.
2.3. OTHER RELATED STUDIES
2.3.1. EfJect a/the CO] enrichment. As the enrichment of CO 2 is a way to increase the
yield of crop in artificial conditions, many studies relevant to CELSS programs were a
contribution to the problems related to global change or to horticultural science. Studies
on lettuce (Knight and Mitchell 1988), on wheat (Du Cloux et al. 1987; Andre et al.
1987), on potatoes (Wheeler et al. 1991 c) and on Soybean (Wheeler et al. 1990) can be
cited as typical examples.
2.3.2. Volatile traces. Volatile traces emitted from plants or by materials can be
accumulated in closed growth chambers. Negative effects can be observed on growth or
development, giving interesting situations of study. Such processes were studied at the
beginning of CELSS studies in Russia (Dadykin et al. 1968). Recent developments can
be noted concerning volatile traces (Batten et al. 1994; Nitta et al. 1994; Charron 1995)
or atmospheric ions (Morrow and Tibbitts 1987).
2.3.3. Microbes and plants The requirement of reliability of CELSS as life support
implicates a control of all parameters of plant life. Without precaution, the cultivation in
closed system could increase the population of microbes. The closure can also limit there
development by stopping the propagation of pathogens issued from natural environment.
Interesting studies are associated to the cultures in the Biomass Production Chamber
(Strayer 1991).
2.3.4. Low pressure cultivation. To face the vacuum medium of space the reduction of
the pressure used for space suits is planned for manned habitats and for plant modules
(Boston 1981) stimulating related studies (Daunicht and Brinkjans 1992; Corey et al.
1994; Goto et al. 1995). The removal of nitrogen gas was the first tentative to reduce the
250
total pressure. A decrease of 02 pressure is possible for plants because the requirement
of 02 is lower than for man. Hence, a demonstration was made of germination and
growth of lolium under 70 hPa (1/14 of normal atmospheric pressure) obtained by N2
removal and reduction of O2 partial pressure (Andre and Richaud 1986). Growth of
wheat up to ear appearance (Andre and Massimino, 1992) and grain production
(Massimino and Andre in preparation) was obtained under 100 hPa of pressure. Strong
reduction of pressure seems not to influence plant growth. That result concerns the
physiology of plants growing in altitudes: the total pressure change per se, often evoked,
should have little effect in comparison with climatic parameters.
2.3.5. New sensors and robotics. Space and terrestrial approaches are both concerned by
the developments of sensors able to monitor the environment (Tabacco and Digiuseppe
1994), the plant growth (Giacomelli et al. 1994) or the plant sanitary status (Manukian et
al. 1989; Woodhouse et al. 1994). Machines vision are experimented to follow the health
of plants (Hetzroni et al. 1994), or to pilot robots (Ting et al. 1994; Kondo et al. 1994).
3. Instrumentation of Closed Systems- Example of C23A System
The concept of biological life support system stimulated experiments of cultivation of

algae and plants in artificial closed chambers. The reviews of lones (1975) and Shepeleff
(1975), the closed ecosystems BIOS I to BIOS III (Gitelson et al. 1975, 1990), give
interesting examples of early experiments. The exploration of the limits of productivity
in artificial systems as much as the requirement of a careful control of parameters of
experiments were a strong driving force to develop original closed growth chamber
systems in the USA (Akers et al. 1985; Prince et al. 1987; Henninger et al. 1994; Oguchi
et al. 1994) or to use commercial type of growth chambers with a controlled atmosphere
system (Salisbury and Bugbee, 1988).
In France, the C23A system (Chambres de Culture Automatiques en
Atmospheres Artificielles) was initially developed for the in situ measurement of
oxygen reactions in plants in competition with the CO 2 carboxylation. The closure,
necessary to use isotopesesO, 14C), was immediately perceived as a potential of accurate
measurements of instantaneous metabolic balances and a source of space applications
(Guerin de Montgareuil et al. 1971). Successive versions were realised (Andre et al.
1972a, 1986; Lasseur et al. 1989; Fabreguettes et al. 1994) and the system, figure. 1, can
be described by the following characteristics.
3.1. GENERAL CONCEPT :MODULARITY
3.1.1. Geometry. The association of modules permits to modify the horizontal and
vertical sizes of the environment, by association of standard modules (And re et al.
1972a). The transposition of the nuclear technique of associative glove boxes gave
251
Figure 1. General structure of C23A laboratory. 1) twin chambers for canopy; 2, 3) twin mini-
chambers; 4) network of commands, measurements, gas sampling; 5) control commands; 6) gross data
observations; 7, 8) automates; 9) network of PC for data processing; 10, 11) multiplexed analysers; 12,
13) chemical analysers; 14, 15) supplies of gas and cool water.
252
simple volumes with standardised interfaces (quality and simplicity of controls of air
tightness, reliability for costly or radioactive isotopes).
3.1.2. Compartments. Sub-systems and accessories are removable, for instance shoot
and root compartments. An high ratio useful volume/total volume is given by a very
compact air conditioning system, that is included inside the main module (Du Cloux et
al. 1987, figure 1) or removable (Andre et al. 1985, figure 2).
3.2. SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
3.2.1. Multiplexing of analysers. The sharing of analysers (Infra-red, Mass

Spectrometer) between several experiences reduces the costs of investment and of
maintenance. Advantages are to include references in the analytical sequences and to
check continuously the calibration, to interpret (or to correct) -a posteriori- the effect of
possible drift, to give safety alarms (reliability). Calibrations (automated with
conditions) are made without disturbance of experiments.
Systematic errors are eliminated in the comparisons between samples in
experimentation (see above the method of twin chambers). The association of a method
of micro-sampling by vacuum avoids any transfer of isotopes, pollutants or diseases
between the chambers (Andre et al. 1972b).
3.2.2. Compensating method of measurements. The action necessary to compensate the

effect of a metabolic activity (for instance the CO 2 assimilation) is made by quantified
actuators : the environment remains very stable and the result is a measure of that
activity (here the Photosynthesis). The quality of the measurement depends mainly on
the quality of the quantification (see below) and poorly on the accuracy of the sensor.
The accuracy of balances increases with time and errors due to the last ones are more and
more negligible.
3.3. AUTOMATION AND COMPUTER CONTROL
Successive solutions were adopted. A transposition of industrial system of control

process was chosen (Andre et al. 1985). A network of microprocessor (Micon- Matra)
linked with PC computer (Lasseur et al. 1989), the use of Intouch® software
(Fabreguettes et al. 1994).
3.4.CLOSED SYSTEM AS INTEGRATING SYSTEM
The closed system act as an integrator and it is not necessary to have a permanent
measurement (in our example of CO 2 concentration). That fits very well with
multiplexing method and the control by sampling (see above). The measurement can be
made step by step with a period of time variable with a "difficulty coefficient" related to
the ratio: intensity of the biological process /volume of the system (Manivel 1989).
253
For the CO 2 control the period can vary from few minutes to hours. Controllers must
work with continuous actions based not mainly on the error (set point-measure) but from
the needs of plants calculated from past measurements. It could also use the current data
of physical sensors and simple photosynthetic model but that was not useful.
Remark: closure like vacuum can never be absolute. That term is used here by
difference with controlled atmosphere systems generally managed in open flow.
Calculated from the atmosphere renewal, the factor of closure in our case is about 600
times higher than open flow method (Andre and Massimino 1992). Expenses of pure or
mixture gas are reduced in proportion. Important saving of energy for air conditioning
and filtration is also obtained.
3.S.INCREMENTAL ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLLERS
As much as possible the action of actuators is quantified. The incremental action is very
well adapted to computer control. For example it is possible to supply plants with pulses
of CO 2 , water and nutrients. That is also very well fitted to plant dynamics. Contrarily to
conventional industrial processes, the range of interesting and accurate measurements is
very wide, generally from 1 to 100 from sowing to maturity (Andre et al. 1987). The well
known quality of Frequency Modulation (F.M.) applied to pulses of CO 2 allows us to
cover a large range of actions. The associated counting of pulses maintains the accuracy
for any intensity of the controlled process. That will be illustrated with the following
method.
3.6. METHOD OF TWIN CHAMBERS
One couple (or a group) of chambers is managed in order to use a maximum number of
common supply: CO 2 mixture, cool brine, nutrient solution, DC current and the same
live wires of AC network. The main little but systematic disturbances of photosynthesis
in controlled systems are due to the variations of the AC voltage amplified in light
supply by the discharge lamp systems. The changes are not similar on the three different
live wires. The effect on irradiance reaches often 10% or more. Twin chambers use the
same device of control and the same analyser (see above). In addition there is a link
between the normal or emergency commands of the two systems. Any variation or slight
incident concerns the two chambers on a similar way.
Thus, with a convenient choice of samples introduced in such chambers, the
possibility of relative measurements on living organisms can reach the accuracy which is
traditionally reserved to physical sciences. The comparative accuracy is better than 1%
for middle term CO 2 effect on growth (Andre et al. 1987, Andre 1993). The figure 2
illustrates the quality of that method at the daily base.
That method is particularly fitted to the measurement of small effects, for
example: traces, very low doses of radiation, or interaction of the non-pathogenic micro
flora on plant growth. It is not limited on plant studies and could be used for numerous
biological problems.
254
In biology, that method is a transposition of the principle of the differential method used
very early in physical sciences, particularly in electricity, to increase the accuracy of
measurements.
3.7. AV AILABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
The following data are available, if necessary simultaneously on particular chambers.

Gas exchange measurements concern as well aerial compartments as experiments in
liquid medium (bio-reactors : Brechignac and Andre 1984) or hydroponics root medium
(Thomas and Andre 1982). Photosynthesis is the most important measurement
systematically given by the system. Another interest was the possibility to separate the
different components of the assimilation processes: gross O2 uptake and gross oxygen
evolution, both are measured by 18 0 and 16 0 changes with Mass Spectrometer on line
(Gerbaud and Andre 1979). Respiration is expressed on CO 2, if necessary on O2 basis,
(Andre et al. 1985, fig 4). If useful, measurement is made separately in shoot and root
parts. Transpiration is obtained from condensed water vapour (Andre et al. 1987;
Thomas and Andre 1982). Ionic uptakes are deduced from analysis of cations and anions
in nutrient solutions, initially by automated colorimetry (Andre et al. 1987), now by
ionic chromatography or capillary electrophoresis (Fabreguettes et al.1994).
fZ]
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Figure 2. Zoom effect, at daily scale, on growth curves expressed in accumulation of carbon
(gross data: sum of CO 2 pulses) for a 24 h period in two crops in twin chambers under same
physical conditions: curves were superimposed; It can be estimated that 1% of change of the
slope (growth rate) could be detected after application of a treatment on one of the two
chambers.
255
4. Artificial Ecosystems
In addition with the scientific researches associated to CELSS concepts, projects on

artificial ecosystems were conceived and experimented (Blum et al. 1994; Smernofff et
al. 1994; Brechignac and Wolf 1994; Nelson et al. 1994) After more than 30 years of
researches on space programs related to CELSS, the concept and experiments of
Artificial Ecosystem begin more and more accepted as a tool for the knowledge of
mechanisms of natural ecosystems.
Terrestrial ecosystems are characterised by a high level of complexity. Their
dynamics are governed by numerous factors, varying on a poorly predictable and
reproducible way. The temporal and spatial variability ofthe media induces a scattering
in measurements. Thus, the slow variations of their components cannot be quantitatively
well defined in short time and the models based on natural observations and predicting
their future will obligatory leave a large part of uncertainty. The scientific knowledges of
basic researches in the numerous processes implicated in the ecosystems are necessary
but not sufficient: The interaction between the factors are not generally known; the final
results on associated systems cannot be generally predicted from the effects on each
component considered alone.
Recent reports (Korner and Arnone 1992; Korner et al. 1993) illustrate that
statement about the effect C02 enrichment and emphasise the urgent need for whole-
system experimental approaches, especially in global-change research (figure 3).
~M O
Aniticiat ecosystem
'Outdoor' &cosyslems
(natural and man made)
Individual Communi ty
jl~
r ' .
: ,"-' ' .. ".

- . _.
.:-.- ".:,'! ~':":-:':':\.
FACE
Open-lOp
[ijj~~ \".
~?:~{ ;; /:~: ~ ~:\
• M ICfocosm"
Figure 3. Experimental CO 2 enrichment: enclosed artificial ecosystems fill the gap between
classical growth chamber experiments and field experiments with natural ecosystems (after
Korner et al. 1993).
256
Like for any experiment, but especially in the case of the higher level of
complexity of the artificial ecosystems, it is indispensable to conduct several
experiments at the same time, and to have at least one reference experiment. Hence, the
single (closed) artificial ecosystem, including a team, initiated by BIOS I to III (Gitelson
et al. 1963; 1990) and continued by Biosphere 2 (Nelson et al. 1994) was more
interesting for the demonstration of the capability of a biological life support system than
for the science requirements. The interest of closed experimental ecosystems and their
amplifier effect of the closure was made by modelling (Andre et al. 1994b), especially
for the study of the behaviour of the carbon compartments in terrestrial ecosystems.
Another field of investigation is the effect of the biodiversity on the behaviour of
ecosystems. Experiments in ECOTRON (Lawton 1995) try to give an answer to the
incisive question of the effect of a the loss ofbiodiversity on an ecosystem. The choice of
sample remains crucial to assume a real transposition to natural environment (Andre et
al. 1994a), but this type of investigation is very promising. Applied to ecology, new
methods of molecular biology require simplified and well defined experimental systems.
For instance, the important problem of dissemination of genes of modified organisms
could be studied with profit on artificial ecosystem models.
Concerning the evolution and the functioning of natural ecosystems, the
experimental approach by the artificial ecosystem experiments would be complementary
to open field studies and to space observations. It can be expected the reducing in the
complexity of the problem, in controlling the variation of one or several environmental
parameters. It opens the possibility to compare and to repeat the experiments, i.e., to
make all operations which explain the success of experimental sciences.
5. Acknowledgements
We gratefully thanks all contributors to the development of the C 2 3A system. Its initiator Or P.
Guerin de Montgareuil is particularly acknowledged.
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at equal PPFD. 1. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 108(4),622-630.
Tibbitts TW and Wheeler RM (1986) Controlled Environment Life Support System:
Growth Studies with Potatoes. 51 p. Report NASA CR 177400.
261
Tibbitts TW (ed.) (1988) Extraterrestrial crop production. Special insert of Hort.

Science, 23 (2), ASHS pup., Alexandria (Virginie).
Tibbitts TW et al. (1988) Cultural systems for growing potatoes in space. Acta Hort.
230,287-289.
Tibbitts TW et al. (1992) Growing root, tuber and nut crops hydroponically for CELSS.
Adv. Space Res. 12(5), 125-131.
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Wheeler R.M and Tibbitts TW (1986) Growth and tuberization of potato (Solanu
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BIOSPHERE 2: A CLOSED BIOREGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM,
AN ANALOG FOR LONG DURATION SPACE MISSIONS
J. Poynter and D. Bearden

Paragon Space Development Corporation
810 East 47th Street, Suite #104
Tucson, Arizona, 85714, USA.
ABSTRACT. This paper examines the Biosphere 2 Agriculture System, a two year
experiment in the design and operation of a closed system agriculture. Several
problems/challenges associated with bioregenerative life support system design are
presented and discussed with repect to their applicability to long duration space missions
such as would be required to establish and maintain a human presence on Mars or the
moon. Specific examples as experienced during the Biosphere 2 experiment are
presented including health effects of a low fat, calorie restricted, yet nutrient dense diet
that resulted from a lower-than-expected crop production. Medical problems associated
with oxygen depletion in Biosphere 2 are also discussed. Biosphere 2 is an interesting
case study for closed bioregenerative life support systems and has many lessons to be
learned for space exploration.
1. Manned Space Mission Life Support Requirements
Many problems and challenges have been identified in life support and production of
food in closed systems for long periods of time in a remote and hostile environment.
such as on a moon base. Some of these pertain to the design of a system, such as
appropriate planting schedules to provide the required nutrients in a varied diet, pest and
pathogen exclusion, recycling of inedible biomass and return of nutrients to the growing
medium. Some may be encountered during a mission, such as lower than anticipated
yields for a variety of reasons ranging from unexpected pest problems to reduced light
levels. Such problems my lead to components of the diet being low or inadequate for the
crew, such as fat and calorie intake.
Many of these challenges were considered during the design and operation of the
2,000 m2 Agriculture Systems in Biosphere 2 that supported the crew of 4 men and 4
women living and working inside the structure. Also, several problems arose during the
first two year manned mission of the project, similar to those that could be encountered
on a long mission in space where food is being produced in situ.
263
264
1.1. SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
From a space mission standpoint, humans are considered as entities that absorb products
(food, water, oxygen) and reject other products (urine, feces, perspiration, and carbon
dioxide). While specific requirements for life support systems can vary dramatically
based on environment and mission phase, typical levels for inputs and outputs are shown
in Figure 1.
In general, life support systems for space mission applications are discussed in terms
of their degree of closure (unclosed, partially closed, closed) and the type of process, if
any, used to regenerate products (physical, chemical, biological). Water management
and reclamation is usually a large driver for life support systems design since the amount
of water required (both hygienic, e.g. showers, washing, laundry, and potable, e.g. food
preparation, drinking) is large relative to other expendables. Three basic life support
systems options are briefly discussed here along with technologies typically used to
accomplish major functions: 1) Open loop; 2) Physicochemical regeneration; and 3)
Bioregeneration.
IDputs Outputs
Dry Food:
Oxygen :
Water:
641 g
806 g
2845 g
Q
~ Y Perspiration :
CO2 :
Urine:
Feces:
1625 g
943 g
1630g
94 g
Domestic Water
lI ygiene: 5440 g
Toilet: 500 g
Wash: 13500 g
Figure 1. Human daily requirements
Open loop systems utilize stored supplies and provide no regeneration. Waste is
stored or expelled. Open loop life support systems are usually not attractive for
maintaining a long-term remote presence in space due to the difficulty and expense in
providing sufficient supplies at regular intervals.
Physicochemical life support systems regenerate oxygen and water while storing
food and solid waste. For example, potable water can be recovered from humidity
condensate from the atmosphere. In some systems a multi-filtration process is used
265
where water is purified by flowing it through filters and packed beds to remove particles
by filtration, remove organics by adsorption, and remove salts by ion exchange. Carbon
dioxide removal and air revitalization might be accomplished using molecular sieve for
carbon dioxide removaL a Sabatier reactor for carbon dioxide reduction and a static feed
water electrolysis system. Waste treatment is often accomplished using wet oxidation.
Trace contaminant control is often accomplished using carbon absorption beds
combined with catalytic oxidizer and charcoal regeneration system. Physicochemical
systems are feasible for manned missions to nearby planets or for maintaining a manned
space station where resupply missions arrive at regular intervals.
Bioregenerative systems regenerate oxygen, water and food utilizing biological
systems. Possible ways to achieve this are growing plants, microbial cultures in
bioreactors, or microbial cultures as a part of a physicochemical system. Plant growth
units are often utilized to generate oxygen, produce food and act as biological waste
water treatment systems to purify domestic water utilized by humans. Hygienic waste
water is fed to the plants and potable water recovered.
1.2. SUBSYSTEM INTER-RELATIONSHIPS
The conditions under which life is to maintained (e.g. Moon base vs. Space station vs.
Mars base) may lead to different solutions regarding the fulfillment of specific
requirements. For example, a fully closed bioregenerative system might not be required
for a Mars surface habitat, compared to a Moon base, since in-situ resources may exist
for water and oxygen. As a specific example, if we were to begin establishment of a
Moon base, a skeleton crew might be put in place with established facilities and nominal
living supplies, such as air, food and water. This initial crew would likely consist of
people skilled in the construction of large space structures and the colony might be
initially dependent upon shipments from Earth for living supplies (i.e. open loop).
Logistics support would be tailored to supporting the build-up and initiation of the base.
Once the base was established, you might envision a scenario where additional colonists
would continuously join the group at a desired population growth rate. Trade studies
indicate that the break-even point in terms of mass for utilizing open vs. closed life
support system is around 50 days (International Space University, 1991). It might then
be desirable to include colonists with skills in the production of consumable supplies to
make the colony more self-sufficient and evolve toward a closed life support system. A
new, more appropriate logistics practice might be employed for a growing and more
diverse population providing the proper mix of maintenance and production of living
supplies to minimize costs and enable the population growth, while ensuring the well-
being of the inhabitants. If one were to attempt to model the development and
maintenance of the moon colony, a causal loop diagram as shown in Figure 2 might
apply.
266
Causal Loop Diagram
Population Growth Rate Productivity

I
Production of
LIving Supplies +
~ + +
+ ~ +
Production of
\ (:j:OIOOi"~ • L,hoc - -+Li"i"g "pp"o,
',,- + Living - - - _ -
-. SU~Plies~
+
;?ities ..
~ Production of
~aciliti~
I
Launch
+ Waste - / t
Productivity
- Vehicle
Del~ery ~Construction
+,
\ Materials
/
Fai lures + Cost
Waste
Figure 2. Causal Loop Diagram for a Representative

Partially-Closed Life Support System
For this particular case, system variables are number of coionists, colony population
required growth rate, living supplies inventory (i.e. food, water, air), construction
materials, facilities (habitats, storage), colonist labor, maintenance/production of
facilities, production of living supplies, launch vehicles, supply delivery rate/failures,
cost, excess inventory above available storage (i.e. waste). Beyond the broad array of
potential difficulties associated with establishing and maintaining such a colony, it is
apparent from the causal loop diagram that the interactions of the humans with their
environment/life support system become very important. The desired reference behavior
is to maintain the living supply inventory at the desired level while never letting it drop
below the minimum requirement. The inventory must be robust against delivery failures
or shortfalls in production. The facilities and production capability should grow to the
desired level, avoiding an overshoot and collapse of the system. The amount of living
supplies produced on the base should increase with time. Waste and cost should be
minimized.
While simulations and design studies of Moon/Mars base development/maintenance
are relatively easy to come by, there are very few real-world experiences that possess the
right mix of elements to be considered representative of manned space missions. Some
recent experiments of 14 to 30-day confinement in an advanced life support system test
chamber were recently performed at NASA's Johnson Space Center. The experiment is
part of a long-term effort under way to develop biological as well as mechanical and
267
chemical means of sustaining future occupants of a lunar base or explorers destined for
Mars (Gahheau, 1996). Future tests are planned in which solid wastes as well as water
and air will be recycled, using plants as well as chemical and mechanical treatment
systems.
Of paramount importance is research regarding compatibility, performance and
synergism of various life support technologies. Of the three options discussed above,
bioregenerative life support systems are certainly the least understood. The generation
of electricity for lighting represents a major cost to bioregenerative life support systems
and attention must be given to the collection of solar energy, the transmittance inside
habitats and the diffusion for plant use (MacElroy, R.D., 1990). Other main biological
areas requiring research are the processing of edible biomass into food and the biological
degradation of natural and xenobiotic contaminants, oxidation of waste materials and
hazards due to accumulation of chemicals during recycling, and evolution of ecosystems
in a closed environment. The experience of Biosphere 2 addresses some of these issues.
It provides insights into the challenges associated with several areas related to plant
growth for food/oxygen production, human dietary requirements, and nutrient recycling,
among others. But more generally, the Biosphere 2 experiment is a valid analog rich in
data and lessons learned for extended space missions using bioregenerative life support.
2. Description of Biosphere 2
Biosphere 2 is a privately financed, closed ecological system, located near Tucson,

Arizona. Biosphere 2 supported eight humans and over 3000 documented species of
plants and animals, in seven biomes -- rainforest, savanna, desert, marsh, ocean,
intensive agriculture and a human habitat -- for two years.
During the two manned missions there was within the human habitat a kitchen,
apartments, analytical laboratory, workshop, library, command room, animal bay,
storage, medical facility, recreation and living rooms. Biosphere 2 has a foot print of 14
thousand square meters with an atmospheric volume of 184 thousand cubic meters. A
stainless steel liner seals the structure from below, while the space frame and glass
glazing above contain the atmosphere and allow sunlight to enter. Two variable volume
chambers compensate for variations in atmospheric volume due to changes in
temperature, etc. In this materially- closed environment food was grown and essentially
all the air, water and human, animal and plant wastes were recycled and purified by
plants, microorganisms and some physical/chemical systems during the two year
experiment. With a leak rate ofless than ten percent per year, Biosphere 2 was operated
as essentially materially closed while open to energy and information, so that data
(computer, video, etc.) electricity, light and heat go in and out as needed. A two year
exploration or test run of Biosphere 2 was completed on 26 September, 1993. Biosphere
2 was operated by a crew of people that lived inside the structure without leaving for the
duration of the mission, with the exception of certain emergencies. The crew
maintained, operated and depended on Biosphere 2 to support their lives, while using
268
Biosphere 2 as a tool for ecological research and for studies of possible future
applications in space. Currently Biosphere 2 does not sustain human populations. but
rather is used for global change and biogeochemical experimentation.
3. Lessons Learned from Biosphere 2
3.1. AGRICULTURE AND CALORIC RESTRICTION
The Intensive Agriculture Biome inside Biosphere 2. shown in Figure 3. covers an area
of approximately 0.2 hectare to produce the food for the 8 person crew. It was designed
to be a regenerative, non-polluting, intensive, soil-based agriculture system, providing a
fully nutritious diet, with a wide variety of crops to provide for a varied cuisine. The area
was divided into 20 small plots with each growing approximately 3 crops per year. A
crop rotation plan was designed in accordance with the time of year, dietary
requirements year round and pest control. There were also several areas of fruit trees and
other perennial crop plants. The principal crops grown were: rice, sorghum, wheat,
sweet potatoes. white potatoes, peanuts, lablab beans. 18 different vegetable crops
(green beans, beets, bell pepper, carrots, chili peppers, cabbage, cucumber, eggplant,
kale, lettuce, onion, pak choi, snow pea, winter and summer squash, swiss chard, and
tomatoes), bananas and papayas. Herbs and spices were grown, and a small amount of
coffee was harvested (enough for approximately one cup per biospherian per month).
Approximately 85% of the food consumed by the crew was produced inside Biosphere 2
during the two years. The remainder came from stored beans and wheat and seed stock.
Light was one of the main limiting factors to crop production in the Biosphere 2
agriculture. The structure admits 40-50% of the ambient light, and excludes almost all
the UV light. Daylengths ranged from 9.5 to 14.5 hours per day according to the time of
year. In addition, the two winters of the first two year mission, 1991 and 1992, were
affected by the El Nino Southern Oscillation, bringing an increased amount of cloudy
weathcr (Nelson et aL 1993). There were no artificial lighting systems in place during the
first mission. These low light levels directly affected crop production and also promoted
increased pest problems due to lowered resilience of some of the plants. Light received
in the Agricultural Biome over the course of a year and four months is shown in Figure 4.
To supplement the light high pressure sodium lights were installed in some areas of the
agriculture biome before the second crew entered Biosphere 2 in 1994. During the 8
month second mission 100% of the food was produced for the seven person crew.
269
Human Habital
_I
_I
-I
late:DSIVC Agriculture: Blome:

Planting Plan
Total Growi.og Are.

2080 m'
Figure 3. Floor plan of Agriculture Biome
IlAB Total Monthly Quantum Ligbt (E/m2) I

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
o J-I-I-I-~I-I-~I-I"-I-l-i-i-I-i-
ONDJ FMAMJJASONDJ F
MonU:!s beginning October 1991
Figure 4. Light received in the Intensive Agriculture Biome,

26 September 1991 to 28 February 1993 (monthly totals)
270
The yields from the crops grown inside Biosphere 2 are shown in Table 1. They do
not compare favorably with those accomplished by scientists working in conjunction
with NASA on the Advanced Life Support System and other laboratories working on
high-yield wheat crop systems. World record yields of wheat are 1450 g/m2 for a
growing period of approximately 120 days; Dr. Bruce Bugbee has demonstrated yields
of 1200 g/n/ over a growing period 56 days using saturated light conditions 24
hours/day. More typical field yields are 300-700 g/m2 (Eckart, 1994). The low yields
evidenced in Biosphere 2 as outlined in Table I are due mainly to the low light levels
encountered -- light transmittance was impeded by the structural layout -- compounded
by shorter day lengths. There were some areas within the plant growth area where
almost nothing was produced because of shading from the structure. Other contributing
factors were pathogen infestation on roots and selection of a less-than-optimum growing
medium. The soil texture was not optimal for maximizing nutrient delivery. With
improvements in environmental control and soil composition, perhaps including the
addition of zeolite (Hossner et ai, 1991), further advances in cultivars and exclusion of
insect pest species, the area required to produce the food for a crew of 8 people would be
dramatically smaller than the Biosphere 2 agriculture area. Also, the wilderness areas
are not needed for life support. With appropriate crop rotations and staggering plantings
of crops such that a new crop was in rapid growth phase while others senesced, CO 2 and
O 2 in the atmosphere can be controlled (MacCallum et ai, 1995).
The cultivars grown were chosen for disease and pest resistance, production,
palatability, ease of cultivation and processing. There were seeds from a wide variety of
cultivars in storage ready to replace crops that failed due to an unforeseen pest, disease
or environmental problem. Disease and pests were also controlled by the use of manual
intervention, non-toxic sprays, environmental manipulations and introductions of
predatory and parasitic insects. The following pests and plant diseases were present in
the Biosphere 2 agriculture during the first two year mission: two spotted spider mite,
broad mite, thrip, mealy bug, aphid, leaf miner, powdery mildew, root knot nematode,
fusarium fungus, pill and sow bug and cockroach. In spite of an introduction of two
predators in October of 1992, Neoseiulus californicus and Amlyseius barkeri, and four
other mite predators in March 1993 (Euseius stipu!atus, Galendromus annectens,
Typhlodromus rickeri and Typhlodromus porresi) the broad mite proved to be the most
damaging pest. This lead to the majority of white potato crops being replaced by sweet
potato. Other beneficial insects introduced prior to closure in 1991 were: Hyppodamia
convergens, Lysophlaebus sp., Leptomastix dactylopii, Chrysoperla rusilabris, Nasomia
vipripennis, Cryptolaemus montouzieri, Diglyphus isaea, Metaphycus helvolus, Aphytis
melinus, Amblyseius melinus, Phytoseiulus persimilis, Encarsia formosa, Orius
trysticolor and Metaseiulus occidentalis. Also, in March 1993 two generalist predators
were introduced, Geocoris pallens and Labidura riparia. After 18 months of closure
there were few beneficial insects remaining (Nelson, 1993).
271
Table 1: Biosphere 2 Agriculture First Year Crop Harvests, Sept 91 to Sept 92.
. ..
[9op . : Growing Yields Total Yields . Kg Protein(g) . Fat (g) : Kcal
, Area m-2 g/m-2 Kg PersonlDay PersonlDay PersonlDay . PersonlDay
FieldWt.
Rice 633.2 309.5 196 ..0 67.1. 4.99 1.21' 237.9.0
SorghUm 540,4 242.2. 130.9 .. 44,8. 5,85: . .0,89, 147.02
Wheat 5069 22,4 , 113.4 38.8' 5.07' .0.77 127.4.0
White Potato 128.2 1546 ..0 198.2; 67.9; 1.41 .0.79. 51.48
,Sweet Potato 592.8 2252 ..0 1335.0: 457.26.~~ 1.29 477.33
Malanga nla 84.4 289....0,68 D,Q5 29.96
Yam nla 195: 6.7. . .0,14 .0.00. 8.72
,Peanut 216.9 108.8 236 8.1: 2.11' 3.9.0 46.73
,SoyBe an 83.6 168.7; 14.1, 4.8. 1.73: .0.87, 19.13
Lab Lab Bean 72.4 871.5 63.1: 21.6 3.40: D}~, 73.96
Pea 292.3 49.6 14.5 5.0' 1.21 0.04: 16.83
Green Bean 6.3 1254.0 7.9 .0.05 0.00 .0.86
Beet Green 107.2 2546.6, 273.0 93.5. 1.68 .0.46, 19.43
Beet Root 107,2 28769.. 308 .4 lQ~·6 1.53 ' .0,15 46.2.0
,13 ellPepper . 0.7 18714.3 13.1 4.5: .0.04: .0 ..02 1.06
Carrots 38.6' 2274.6 87.8 : 30.1; .0.27 0.05: 13.04
Chili 2.7 23185.2 62.6 21.( 0.42. 0.04 8.47
Cabbage. 23.8 3504.2 83,4 28.6. .0.33 .0.04: 6,45
Cucumber 1.3 133.07.7, 17.3 5.9; .0.03 : 0.01' .0.03
Eggplant 2.~ ...... 55392.9 155.1: 53.1, .0.56;' 0.04, 14.05
Kale 1.3 8692.3 11.3 3.9 : 0.13 0.03 : 1.87
Lettuce 16.4 5506.1 90.3· 30.9. .0.28: .0.04' 4.03
Onion 14.9 7181.2 107 ..0 36.6 .0.43 : .0.09 12.28
PakChoi 6.7 4253.7. 28.5 9.8 0.14] 0 ..02. 1.24
Sno""pe" 300 ..0 .0.9 0.3 .0 ..02 .0.00' 0.25
§quashSeed D.8() 1.28 : 15.19
§ummerSquasij 4926.1: 98.2: 1.04 .0.21 18.70
Swiss Chard 12800.0. ~7,~: 19.7' .0.35: .0,04: 3.2.0
s\\:~;p~i:G~~r nla 64,4: 22.1 0.63 0.06' 5.45
Tomato 13.6 21176.5 288.0 98.6. .0.87 .0.17 19.14
\VinterS'Iuash , 62.8 4160.8 261.3 89.5 1.61, 0.16 56.18
,\pple .. 0.6, 0.2, 0,00, .0,00' 0.12
Banana 1024.2 350.8 2.23 : 9.9.0 2.07.86
Fig J.7 38.8 13.3 .0.09 .0.04 9:561
Guava 41..0, 14..0] .0.09 0.06: ....... iI
5.58
K"In'luat . 4.2 1,4 0 ..01' .0,00, .0: 85 1
Lemon 9.7 3.3 .0.01 ' 0 ..01' .0.64
ume 3.7 I} 0.01. .0.00 .0. 32 1
()range 5.6. 1.9 0.01. . . . 0 0 1 , .0.66
J>apaya 639.6 219 ..0 0.85 .0.15' 55.63
Goat Milk 316.7 108.5 4.43: 5.41. 95.88
Goat Meat 7.9 2f .0.95 0.45 7.01
Pork .. 3piglets2adults 34.7 11.9 2.01 243: 3.0.85
Fl,h . 30fishlD.2 3.5 .0.64' 0.15 4.06
J:lggs 10 hens 257eggs 0.1 0.26 0.24 3,45
Chicken Meat 8.1.2.8..0.,5.1 : 0.40. 5.83
Total 2243.4' 56.35. 32.26: 1911.88
* Calculated using Or. Roy Walford's nutritional software, The Diet Planner.
272
Human intervention included manual removal of pests and diseased vegetation,

washing with water and pruning of infected leaves. Sprays included sulfur and soap
sprays, Bacillus thuringiensis and horticultural oil. The horticultural oil was the most
successful method for controlling the broad mite. The relative humidity was
manipulated to remain generally below 45% to help control the broad mite infestations.
A domestic animal system included African pygmy goats, Jungle Foul/Japanese
Silky hen crossbred chickens and Ossabaw Feral Swine, and tilapia fish were grown in
the rice paddies. The milk, meat and eggs provided approximately 50% of the daily fat
intake of the biospherians. The animals were fed crop residues that the humans could
not consume, such as the sweet potato vines and above ground biomass of peanut plants.
While the domestic animals, particularly the goats, were a valuable part of the Biosphere
2 agriculture, a food production system could be readily designed that excluded them.
The waste from the domestic animals and inedible crop residues were composted. Due to
the C02/02 problem little of the compost was added to the soil as originally envisioned,
but stored dry so as to prevent the production of CO 2 through the process of decay. The
human waste was processed through an anaerobic digester and subsequently through a
microbial/plant marsh lagoon system. The processed water was used in the agriculture
irrigation water.
During the first two year mission all essential nutrients were provided by the
primarily vegetarian diet, with the exception of calcium and vitamins B 12 and D, which
were supplemented. Calorie intake, however, was low. During the first 6 months 21
random samples of calorie intake during a 24 hour period had an average of 1780
kcalories per biospherian. The kcalorie intake was increased for the remainder of the
mission to approximately 2200 kilocalories per biospherian per day. Weight loss was
considerable: 16% average decrease for the men and 11 % average decrease for women.
Mean total cholesterol decreased (from 191 +/- 11 before closure to 123 +/- 9 mg/dl after
closure), as did fasting serum glucose, mean totalleukocyte count, mean blood pressure
and blood urea nitrogen concentration. These findings are reported in full by Dr. Roy
Walford in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (Walford et ai, 1992).
The weight loss contributed to low energy levels and the "irritability" of the crew. There
was also food stealing (Ailing and Nelson, 1993), a phenomenon that has been
experienced in the Antarctic bases even where food supplies were not short (North,
1992). Dreams and fantasies were filled with memories of food and plans of meals to be
eaten upon exiting Biosphere 2 (Ailing and Nelson, 1993). Clearly not only adequate
food supplies but also a varied diet is important to maintaining crew health, morale and
productivity.
The Biosphere 2 agriculture was an essentially sustainable food production and
waste recycling system using only biological methods. It was particularly successful
with the improvements made during the transition period between the two manned
missions. With greater control of light duration and intensity, humidity, temperature,
the exclusion of pest species and domestic animals, and improved cultivars, the next
generation of research agricultural systems for the lunar or Martian surface would
require a dramatically reduced area to produce all the food for the crew. Further testing
273
would be required to see if 85% of food required for a four-person crew could be
produced on the 81 m2 allowed for in the NASA Advanced Life Support Chamber.
(Dooley et ai, 1995). Pathogenic bacterial and fungal infections would be of concern.
Although hygienic methods of cultivation alleviate the problem of disease, the crew of a
long duration space mission must be prepared to tackle such problems. A soil ecosystem
containing a vigorous consortium of microfauna and flora is less likely to succumb to
rapid colonization by a pathogenic species, as invasive species of microbiota are
generally kept in check by competition and predation. Most microbiologists favor
introduction of a diverse population of microbes to lunar soil (Stotsky, 1989). Outbreak
of disease is of concern in both hydroponic and solid media agriculture systems.
Therefore there must be cultivars and species included other than those generally grown
which have a range of disease resistance and environmental requirements to replace
problematic crops in the event of such an outbreak. There would also be the capacity to
pasteurize the growing medium. This was sorely lacking inside Biosphere 2, and would
have undoubtedly helped with some of the diseases encountered, particularly the
Pithium sp. and root knot nematode.
Much significant work has been conducted internationally on many aspects of food
production and waste recycling systems for space habitation, using several types of
growth media (Hossner et ai, 1991; Eckart, 1994). Building on this experience, the time
has come for complete regernerative life support systems to be subjected to series oftests
and improvements integrating the work of individuals and laboratories from around the
globe.
3.2. NUTRIENT AND WATER RECYCLING
The Biosphere 2 agriculture system was designed to be fully recycling, without

necessary inputs of plant nutrients. or the export of waste. It was in a closed nutrient
loop with the human habitat. Human and domestic animal waste was treated in
anaerobic digesters and aerobic lagoon systems. The system was developed at NASA
Stennis by Dr. W. Wolverton. The human waste. shower and wash water and the
washdown from the domestic animals was first treated in anaerobic digesters. This
resulted in primary decomposition of the particulates. The effluent then cycled in
batches through an aerobic marsh lagoon system. Here several species of aquatic plants
and their associated microbes reduce the nutrient load of the water by utilizing it for
rapid growth, and further break down particulates. After the batch is completed the
water is mixed with condensate water low in nutrients, and used as irrigation water in the
agricultural area. The plants growing in the waste recycling system are periodically
harvested, and fed to the goats for roughage.
The waste from the animals that is cleared daily from the floor of their pens, was
mixed with the compost to be decomposed and returned to the fields as necessary. The
crop residues that are not edible by either humans or the domestic animals were also
composted.
274
The soil in the Biosphere 2 agricultural area was approximately 4 feet deep
(unnecessarily deep for anything other than some fruit trees). The soil contained 15%
peat moss and 15% compost by volume, added at introduction ofthe soil. Soil was used
as the growing medium as we were trying to get 100% nutrient loop closure, with all the
biomass being added back to the medium. This is difficult with hydroponics. Full
closure is not necessary where resupply or manufacture of the hydroponic salts is
possible. The soil was not sterilized or treated in any way to irradicate both beneficial
and pest organisms prior to installation. Pithium and root knot nematodes became
problematic during the first two year closure, with no effective way to significantly
reduce the infestations available to the crew. While crops were chosen that were resistant
to such infestations, some species did succumb.
The water within Biosphere 2 was recycled. Evapotranspiration puts moisture into
the air which condenses onto coils within the large air handlers that heated and cooled
the air within Biosphere 2. This water is then collected in holding tanks and treated with
UV sterilization and hydrogen peroxide where necessary. Neither of these treatments
were used other than for routine equipment testing as the water remained below
acceptable levels of contaminants. The water is then available for drinking, cooking,
washing and irrigation of the plants. The waste water was treated in the waste recycling
system described above, before being returned to the plants via the irrigation system. In
Biosphere 2 the water loop was complicated by the atmosphere being continuous
throughout. Thus, water from the agriculture was entrained in the air and traveled to the
wilderness, where it was then utilized by the wilderness plants, or rained down into the
ocean. Water could also be pumped to the wilderness area from the agriculture when
required.
3.3. MEDICAL ISSUES
The Biosphere 2 sealed environment was humid in many parts ofthe structure, there was
a wide variety of species living inside, and underneath the organic ecosystems lay a large
amount of industrial equipment. The medical team anticipated that four major medical
problems would become evident during the two year mission: infection and allergies;
trauma; toxic exposure from build up of outgassing and organic emissions; and adverse
psychological reactions (Walford et ai, 1996).
No significant infections occurred, and the few allergies encountered were treatable.
A partial amputation of a digital phalanx which occurred during the first month of
closure was the only acute trauma. No trace gas contaminants were ever measured that
exceeded permissible levels. No formal psychological screening or psychometric testing
was done either before or during the mission, with the exception of one examination
towards the end of the two year stay. The crew received the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory, revised version (MMPI2) which was scored at the Arizona Center
for Clinical Management, by Michael Berren. No psychological pathologies were
evidenced by the MMPl2 test. (Walford et ai, 1996). However, several crew members
reported that the psychology of groups in Isolated Confined Environments such as
275
Biosphere 2, was one of the more difficult aspects ofliving inside the enclosure for two
years.
Unanticipated medical challenges were faced, however, that were caused by a life
support system that was not adequately functioning. Because of the lower than expected
yields in the agriculture, as described above, the diet was low in fat and calories. Calorie
intake was approximately 1800 kcalslpersonlday for the first six months, which was
subsequently increased to 2200 kcals during the remainder of the two year closure. Fat
intake accounted for approximately 12% of the kcals. Weight loss was considerable.
By 8 - 10 months the men had lost 18% of their total body weight, and the women lost
10%. Mean body fat, measured by skin-fold measurements, indicated 8% for the men
and 13% on average for the women. No significant weight gain or increase in body fat
was measured even with the increase in calories (Walford et ai, 1996). Most of the
Biospherians commented on feeling hungry and irritable a good deal of the time, and
somewhat fatigued from the low calorie diet (MacCallum and Poynter, 1995). Despite
this the crew continued to work 60-70 hour weeks. Dr. Walford has proposed that
significant health effects can be had through a calorie restricted diet, provided that all
necessary nutrients are provided (Walford et ai, 1992). However, it is the authors'
opinion that the low calorie diet as experienced in Biosphere 2 only added to the stressful
situation for reasons mentioned above, possibly reducing crew safety and efficiency.
Another medical problem experienced during the Biosphere 2 experiment, which
hopefully would not occur during a manned space mission where few fall-back options
would be available. was oxygen deprivation. During the first 16 months of closure the
O 2 in the atmosphere of Biosphere 2 decreased from the ambient 21 % to 14%. Less than
20% of the total "missing" 02 could be accounted for through respiration that resulted in
an increase of the atmospheric CO 2 concentration (which never rose above 4,500 parts
per million) or by production of CO 2 that was subsequently sequestered by a chemical
CO 2 scrubbing system. This left an oxygen loss of approximately 588 kmoles
unaccounted for. (MacCallum et ai, 1995). A positive correlation was found between
the concentration of CO 2 and the rate of oxygen loss. The rate of O2 depletion was
greatest at times when the CO 2 was at the highest concentration. Also carbon isotope
data, soil gas and atmospheric analysis determined that a significant unidentified sink for
CO 2 existed within Biosphere 2. Analysis of the internal concrete structure revealed
that significantly increased formation of CaC0 2 had occurred. The total increase in the
formation of CaC0 2 was enough to account for the missing CO 2 and the isotopic
composition of the CaC0 2 in the concrete indicated that it was the previously
unidentified CO 2 sink. (Severinghaus et aL 1994).
The decline in O 2 was slow. equivalent to approximately 750 ft Imonth in elevation.
The drop continued to 14.2%. or 15,000 ft elevation (although pressure remained
constant), after 17 months of closure. At this time symptoms of oxygen deprivation were
considerable and the crew physician, Dr. Roy Walford, directed O 2 to be injected into the
Biosphere, increasing the level to 19%. Symptoms included fatigue, decreased work
capacity and sleep disorders caused by "periodic breathing", all similar to those
experienced under high-altitude sickness. It was expected that crew members would
276
adapt to the lowered oxygen levels, but normal adaptations were not observed. The
symptoms became significantly increased below 15 - 16 % (Walford et ai, 1996).
The lowering oxygen levels led to hypoxia in several of the biospherians, who
reported fatigue, sleeplessness and shortness of breath (Leigh, 1993; Alling and Nelson,
1993). Other effects of hypoxia are difficulty in clear thinking and lack of judgment
(Ward et at, 1989), both of which were reported by several biospherians when the
oxygen was at its lowest of 14%. The causes of the O2 loss and the means by which
photosynthesis can be made to balance respiration could have been determined during
the conceptual design phase of the project if more extensive total system
experimentation had been carried out. This is one of many examples of problems that do
not become apparent until subsystems begin to be used together. Certainly this finding
has implications for the use oflunar concrete in building habitats on the moon as well as
the O2 /C0 2 balance in a regenerative life support system.
4. Summary
While physicochemical systems have been the primary subject of life support research,
an increasing emphasis on biological systems is emerging for long term space missions.
Biological components of a life support system are being developed using plants and
microbiota, that take advantage of the multiple uses of each component (e.g. plants
grown for food also transpire water that can be sequestered for drinking water). Closed
loop life support systems become necessary where supplying a long term or remote base
is not economical, such as on the Moon or Mars. Biosphere 2 is an example of a system,
intended to be 100% bioregenerative.
The first two year manned mission of the project bore out the viability of
bioregenerative systems as the primary life support system for a space base. The two
principal problems during the mission. oxygen loss and inadequate food production.
albeit serious problems that compromised the successful 100% closure of the mission,
can be avoided in future systems with improved designs. They demonstrate the necessity
for iterative, total system testing. While many challenges can be anticipated, it is not
until testing of total systems over extended periods of time are conducted that certain
problems come to light, such as the oxygen loss in Biosphere 2. Conversely, some
expected to be problems do not become so, such as trace gas contaminants building up to
dangerous levels, infection and allergies, and other anticipated medical problems that
did not materialize.
5. References
Ailing, A., Nelson, M. (1993). Life Under Glass: the inside story of Biosphere 2.
Arizona: The Biosphere Press.
277
Dooley, H. A., Drysdale, A. E., Sager, 1. C. and Brown C.S. (1995). Bioregenerative Life
Support System Design. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on
Environmental Systems. San Diego: SAE International.
Eckart, P., (1994). Life Support and Biospherics. Germany: Herbert Utz Publishers.
Gahheau, M. (1996). Crew returns to outer limits: Astronauts end monthlong test in
chamber. Houston: Houston Chronicle.
Hossner, L. R., Ming, D. W., Henninger, D. L., Alien, E. R. (1991). Lunar Outpost
Agriculture. Endeavor, New Series, Vol 15, No. 2. Great Britain: Pergamon Press.
International Space University (1991). International Mars Mission. Toulouse, France:
International Space University Press.
Leigh, L.S. ( 1993) Linda's Journal - Oxygen. Biosphere 2 Newsletter, Vo!. 3. No. 1.
Space Biospheres Ventures, Arizona.
MacCallum, T. K., Poynter, 1. E., (1995). Factors Affecting Human Performance in the
Isolated Confined Environment of Biosphere 2. Proceedings of the Third Annual
Mid-Atlantic Human Factors Conference, Virginia.
MacCallum, T., 1. Poynter, 1. Johnson-Freese. (1995) Biosphere 2: Two Years in an
Isolated Confined Environment. Proceedings ofInSpace 95, Tokyo Japan.
MacElroy, R.D. (1990). Artificial Ecological Systems: Activities in the U.S. and Japan.
Workshop on artificial ecological systems, Marseille.
Nelson, M., Silverstone, S., Poynter, J. (1993). Biosphere 2 Agriculture: Test Bed for
Intensive, Sustainable, Non-Polluting Farming System. Outlook On Agriculture,
VoI22,#3, 167-174. U.K.
North, R., (1992). Personal communication.
Severinghaus, 1.P., BroekeT. W.S., Dempster, W.F., MacCallum, T.K., Wahlen, M.
(1994) Oxygen Loss in Biosphere 2. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical
Union, Vo!. 75, No. 3.
Stotsky, G. (1989). Microorganisms and the grO\vth of higher plants in lunar-derived
soils. In D. W. Ming and D. L. Henninger (eds), "Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for
Plant GrO\vth". 131 - 127. Madison: American Society of Agronomy.
Walford. R. L., Harris, S. B .. Gunion, M. W. (1992). The calorically restricted low-fat
nutrient-dense diet in Biosphere 2 significantly lowers blood glucose, total
leukocyte count. cholesterol. and blood pressure in humans. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, USA, Vo189, 11533-11537.
Walford, R. L., R. Bechtel, T. MacCallum, D. E. Paglia, and L. 1 Weber. (1996).
"Biospheric Medicine" as Viewed from the Two-Year First Closure of Biosphere
2. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, Vo167, No. 7.
Ward, M.P., Milledge. lS., West, lB. (1989) High Altitude Medicine and Physiology.
University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR PLANT PRODUCTION IN SPACE
CELSS
E. Goto
University of Tokyo
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT. Environmental control is expected to be a key technology for achieving

plant production in a space CELSS because the environments are completely artificial
and controllable. Plant production systems for space CELSS will be improvements to
systems which are currently used in controlled environment agriculture and factory-like
plant production. For plant production in space CELSS, air pressure, gas and light
environments can be totally controlled independently from the outside conditions.
The present paper focuses on these environmental factors in space CELSS which have
unique features compared to those in current greenhouse production.
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in growing plants in extraterrestrial
space (Tibbitts and Bula, 1989). A CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support
System) has been considered for use in space and has been studied by various
researchers (Olson et aI., 1988; Averner, 1989). A plant production module is one of
the modules comprising a CELSS, and it is expected to play an important role in the
system (Prince and Knott, 1989). The feasibility of growing plants in space has been
verified by means of plant experiments conducted in spaceships (Mashinsky et aI.
1994; Cowles et aI., 1994). However, very few experiments for growing plants from
seeding to harvest have been tested in space. Therefore, the question of whether plant
production can be achieved in space remains unanswered. The effects of temperature
and CO 2 enrichment on plants have been studied in relation to crop production in
controlled environment agriculture. This previous work can be available reference for
growing plants in a CELSS.
The main features of plant production systems in CELSS, especially ones under
particular environments such as on a lunar base, are summarized as follows.
Plant production is used to achieve three major objectives: food production, gas
279
E. Goto et al. (ed.,.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 279-296.
280
exchange, and water purification.

Mechanization and automation are key factors for plant growth management.
All crops are cultivated by artificial lighting, not by sunlight.
Gas and material balances in a plant production subsystem are monitored and
controlled.
Recently, plant production systems with artificial lighting have come to the
forefront, and accordingly, many studies have been done on lighting, air conditioning,
growth management, nutrient solution control, mechanization, and automation. There
was a "plant factory" boom in Japan, 10 to 15 years ago. Originally, plant factories
were expected to produce plants according to a schedule because the plant growth
environment is controlled and not affected by sunlight and the outside climate. Plant
factories are promising systems for plant production in buildings, underground, and in
outer space. The technologies which have been developed for use in plant factories
are expected to be introduced into plant production systems in CELSS. Considering a
lunar base CELSS, resources for plant nutrients, direct sunlight, and atmosphere are
not available on the moon, so the root zone environment, light environment, and gas
environment must be artificially created.
This challenge is exciting and worthwhile. In order to achieve plant production in
a space CELSS, environmental control is expected to be a key technology because the
environments are completely artificial and controllable. For plant production in a
CELSS, the gas and light environments are very different compared to those in
greenhouse plant production.
Researchers at our laboratory have been working on environmental control specific
to plant factory and space CELSS. This paper mainly introduces our research, and
considerations for environmental control in space CELSS are discussed. Factors such
as temperature and CO 2 concentration are not discussed in detail in this paper, but this
information is available in the referenced papers. This paper focuses on the
environmental factors in space CELSS which have unique features compared to those
in greenhouse production.
2. Growing Plants under Hypobaric Conditions
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Although the environment in a CELSS system's resident module is to be maintained at

terrestrial conditions, that of the plant production module does not need to be so
maintained. One advantage of a space CELSS is that each module's gas composition
and total air pressure can be controlled at an optimal level: for example, the nitrogen in
air is not necessary for plant growth, and low oxygen concentration may enhance net
photosynthesis in the light period by reducing photorespiration. Hypobaric conditions,
obtained by reducing nitrogen and oxygen concentrations, is expected to facilitate gas
control, reduce construction costs, and simplify maintenance of the module structure.
281
However, only a few growth experiments have been carried out under reduced air
pressure conditions (Rule and Staby, 1981; Daunicht and Brinkjans, 1992; Brinkjans,
1992; Andre and Massimino, 1992), and the feasibility of growing plants under
reduced air pressures has remained uncertain.
Our group's research in this area has progressed since 1989 (Goto et aI., 1992, 1995,
1996a: Iwabuchi et ai, 1995, 1996). We have been using an environmental control
system to study plant growth under hypobaric conditions (Fig. I). The total pressure
of the system's assimilation chamber could be reduced to 10 kPa. In our studies, the
photosynthetic and transpiration rates for the plants were measured under total air
pressures of 10 to 100 kPa at constant CO 2 partial pressure conditions. The system
achieved complete control of total and partial pressures because N2, O2, and CO 2 levels
were controlled separately. This control enabled testing of a variety of combinations
of total pressure and partial pressures. The plants were cultivated by hydroponics in
the pressure chamber from germination to harvest without being exposed to
atmospheric pressure. The system enabled renewal of nutrient solution in the
hydroponic tray while maintaining a reduced pressure differential between the inside
and outside of the growth chamber.
Fluorescent lamps
'c5''c5''c5''c5''c5'
C02
analyzer
10 ......... ,.. - Temp.
Growth chamber ........... - RH 02
analyzer
N2
02
Dehumidifier
Plants
I. Vacuum pump
2. Air pump
p~:r***d
3. Pressure regulator
4. Gas mixing box
5. Humidifier
8:j / 6 \ 8 6. Electric balance
7. Nutri ent solution
8. Waste solution
9. Solenoid valve
10. Flowmeter
Fig.l. Schematic diagram of the plant growth system for hypobaric conditions.
2.2 PHOTOSYNTHETIC RATE AND TRANSPIRATION RATE
In order to evaluate the photosynthetic rate under reduced air pressure conditions, it is
useful to compare experimental data with predicted values using a photosynthesis
282
model incorporating CO 2 gas diffusion theory. Under the assumption that other
related factors do not vary, the net photosynthetic rate is inversely proportional to total
leaf resistance when the CO 2 pressure difference between the atmosphere and the
chloroplast is constant. Boundary layer resistance (Ra) and stomatal resistance (Rs) are
dependent on the CO 2 diffusion coefficient, which is affected by total air pressure (P).
Stomatal resistance is directly proportional to P, and boundary layer resistance is
proportional to P 05, (Monteith and Unsworth, 1990). Gale (1972) calculated
photosynthetic rate at high altitudes and showed that the photosynthetic rate increased
as the total air pressure decreased when boundary layer and stomatal resistances were
dominant in total leaf resistance. Fig.2 shows total pressure versus the simulated
conductance, lIR (R=Ra+Rs+Rm), under various resistance conditions (Goto et aI.,
1996a). This model facilitates simulations on how the net photosynthetic rate and
transpiration rate change under hypobaric condition.
Fig. 3 shows the measured photosynthetic and transpiration rates of maize plants
(Goto et aI., 1996a). For spinach, the incremental increase in the photosynthetic rate
under low pressures was smaller than in maize. This is probably because the
mesophyll resistance, Rm, of C3 plants such as spinach is generally higher than that of
C4 plants such as maize. The stomatal resistance is considered to increase due to
excessive transpiration as the total air pressure is decreased. In this case, the
conductance values, lIR, under low total pressures become lower than the simulated
ones. Even though the simulation was carried out in restricted conditions, the
photosynthetic rate curves were still similar to the curves for simulated conductance.
The results show that photosynthesis is enhanced by decreasing boundary layer
resistance and stomatal resistance to CO 2 transfer. Moreover, the results indicate that
photosynthesis of plants with higher mesophyll resistance is not enhanced under low
total pressures as much as that of plants with lower mesophyll resistance.
The O2 diffusion rate, as well as the CO 2 diffusion rate, become high at low total
air pressures. As a result, in some cases, low total air pressure may increase
photorespiration in C3 plants. Several factors are considered to affect the net
photosynthetic rate in a complex way under reduced air pressure conditions. Further
study is necessary to determine possible factors which affect the photosynthetic rate at
low total air pressures.
In the transpiration model, mesophyll resistance is assumed to be zero because the
mesophyll is wet. Thus, no distinct effect of mesophyll resistance is observed
between C3 and C4 plants. In the model, the transpiration rate is proportional to
lI(ra+rs) under the assumption that the vapor pressure difference between the stomata
and the chamber air is constant. The transpiration rates of spinach and maize
increased as the total air pressure decreased. However, the incremental increase in
the transpiration rate from 10 to 70 kPa was different between spinach and maize
plants; this was not expected since mesophyll resistance was assumed to be zero, and
thus should not have influenced transpiration. The measured transpiration rates did
not match the simulated ones. Enhancement of transpiration at reduced air pressure
conditions was not as clear as the corresponding enhancement of photosynthesis. In
283
the simulation model, the vapor pressure difference was assumed to be constant, and
the stomatal and boundary layer resistances were assumed to be affected only by total
air pressure. However, vapor pressure in stomata and stomatal resistance may change
under reduced air pressure conditions.
Ra
ra
Rs Rm (s/m)
rs
r---------------------,. 3
• VPD= 1.40 kPa 2~
61
400 400 0 ~ .. . ~ .t::
". ..... . 2 e N
5 400 400 200 . .::~~.........~. ......... ;. g 'E
~ "0
VI
E4 .. 1200 400 0
20°C . ... .. 1 '0. 0
'?
0 ,
. - - - - - - 1200 400 200
._-.-.- 400 1200 0
~<11 _50 I VPD= 0.70 kPa 0 ~ ~ I ~~
~3 o ";" VPD= 0.70 kPa
il .t:: 40 '.
~ .t:: N
l . ..........
..... 2
~.
~ "01:: 30
<f) . ••···•.. ~·........ ··ii··......... .
..... .2 N20 20°C • .......... ..... .. ....
o 0
-a.Q) <&1
~
--'::"':':' ::...::' ~~...:...-:=-=.

0
• VPD= 1.40 kPa
z E ~ 0
00 o
L'- - - - - - -- - - - '
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Total air pressure (kPa)
Total air pressure (kPa)
Fig.2. Theoretical values of photosynthetic Fig.3. Photosynthetic and transpiration

rates of maize plants under various
and transpiration rates. (Values of the
resistances are at 100 kPa total total air pressure conditions (short-
pressure.) term measurements).
2.3 GERMINA TION AND LONG-TERM CUL TIVA TION
There were no significant differences in germination rates of soybean seeds between 10

and 100 kPa of total air pressure with the same oxygen partial pressure (Isome et aI.,
1994). For spinach, there were no differences in germination rates between 25 and
100 kPa of total air pressure (Iwabuchi et aI., 1996). Results of this study and
previous work led to the conclusion that seeds will germinate normally under low total
air pressures (10 kPa to 100 kPa) if the moisture and oxygen partial pressure are
controlled at suitable levels.
Our 10-day and 31-day growth experiments showed that there were no significant
differences in relative growth rate of spinach for 25, 50, 75 and 100 kPa of total air
pressure with the same O2 and C02 partial pressures and vapor pressure (Tables 1 and
2). According to gas diffusion theory, as described before, photosynthetic rate should
increase as leaf resistance decreases. This effect seems to be similar to C02
enrichment in greenhouse production. However, dry matter increase was not
observed in any of the low air pressure treatments. Several reasons were proposed.
284
First, the increase in photosynthetic rate was diminished because the cultivation period
was long. Second, the experimental conditions tested had other limiting factors
which restricted the dry matter production, and the CO 2 enrichment effect could not
contribute; e.g. light intensity was low. Third, the C02 enrichment was effective, but
another negative effect restricted higher photosynthetic rate, e.g. transpiration was
exceSSIve.
Table I Effects of total and CO 2 partial pressures on spinach growth in the I O-day experiment
(Goto et aI, 1995).
Pressure condition RGRTj Water Specific Toplroot
content l ) leaf area l ) raito l )
Total (kPa) O 2 (kPa) CO 2 (Pa) (xlo· 1 dat l ) (%) (mm 2 g.l)
100 21 100 2.3a 93.4b 353bc 3.49b
75 21 lOO 2.2a 93.9b 337c 3.27b
50 21 lOO 2.2a 94.0ab 389ab 3.88ab
50 21 50 1.9b 94.4a 421a 4.44a
Vapor pressure deficit: 0.59-0.63 kPa. Light period: 14 h/day. PPFD: 120 flmolm·2s·1
Air temperature: 20 QC.
I)Average of 17 plants.
a-c mean separation within columns by Duncan's multiple range test, I % level.
Table 2 Effects of total and O2 partial pressures on spinach growth in the

31-day experiment (Iwabuchi et aI, 1996).
Pressure condition Fresh Dry Shoot
weight l ) weight l ) length I)
Total (kPa) O 2 (kPa) CO 2 (Pa) (g) (g) (cm)
101 21 40 8.9x 0.63 17.3x
25 21 40 9.2x 0.70 18.5x
25 10 40 6.6y 0.62 13.2y
Vapor pressure deficit: 0.59-0.98 kPa. Light period: 12 h/day.
PPFD: 250flmolm·2s·1 Air temperature: 25/20 QC (day/night)
I) Values at Day 31.
x,y mean separation within columns by Duncan's multiple range test, I % level.
Andre and Massimino (1992) reported that the transpiration rate of wheat was
higher at 20 kPa than at atmospheric pressure. They explained the phenomenon as
being related to the increase in water vapor diffusion. Daunicht and Brinkjans (1992)
reported that excessive transpiration from the leaves resulted in drought stress under
low pressures because the evaporation rate increased. In our study, this drought stress
was not observed in the leaves, probably because the vapor pressure deficit of the
chamber air was maintained constant. It is known that as transpiration rate increases,
leaf temperature decreases, stomatal aperture becomes smaller, and stomatal resistance
increases. The process of water movement from roots to leaves is complex and may
be directly or indirectly affected by total air pressure. In long-term cultivation at
25kPa total pressure, spinach growth rate was slightly higher at 85% relative humidity
285
than at 70%. In this case, the stomatal resistance was not examined in detail, but the
higher humidity condition was considered to reduce the transpiration rate and as a
result might have enhanced growth. Therefore, humidity control is important under
hypobaric conditions to maintain transpiration rate at a suitable level.
The feasibility of growing plants under hypobaric conditions have already been
shown in previous studies, and these results should be valuable for a space CELSS.
The current interests on this topic are, 1) to obtain higher growth rates under hypobaric
conditions than under atmospheric pressure, and 2) to grow crops through the
reproductive stage and produce seeds, fruits, and flowers. There are several
advantages for growing plants under hypobaric conditions even if the growth rate and
quality of plants are the same as those at atmospheric pressure. However, if the
growth rate could be enhanced by controlling other parameters, this cultivation method
would be more advantageous than conventional growing methods. The O2 level is
one such parameter that can be adjusted to enhance growth under hypobaric conditions.
Storage of harvested plants at low pressures is one of the interesting ways to utilize the
vacuum environment in space. (Goto, et aI., 1996b)
3. Gas Environments
3.102 PARTIAL PRESSURE
Low O2 partial pressure under atmospheric conditions is known to reduce

photorespiration of C3 plants during the light period and as a result increase net
photosynthesis. There have been several different results reported on the effect of
low O2 on plant growth. The effect can be positive or negative depending on the
developmental stage, plant species, and O2 control methods. If growth enhancement
by reduction of photorespiration is desired, O2 concentration in the dark should be
maintained at the normal level. Low O2 can also have a negative effect by inhibiting
leaf expansion and development. Even if low O2 has advantages in dry matter
production, such gas environments are not easy to control in greenhouses. Therefore,
low O2 has not received much attention for practical production.
The environment in a plant production module in a space CELSS can be totally
controlled, and isolated from the outside. Therefore, it is not difficult to control O2
partial pressure in the module and to maintain the level at different levels during the
light and dark periods. From this viewpoint, the effect of low O2 on plant production
in space CELSS should be studied more thoroughly.
Our short-term measurements showed that under low total air pressure conditions
(20 to 50 kPa), the net photosynthetic rate at 3 kPa of O2 pressure was 1.2 to 1.4 times
greater than that at 20 kPa of O2 pressure (Iwabuchi, et aI., 1995). Oxygen gas
diffusion rate increased with the decrease in total air pressure, similar to the diffusion
rate of CO 2 . Therefore, in this case, the oxygen concentration in the leaves may be
higher at reduced total air pressure with 3 kPa of O2 than at atmospheric pressure with
286
3 kPa of O2. Oxygen partial pressure of 3 kPa at 20kPa total pressure was considered to
be equivalent to 5-10 kPa of O2 partial pressure at 100 kPa total pressure. Both total
leaf resistance and photorespiration rate were contributing factors. Since these factors
were not measured in this experiment, it was difficult to estimate their individual
effects.
In our 31-day growth experiment, 25 kPa total pressure with 10 kPa of 02 delayed
the growth rate of spinach and some leaf damage was observed. In this experiment,
O2 pressure during the dark period was also controlled at 10 kPa. The low O2
pressure in the dark probably inhibited the growth and development of spinach. In
addition, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration was maintained at a low level; i.e.,
approximately 112 of the saturated concentration under normal air pressure conditions.
Aeration for controlling the dissolved oxygen concentration was done between the
chamber air and the nutrient solution. In order to utilize the advantages of the low O2
environment, it is necessary to control aerial O2 partial pressures in both the light and
dark periods separately and to control root zone O2 partial pressure independently from
the aerial gas environment. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the nutrient
solution is usually dependent on the aerial O2 partial pressure because the
room/chamber air is used for aeration. If a partition between the aerial and root zone
gas environments can be installed, the DO concentration could be more easily
controlled. In the case of floating hydroponics, supplying pure oxygen gas in solution
is one of the ways to control the DO concentration more precisely (Goto et aI., 1996c).
3.2 GAS ENVIRONMENTS IN PLANT CANOPY
We measured the humidity profiles over the leaves of lettuce plants in the light period
(Goto and Takakura, 1992a). Relative humidity (RH) was higher over the inner
leaves than over the outer leaves. The inner leaves were partially or totally enclosed
by outer mature leaves during the growing stage. The high RH over the inner leaves
was due to insufficient air exchange between outside and inside and resulted in low
transpiration rate from the leaves. The low transpiration rate caused poor water and
calcium movement from roots to the tissues and resulted in tissue damage. The
tissues are susceptible to tipburn, a physiological disorder due to calcium deficiency.
We prevented lettuce tipburn by supplying room air to the inner leaves (Fig. 4) and
thereby, increased the growth rate. The air supply accelerated air movement around
the leaves and reduced humidity, and consequently promoted transpiration and water
and calcium movement (Fig. 5) (Goto and Takakura, 1992b). The study indicated
that suitable humidity conditions are different between the inner and outer leaves, and
that conventional air circulation is not adequate to provide an optimal humidity
environment for plant growth.
This finding indicates that the gas environment around the leaves is relatively
different from that of the room or chamber air. It is common to use one or several
measuring points as representative of the room air for gas control. However, the gas
environments around the leaves or in plant canopies are not always similar to those at
287
the measuring points. Improvement of the humidity environment around the leaves
can greatly contribute to reduction of physiological disorders. Promoting air
movement probably changes not only the humidity profile but also the CO 2
concentration profile on the leaves. It is known that wind velocities of 0.5 - 1.0 mls
on leaf surfaces are suitable for plant gas exchange, but it is also understood that
controlling the wind velocity over each leaf is difficult. The structure of a lettuce
plant canopy is simple, but most candidate crops for space CELSS, such as rice, wheat,
soybean, and tomato have more complicated canopy structures. Therefore, the gas
environments in these crop canopies are considered to be highly different from the
average of the room air. It should be noted that conventional air conditioning
methods are not optimal for most plant canopies. Improvement of the gas environment,
especially C02 and humidity around plants, has potential to increase growth rate and
reduce physiological disorders. Each leaf of a plant has different physiological
activity and requires different optimal gas and light environments. This common, but
often ignored fact, should be given more attention in future plant environmental
control.
1. Air plUllp 18
Air supply rate:
2. Transparent tube ~
160mL min·l/plant
3. Valve for regulating flow rate ~ 15
4. Transparent flexible pipe
~ ...:
0)
5. Lettuce plant .§ 12
E
6. Hydroponic bed a.
1
u
-;; 9 DOuter leaves
o D inner leaves
2~
1
~
"3 6
E
/0
:J
3 i:l
-< 3
o'"
Room air 4
.. PI:.
5~ '!i 0 I ".. ".. "
Control Air supply Control Air supply
light Period Dark Period
Fig. 5 Effect of air supply on Ca

Fig. 4 Outline of air supply to the
accumulation in leaves of lettuce
lettuce leaves.
in the light and dark period.
4. Lighting Environment
Artificial lighting is essential in plant production in a CELSS, and energy reduction is

one of the most important problems to be solved. Previous research has indicated that
the electricity cost for lighting constitutes more than 50% of the total production cost
in a plant factory. In such a totally controlled-environment, lighting conditions such
288
as light intensity, day/night cycle, ratio of light period to dark period, and spectral
energy distribution can be changed widely. For example, it is possible to either
shorten or lengthen day periods under artificial light, although the natural daily cycle in
sunlight is constant at 24 hours.
4.1 LIGHT SOURCE
Many previous works relating to plant production under artificial light showed that
high intensity discharge (HID) lamps, such as high pressure sodium (HPS) and metal
halide (MH) lamps, and standard fluorescence lamps are suitable for plant production.
Each type of lamp has advantages and disadvantages in terms of wavebands, energy
efficiency, and luminaires. Light-emitting diodes (LED) and micro-wave lamps have
received more attention recently (Barta et aI., 1992; Tennessen et aI., 1994; Maclenman
et al. 1995). LEDs have very narrow infrared wavebands (Barta et aI., 1992) and blue,
red, and far-red types are available. LEDs have been tested as light sources for
growing plants (Bula et aI., 1991), and several growing systems with LEDs have
already been developed for growing plants in spaceships and plant tissue culture (e.g.
Bula et aI., 1992). However, LEDs cannot be used to emit high light intensities (e.g.
PPFD > 1000 flmol' m-2s- I ), and cannot be a major light source for crops such as cereals
and beans which need high light intensities. An important note is that light sources
useful for plant research or small chambers are not always suitable for large-scale plant
production.
It is important to remove thermal radiation from lamps because thermal radiation
may increase leaf temperature (Davis, 1995). Most of the work on improvement of
lighting sources such as lamp tubes and reflectors have been carried out by lamp
production companies. Mankin and Walker (1988) tested two types of HPS lamps,
water-cooled and air-cooled types, to reduce thermal energy from IR radiation. They
showed the advantages of water-cooled HPS lamps for reduction of leaf temperature.
Ohara et al. (1988) developed a new metal reflector to decrease the thermal radiation
from a reflector to an illuminated surface. Warrington et al. (1995) explained the
mechanism of heat dissipation by water screens.
4.2 LIGHTING DIRECTION AND DISTRIBUTION
Once a light source is selected, the next consideration is how to distribute the lights
efficiently to the plants. Albright and Both (1995) measured luminaires using
commercial reflectors for HID lamps and designed lamp arrangements. Reflectors fit
to each type of lamps are available; however, usually their standard luminaires are not
optimal for arrangement of the plants in the growing area. Calculation of luminaires
on the growing area and design of lamp arrangement are important management
techniques to maximize lighting efficiency (e.g. light energy received by plants per
input energy). It is usually thought that the purpose of the lamp arrangement is to
obtain uniformity of light intensity distribution over a flat growing area. However,
289
the height of plants, plant structure, leaf direction, layers of leaves, and spacing
management are also related to the lighting efficiency. We measured the
photosynthetic rate of leaf vegetables under various angles of incident rays and found
that commonly used downward lighting did not always maximize the photosynthetic
rate (Goto, 1992). The results indicated that the angle of incident rays is a major
factor affecting photosynthetic rate and that this point must be taken into account in
lighting design.
Ruthner (1981) and Tsuruoka et al. (1984) have developed a system for movable
placement of plants where the plants were lighted from various directions. Ikeda et al.
(1992) proposed a lighting method to closely illuminate plants with fluorescent lamps.
Kitaya et al. (1988) developed a new cultivation method to grow lettuce by suspending
the lettuce upside down. Kozai et al. (1995) developed a sideward lighting system
using diffusive optical fiber belts for plant lighting and applied it to plant tissue culture
and transplant production. The system can use any type of light source (e.g. HID
lamps and micro-wave lamps) and control wavelength by mounting filters between the
light source and fiber belts. Another advantage is facilitated control of light
intensities on the growing areas by positioning of the flexible belts. Use of prismatic
films is also one of the promising ways to control light distribution from a light source
(Kneipp, 1995).
4.3 LIGHTING CYCLE AND LIGHT/DARK RATIO
Under purely artificial lighting, the parameters usually considered are light intensity,
lighting cycle (sum of light period and dark period) and the ratio of light period to dark
period.
As for the lighting cycle, Klueter et al. (1980) reported the effects of fluttering or
pulsing light on some vegetables including lettuce. They varied the lighting cycle for
ranges shorter than one second to estimate the effects of the cycling on photosynthesis.
Although this is a very interesting approach from the viewpoint of photosynthetic
response, Kurata et aJ. (1984) summarized the published data available and concluded
that fluttering light is less effective than continuous light. Even if fluttering light at
such a high frequency could be more effective, a fluttering light system is not
recommended for a practical plant production system because of the high cost of the
equipment as well as shorter life of lamps, except LEDs.
On the other hand, lighting cycles longer than 1 hour could be more effective and
can be easily created by on/off switches. Some researchers have varied the cycle for
ranges between 1 hour and 24 hours. However, very little attention has been paid to
cycles longer than 24 hours (Goto and Takakura, 1988). So far, it can be concluded
that cycles longer than 24 hours are not useful for control of plant production. We
tested 3-hour and 24-hour cycles in lettuce production (Goto, 1992), and found that
shortening the cycle was effective in reducing lettuce tipburn. Continuous
photosynthesis results in high density of metabolites and high turgor pressure and can
become a cause of lettuce tipburn as well as calcium deficiency. The results showed
290
that frequent repetitions of shorter light and dark periods without changing the total
light period (the ratio of light/dark) prevented excessive turgor pressure in laticifiers
and reduced tipbum without sacrificing rapid growth rate. Shortening the day/night
cycle improved the physiological status without changing the photosynthetic rate. In
this case, shortening the lighting cycle contributed to not only improvement of light
energy and air conditioning efficiency, but also improved the plant's physiological
condition. This idea for lighting control can be applied widely to plant production.
5. Considerations of Other Factors Affecting Environmental Control
From the viewpoint of environmental control for CELSS, other related parameters are
the growing area and the number of divisions of growing areas which require different
environments. The combination of crops can affect the complicity of control, and thus
selection of crops is also an important consideration.
5.1 CROP SELECTION AND ESTIMATION OF GROWING AREA
Several crop selection methods have been proposed (Salisbury, 1991; Wheeler et aI.,
1996), and the required growing area has been calculated based on the nutritional
requirements for a crew (Glover et aI., 1991; Isome et aI., 1994). Wheeler et al.
(1996) applied the linear programming method to minimize the volume of plants
needed to satisfy the nutritional requirements of a crew. Tables 3 and 4 show one of
the crop combinations proposed by Goto and Takakura (1995). In this group, more
than 25 crops were considered based on the nutritional requirements for an adult male
crew. Seven crops were finally selected after considering the possibility of growing
them in hydroponics and the availability of growth models. Nevertheless, some
mineral and vitamin requirements were not met. Most of these minerals and vitamins
can be supplied by the small growing areas of other vegetable crops and/or from the
earth, and therefore, they were ignored in this case. In practice, the volume required
for growing plants is more critical than the growing area because structural materials
and gas resources may be limiting factors in CELSS. Therefore, use of dwarf
cultivars and selection of species with high productivity (yield /volume) will be
necessary.
5.2 DIVISION OF GROWING AREAS
In a closed crop production module in a CELSS, the gas and water balance shifts
according to the number of crops grown, growth stages, planting densities and gas and
light conditions (Kitaya et aI., 1992; Oguchi et aI., 1994; Chagvardieff et aI., 1994;
Kitaya et ai, 1994). When several crops are produced together in the module, there
should be several growing areas with different degrees of environment control. Each
crop requires a different length of time from seeding to harvesting, and the
291
Table 3 Proposed crop selection and nutrient content of the crops.
Weight 2 ) Energy Protein Fat Calcium Iron Vitamin A Vitamin C

(g) (kcal) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) IU (mg)
Target I) 2700 85 85 600 10.0 2000.0 50.0
Rice 200 702 15 6 20 2.2 0.0 0.0
Wheat 200 666 21 6 48 6.2 0.0 0.0
Potato 150 483 3 0 8 0.8 0.0 34.5
Soybean 100 417 35 19 240 9.4 0.0 0.0
Peanut 80 449 20 38 40 1.3 0.0 0.0
Lettuce 40 5 0 20 0.9 312.0 5.2
Spinach 40 10 0 22 1.5 680.0 26.0
Total 810 2732 96 69 398 22.2 992.0 65.7
I) Nutritional requirements for the daily diet of an adult crew member based on Standard Tables
of Food Composition in Japan, 4th edition, 1990.
2) The value represents the stored weight for rice, wheat, potato, soybean, and peanut and
the fresh weight for lettuce and spinach.
Table 4 Crop productivity and growing area used in the simulation.
Crop Growin Yield 2) Productivit/) Requirement for a crew member

period l) Weight 2) Area Height Volume
(days) (g m o2 ) (g m o2 dOl) (g dOl) (m 2) (m) (m 3)
Rice 100 1500 15.0 200 13.3 1.0 13.3

Wheat 80 1500 18.8 200 10.7 1.0 10.7
Potato 110 1800 16.4 150 9.2 1.0 9.2
Soybean 100 1000 10.0 100 10.0 1.0 10.0
Peanut 100 800 8.0 80 10.0 1.0 10.0
Lettuce 20 4000 200.0 40 0.2 0.5 0.1
Spinach 20 4000 200.0 40 0.2 0.5 0.1
Total 53.6 53.4
I) Days from transplant to final harvest.

2) The value represents the stored weight for rice, wheat, potato, soybean, and peanut and
the fresh weight for lettuce and spinach.
292
photosynthetic and transpiration rates change with growth. Thus, total CO 2 uptake,
O2 release, and the transpiration by the plants vary in the different growing areas.
Frequent harvesting of crops in the different growing areas is considered to reduce the
fluctuation in gas concentration and water transport in the module. Very few studies
have been done to estimate the effect of different growing areas on the gas and water
balance (Gardner et aI., 1991), though several growth models have been proposed to
simulate plant growth in CELSS (Bugbee, 1992; Andre et aI., 1994; Cornett et aI.,
1994).
Goto and Takakura (1995) developed a simulation model to estimate the gas and
water balance in a crop production module in a CELSS. The crops selected were rice,
wheat, potato, soybean, peanut, lettuce, and spinach. Plant growth models, described
by Penning de Vries et al. (1989), were used for rice, wheat, potato, soybean and
peanut, and the model by Sweeney et al. (1981) was used for lettuce and spinach. The
models include several production levels based on growth-limiting factors. Since
hydroponic systems and total environment control will be used in a CELSS, the
simplest level for stress-free growth was applied to this simulation. The models
calculate daily photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and weights of the leaf, stem,
root, and storage organs. These models were modified for use in controlled
environments and incorporated in the CLESS simulation model. Since the model is
dynamic and responds to environmental changes, it is possible to simulate plant growth
and gas exchange under continuously changing CO 2 concentrations caused by uneven
CO 2 uptake in the module.
Stable gas and water balance in a crop production module is preferable from the
viewpoint of controlled recirculation in a CELSS. Smaller fluctuations of gas
concentrations require simpler environmental control and reduce the required capacity
of a physicochemical or biological recycling system. Frequent harvests of the various
growing areas is apparently effective in reducing fluctuations of CO 2 uptake and
transpiration (Goto and Takakura, 1995). The easiest cultivation method for each
crop is to synchronize the growth and development stages of the plants without
dividing the growing areas. This provides simple growth management and might be
used for crops such as potato and rice, which can be stored for terms longer than their
growing periods. On the other hand, vegetables such as lettuce and tomato should be
harvested at least weekly, because they stay fresh for a limited period of time. Daily
harvesting would be the best way to stabilize the gas and water balance. However,
daily harvesting is not practical because it is more labor-intensive, complicates growth
management, results in lower productivity, and requires more growing area. Thus,
daily harvesting is not always advantageous to crop production in a CELSS.
5.3 PLANT SPACING
Plant spacing management is an important tool to minimize the total area and volume
required for growing plants. Spacing management is considered to be easy to realize
with a trough system in hydroponics, especially in the deep flow technique (DFT) and
293
nutrient film technique (NFT). Improved spacing management is expected to reduce

unused growing area and result in higher productivity. Several unique techniques
have been developed to utilize the growing area efficiently (Jensen and Collins, 1985;
Prince et aI., 1981; Greninger et aI., 1981).
The effects of spacing management have been studied in relation to yield and
growth rate. Prince and Bartok (1978) compared the growth of butterhead lettuce in
response to different numbers of spacing steps during the growing period. Greninger
et al. (1981) simulated butterhead lettuce growth curves at four different plant spacings.
Okano et al. (1988) developed the moving tray system and showed that the yield of
butterhead lettuce grown using two different spacings increased by 1.7 times compared
with that of a conventional system which uses no changes in spacing. In spacing
management, it is important to evaluate productivity and area utilization efficiency for
the various spacing options (Goto et aI., 1994).
Plant spacing is commonly carried out in only one dimension. For some leaf
vegetables, two dimensional spacing has been proposed. In space CELSS, it is more
critical to minimize the volume of growing plants and therefore, it is necessary to
consider three dimensional spacing. Spacing changes the plant arrangement, as a
result, the lighting requirements might be substantially different. In three dimensional
spacing, it is necessary to plan the plant spacing in relation to the lighting design.
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OPTIMAL STRUCTURE OF PLANT CONVEYOR FOR HUMAN LIFE
SUPPORT IN A CLOSED ECOSYSTEM "BIOS-3"
J.1. Gitelson, G.M. Lisovsky, A.A. Tikhomirov

ABSTRACT. "Bios-3" experimental facility is designed to study different versions of

closed ecological systems (CES) for human life support. Principal functions of
regenerating environment for human in this facility are performed by a higher plant
conveyor. The conveyor technique of plant cultivation is determined by the
requirement of relative stability (in CES) of such conditions as CO 2 concentration in
the atmosphere, uniform time distribution of labor expenditures to till the plants, and
uniform supply of food products reproduced by the plants. This is accomplished by
endowing the plant conveyor with a certain age structure; its implementation and
calculation technique is the subject of this report. The species structure of the plant
conveyor in CES is a more complicated problem. The resolution of this problem is
aimed to meet human food requirements by optimizing plant growing technologies
suitable for CES. Issues for consideration include admissible level of vegetarianizing
the human diet, traditional types of nutrition (European, Oriental, Northern, etc.), and
the need and feasibility of correcting the ration by certain prestored components, etc.
This paper considers several versions of multi-species conveyor structures
implemented in 2-5 months-long experiments in "man higher plants" CES. These
versions yielded fairly good results In supplying humans with oxygen, water and
almost all vegetable products. These results suggest possible avenues to improve
further the CES plant conveyor in accordance with chosen criteria for optimizing the
human diet and plant growing technologies, primarily with the plant cultivation
illumination mode.
1. Age and Species Structure of Conveyor of Plants, Studied Experimentally in

the Closed System Included Man
Experimental work to create closed ecological systems for long-term human life
support (CES) started in Krasnoyarsk at the Institute of Physics (since 1981 - Institute
of Biophysics) more than 30 years ago.
First versions of human habitat regeneration systems were based on
photosynthesis of continuous high-intensity cultivation of chlorella alga.
297
E. Goto et al. (eds.). Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 297-304.

298
Experiments with closure of "man-chlorella" system up to 45 days long demonstrated

realistic feasibility to completely regenerate atmosphere and later, sanitary and potable
water (Kirensky et aI., 1968). However, prospects for food regeneration based on the
biomass of chlorella showed little promise, and work was done in parallel to develop
CES versions where chlorella photosynthesis was gradually replaced by photosynthesis
of higher plants (vegetables, wheat). During 1970 - 1972, the Institute designed and
built "Bios-3" experimental facility designed to investigate different versions of CES
for 2 - 3 crewmen. From 1972, in a series of several months-long experiments on
"man higher plants" CES, the higher plants completely regenerated atmosphere and
water, and the part of regenerated food increased from experiment to experiment from
30 to 80% of the total requirement, i.e. complete regeneration of all vegetable food.
This was achieved by increasing the area under plants from 13 to 31 m2 on per person
basis (Gitelson et aI., 1975; Gitelson et aI., 1976; Kovrov et aI., 1985; Lisovsky et aI.,
1979).
Mass exchange balance between man and higher plants in CES requires a number
of special approaches to arranging the structure of the photo synthesizing component
and technologies for its continuous reproduction. For example, daily consumption of
O2 and H20 by an adult man can be considered stable for many months and even years,
while photosynthetic emission of O2 and transpiration of moisture by plants during
their vegetation varies greatly. To harmonize these processes requires formation of an
age structure of the higher plants component, i.e. arrange a conveyor of crop of several
ages. The crop structure (wheat, for example) having at the same time sprouting,
tillering, earing, grain-forming and ripening plants integrates age differences in
photosynthetic productivity. The number of required age phases in the conveyor for
each plant species is determined mainly by specific peculiarities of the age dynamics of
its photosynthesis, its part in the total gas exchange of CES, and the air volume per
person inside the system (or per 1 m2 of sown area). When a given plant species (wheat,
chufa) has large specific weight in the total photosynthesis (30 - 50%) and the air
volume in CES is 50 - 70 m3 per person, the minimum required calculated number of
age phases capable of providing balanced gas exchange is 4 - 6. For crops with small
specific weight in the total photosynthesis of the higher plants component (radish, dill,
onion, etc.) considerations for calculating the number of conveyor phases include the
necessity to ensure time-uniform production of fresh edible produce and uniform labor
expenditures for sowing, growing and harvesting.
In our experiments with "Bios-3" each of the phytotrons had the age conveyor with
7 phases of wheat and 3 - 4 phases of chufa, peas and vegetable crops. The air volume
per crewman was from 78 to 156 m3 in different experiments.
This age structure of the conveyor provided for stability of gas exchange, water
exchange and labor expenditure distribution in time. The latter amounted on the whole
to 6 - 7 hours for all technological procedures.
The problem of age structure of the higher plant conveyor is the most sophisticated
for devising a manned CES. Reasonable constraints on the man-made system volume,
areas under plants and energy expenditures to grow them impose strict selection of
299
species by various criteria. Along with such general criteria as being useful for man
(food fitness, recreation benefits), allergen-free, reproducibility by seeds or vegetative
production, etc., there are a number of criteria dependent on the purpose of CES. For
example, for a system designed to supply man with oxygen and, water of prime
importance is the criterion of high photosynthetic rate, hence, oxygen productivity of
plants. Since human requirements for food in such a system are only partially met by
plants, the requirements for the range of biochemical products indispensable for man to
be reproduced inside CES are also limited. In this version the human diet is corrected
by inevitably presto ring a part of products. Then, in the species structure of the plant
conveyor attention may be focused towards plants reproducing products with poor
shelf life, such as various vegetable crops. An important consideration for
experimental conditions is to take account of the "ecological" compatibility of the
selected plant species, i.e. affinity to light, temperature and other growing conditions.
This affords to make do with common cultivation rooms and growing technologies.
One of our first experiments in "Bios-3" was tailored for balanced gas exchange
between man and higher plants. Oxygen and potable and sanitary water were
regenerated completely, and food regeneration was about 30% of the complete needs of
the crew (or about 40% of the demand in vegetable products). The higher plant
conveyor structure for this experiment is given in Table 1.
The space required to supply the crew with sufficient fresh vegetables was
approximately 18% of the area undcr vegetable plants. The remaining area was under
wheat - one of major products of nutrition for Europeans. All plant species in the
conveyor were grown under identical intensity of round-the-clock radiation with
identical temperature, air humidity, etc. Considerations of "ecological" compatibility
prevented use of traditional crops for Europeans such as potatoes and tomatoes that
need change of night and day. This, however, was not a hindrance for the success of
the experiment as demonstrated by the crew retaining normal physical and
psychological conditions during the experiment several years after the experiment.
The problem of plant conveyor age structure for a CES to regenerate atmosphere,
water, and all plant food is much more sophisticated. First and foremost attention
should be paid to the fact that high photosynthetic productivity of the plant species is
not the chief criterion. One of the most important criterion is the parameter of
elevated productivity in terms of the edible part of the biomass. Meanwhile, it is
expedient for the total productivity of plants to be reduced, because in this case the
system will produce less inedible biomass and excessive oxygen which the system
must eliminate by thermal, chemical or biological oxidation. Still, the most important
parameter for such a version of CES seems to be biochemical consistency of obtained
plant produce with human needs.
It is apparent that no one plant species alone can completely meet human plant food
requirements in terms of biochcmical composition. It requires a certain assortment of
plant species complementing each other and involved in the conveyor structure with a
certain quantitative ratio. Besides. the origin and upbringing considered, the crewmen
have different traditional spectra of food products This problem seems to have no
300
specific resolution, but a certain determination for some general approach.

In our last experiments with "Bios-3" that posed the task to completely regenerate
atmosphere, water and all plant food, the species structure of the higher plant conveyor
was based on a diet traditional for Europeans with wheat bread and mid-latitude
vegetable crops (beet, carrots, greens). This system, as compared to the species
structure of the conveyor described previously, necessitated having plant species which
could produce the required amount of full-fledged vegetable fats, improve vegetable
proteins and increase production of carbohydrates, mainly in the form of starch, but not
sugars. Generalized literary evidence and our numerous experiments formed the basis
to involve appropriate plants species in the conveyor structure. One of the plants was
chufa (Cyperus esculentus), which has edible tubers containing up to 20% (dry weight)
high-quality fats, about 60% carbohydrates, mainly in the form of starch and supplying
more than 50% of the edible part in the total harvest. Peas, like other bean plants, have
amino acid composition of proteins more favorable than gramineous species. Even
though the quality of protein for chufa is second to soybeans, the soybeans do not fit
the illumination regime implemented in "Bios-3" facility phytotrons. This is also true
for potatoes as a starch producer. We involved potatoes in the conveyor structure, but
its "ecological" incompatibility with other species (illumination and temperature
regimes) denied us positive results. In general, the species structure of a conveyor in
the 4 months long experiment in CES intended to completely regenerate atmosphere,
water and all plant food is given in Table 2. In the course of the experiment, the crew
was supplied with 94.5% of carbohydrates, 65.3% of proteins and 35.3% of fats. It
stands to reason that all animal products as well as very small amount of plant (pure
sugar) have been prestored for the entire course of the experiment. The physical and
psychological condition of the crewmen during the experiment remained normal, and
continued to be normal during observation period for many months after the
experiment.
2. Directions and Possibilities of the Flowing Optimization of Structure of

Conveyor of Plants for Closed Ecosystem
The studied species structure of the conveyor is the first step towards resolving the
problem of complete reproduction of all plant food inside CES. Further ways to
improve the species structure are in the field of selecting and experimentally
investigating a number of plants with different requirements for tilling conditions and
better compatibility with other types of human diets (rice, sweet potato, soybean, etc.).
Further considerations include selection to increase the part of edible biomass in the
total harvest and better biochemical consistency with human needs. Of interest is
development toward vegetarianizing the diet by replacing various animal products with
specially selected plant products, and by developing technological procedures to make
inedible parts edible, etc.
Total "compaction" - decreasing the area and volume under plants in CES holds
301
Table I. Plant conveyor species structure in 2 months-long "man-higher

plants" experiment with complete regeneration of atmosphere and water
and with partial regeneration of food (as on per I man basis)
Plant s2ecies Area Edible biomass

m2 % g/day (dry % g/day (wet
of total biomass) of total biomass)
Wheat 11.20 82.4 172.5 82.1 200.0
Table beet 0.45 3.3 7.5 3.6 60.0
Carrot + dill 0.69 5.1 19.5 9.3 139.0
Turnip+ leaf 0.12 0.9 3.3 1.6 38.0
cabbage
Radish 0.42 3.1 3.2 1.5 54.0
Cucumbers 0.40 2.9 1.8 0.8 44.0
Onion 0.23 1.7 0.9 0.4 21.0
Sorrel 0.09 0.6 1.5 0.7 30.0
Total 13.6 13.6 210.2 100.0 seeds-200
vegetables
- 386
Table 2. Plant conveyor species structure in 4 months-long "man-higher

plants" experiment with complete regeneration of atmosphere and water
and all food (as on per I man basis)
Plant s2ecies Area Edible biomass

m2 % g/day (dry % g/day (wet
of total biomass) of total biomass)
Wheat 19.80 62.9 248.0 65.9 288
Chufa 4.2 13.3 60.0 15.9 70
Peas 2.00 6.4 13.0 3.4 15
Radish 0.45 1.4 8.5 2.3 133
Carrot + dill 0.60 1.9 16.7 4.4 121
Beet 0.45 1.4 8.6 2.3 66
Potatoes 2.40 7.6 3.6 1.0 20
Tomatoes 0.60 1.9 3.2 0.8 44
Cucumbers 0.20 0.6 5.6 1.5 139
Kohlrabi 0.50 1.6 5.3 1.4 82
Onion 0.30 1.0 4.1 1.1 55
Total 31.50 1.0 376.6 100.0 seeds+
chufa -373
vegetables
- 660
302
much promise for improving the plant conveyor structure. This can be achieved by
intensifying the production process rate. Opportunities to optimize the mineral
nutrition, gas supply, temperature and water regimes under CES conditions are close to
their limit. Intensifying radiation remains one of the major ways to intensify the plants'
production process. As early as in the 70s our Institute demonstrated that cenoses of
radish and wheat with elevated plant density (but not individually standing plants) are
capable of responding to irradiance of 600 - 700 W1m2 PAR (constituting 1.5 of the
maximum afternoon solar radiation) by elevating their productivity (Polonsky and
Lisovsky, 1980).
It is worth noting that cenosis photosynthesis efficiency for many crops is
maximum at 150 - 200 W/m 2 PAR. With increasing irradiance, further plants'
utilization of the radiant energy decreases, and productivity per unit area per unit time
increases. This provides possibilities to decrease sown areas and volumes under
plants in CES, hence intensifying the matter turnover inside the system.
The authors also studied effect of different ranges of spectral emission (red, green,
blue and their different combinations) on productivity with optimum and high-intensity
radiant flux during the entire vegetation period. Several plant species have been
found to have specific changes in productivity under different band of the range.
Most versatile is the equal-energy "white" light close to the solar spectrum
(Tikhomirov, 1996; Tikhomirov et a!., 1991). Therefore, in "Bios-3" we used xenon
water-cooled lamps with the emission spectrum close to the solar spectrum. The
xenon lamps have no mercury, halogens nor rare-earth metals; thus, ecologically they
are safer, which is essential for experimental systems.
To estimate feasibility to increase further photosynthetic productivity of higher
plants under real conditions of "Bios-3", the Institute experimented with higher plants,
growing them under irradiance of 150 - 170 W1m2 PAR and at high irradiance of 250 -
300 W/m2 PAR.
It should be noted that thermal infrared radiation flow intensity increased with
intensity of photosynthetically active radiation. In the version with high-intensity
radiation, the temperature of air, leaves, and plant media inhabiting roots increased
somewhat. As a result, different plant species considered as elements of conveyor
structure responded differently to elevated irradiance (Table 3). The thermophilous
plants (chufa, cucumbers, table-beet and sugar beet) increased their productivity in
terms of total and edible biomass, while non-thermophilous plants (radish, beans, peas
and wheat, to some extent) did not, and some even decreased their productivity.
Hence, it can be assumed that to intensify the production process further it may be
necessary to create a certain "ecological" structure of the conveyor having different
plant species. Maybe different age phases of the conveyor would have individual
ecological niches differentiated in radiation intensity photoperiod temperature
conditions etc. Even though "Bios-3" facility was created tailored for "unified"
ecology in phytotrons, it can be modified to realize the "ecological" structure of the
conveyor.
Increase of radiation intensity in "Bios-3" phytotrons makes possible to increase its
303
Table 3. Productivity of plants in "Bios-3" phytotron at high-intensity

radiation (280-300 W/m 2 PAR) against "ordinary" (150 - 180 W/m 2 PAR).
Crop Productivity, g/m daily of Productivity fluctuation under

(dry biomass) at 280-300 intensive radiation and
W/m 2 PAR comQared to "ordinar:{'
total biomass edible total biomass edible
Wheat 53.77 18.56 + 15.7 -1.2
Chufa 80.53 39.28 +45.7 +44.7
Cucumbers 59.92 24.16 +63.0 +45.5
Sweet-beet 56.47 37.28 +7.8 +24.5
Table beet 67.81 31.26 +51.4 +6.2
Peas 82.13 27.10 -6.3 +2.9
Beans 23.63 3.63 -64.7 -62.1
Radish 7.63 4.03 -26.1 -33.9
Table 4. Rated total productivity of one "Bios-3" phytotron (sown area -

19.7 m 2) under high-intensity radiation as compared to previous
experiments.
Experiment conditions Irradiance Total productivity of 1 %of

W/m 2 phytotron, g of dry % edible dry
PAR biomass dail~ biomass
total edible
Without closure for man 150-\70 942 361 38.3
With closure 150-\70 975 312 32.0
(2 phytotrons for 3 men)
With closure and limited 140-180 721 340 47.2*
combustion of straw
With closure and 130 680 250 36.8
increased mass of
combusted straw
Without closure for man 280-300 1291 532 41.2
with elevated PAR
intensit~
* High percentage of edible biomass is due to production of
chufa in carrots.
304
total productivity and production of edible biomass (Table 4) with identical species
structure of the plant conveyor. On this basis we have developed several versions of
new experiments with "man - higher plants" closure. in which it is possible to
completely regenerate atmosphere. water and plant food. For example, a two-man
crew with sown area under plants decreased from 60 to 40 m 2 • and total volume of the
system decreased from 310 to 230 m 3 , meeting more adequately human food
requirements in terms of the qualitative composition or with high degree of diet
vegetarianization. The only hindrance to develop these works further is the difficult
economic situation with science in our country at present.
3. References
Gitelson I I et al. (1975) Problem of space biology. V.2S. Moscow, Nauka, 312p.
Gitelson I I et al. (1976) Life support system with autonomous control employing
plant photosynthesis. Acta Astronautica, 3 (9/1 0),633-650.
Kirensky LV et al. (l96S) Experimental biological life support system. II gas
exchange between man and microalga culture ... Life Sciences and Space Research,
IV. 37-40. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Kovrov BG et al. (l9S5) Artificial closed ecosystem "man-plants" with a full
regeneration of atmosphere. water and ration vegetable part. Preprint JAF-S5-30S.
1-3. Pergamon Press.
Lisovsky GM et al. (1979) Closed system: man - higher plants. Novosibirsk, Nauka,
160p.
Polonsky VI and Lisovsky GM (19S0) Net production of wheat crop under high PAR
irradiance with artificial light. Photosynthetica, 14( 12), 177-IS1.
Tikhomirov AA (1996) Spectral composition of light and plant productivity. Adv.
Space Res. IS( 4/5). 259-263.
Tikhomirov AA et al. (1991) Spectral composition of light and plant productivity.
Adv. Novosibirsk. Nauka. 165p.
GROWTH MONITORING OF GREEN VEGETABLES CULTURED IN A
CENTRIFUGE PHYTOTRON
H. Murase, A. Tani, Y Nishiura and M. Kiyota

Osaka Prefecture University
College of Agriculture
Department of Regional Environmental Science
1-1, Gakuen, Sakai 593 Japan
ABSTRACT. Understanding the role of gravity in the biological process of plants is

one of most essential aspects in systematic development of Controlled Ecological Life
Support or Controlled Bioregenerative Life Support components in space research. A
broad parameter database for control and simulation is required for the development of
such life support components with higher plants. These instrumentation systems may
encompass non-invasive, automated, specific sensors to provide feedback for
environmental control and ultimately for system management. Topics include
engineering strategies for implementing the speaking plant approach to environmental
control of a phytotron based on non-invasive plant growth monitoring system and
development of a centrifuge phytotron which will be used to carry out higher plant
culture research on the effects of gravity and its absence.
1. Introduction
Future manned space missions will be characterized by their long duration and by the
impossibility of resupply from Earth. They will have to rely definitely on regenerative
technologies that must be developed both on Earth and in space because of their
complexity. The growth of plants in a closed regenerative life support system is a
promising method for removing carbon dioxide and supplying oxygen, water and food
for human inhabitants living in the closed space as well as recycling their waste
(MacElroy et al. 1987). A quarter century of space life sciences missions have been
conducted by leading nations in space research, yet much remains to be learned about the
role of gravity in biological processes. Some of the problems associated with growing
higher plants in a microgravitational condition are: conventional growing matrices and
water may not be easily contained; the transport of water is physically controlled by
surface tension rather than gravity; and microgravity effects on plant physiology are not
well known. To advance higher plant culture research on the effects of gravity, a
centrifuge phytotron specifically designed for this research is being developed in our
institute (Bioinstrumentation, control and systems engineering Lab., Dept. of R.:gional
305
E. Gala et aI. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosvslems, 305-319.

© 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. .
306
Environmental Science, Os aka Prefecture University, Sakai, Japan).

In this article, engineering strategies for implementing the speaking plant approach to
environmental control of the centrifuge phytotron based on non-invasive plant growth
monitoring system will be discussed. In a protected plant production system such as a
plant factory, the control applications have been limited to environmental controls. The
feedback control technology for greenhouse environmental factors such as
temperature, humidity, radiation intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and so forth has
been developed and successfully implemented. Using the tchnology, plant growth can
be optimized or controlled by adjusting environmental factors. Plants normaly respond
to change of environmental parameters. For example, stomata activity is sensitive to
ambient humidity and CO 2 concentration. Plant tissue rigidity is affected by the
availability of water in the root zone. Environmental factors should be controlled based
upon the response of plants to them. The development of bio-response feedback control
system has been a challenging task for plant production engineers and scientists. The
bio-response feedback control concept known as speaking plant approach to
environment control has been highlighted by Hashimoto, et al. (1985).
Another important aspect is the development of non-invasive technology for acquiring
information of growing plants. The following example should describe the significance
of non-invasive measurement. Water constitutes 80-90% of the living plant body and has
a large heat capacity. Changes in water status drastically affect the growth and
metabolism of plants. Water must be transferred to the leaves to replace what is lost by
transpiration. The leaf water potential can be a pertinent index for describing the water
status of a plant. The leaf water potential can be measured by attaching a thermocouple
psychrometric transducer directly to the reverse side of a leaf where the stomata are
located or extracting a small sample tissue from a leaf, which is placed in a chamber of a
psychrometric transducer. The latter method is destructive. Even attachment of foreign
material to the plant tissue disturbs the physiological activity of the plant. The practice of
using non-invasive measurements in the plants is essential for the bio-response feedback
and/or feed-forward control system of a centrifuge phytotron. No non-invasive method
for direct measurement of leaf water potential is currently available. One altemative
uses an indirect measurement technique. For instance, those who are skilled in raising
plants can sense whether their plants are under adequate water conditions or not, from
minor changes in the appearance of their plants through their color and tone, before the
plants wilt. It may be possible to predict the leaf water potential from the appearance of
plants.
Changes in appearance of a plant canopy or a community of plants due to the growth
reflect tonal variations over the community of plants. The tonal variation can be
transformed into pictorial information electronically in retrieval form. Some image
features can be related to the tonal characteristics of the plant canopy that also
substantially reflect the plant growth status. Machine vision can be used to monitor
plants growth. Continuous capturing images of plants during their life cycle allows
monitoring and possibly early detection of defects. To evaluate the growth including the
health of plants based on image features of plants obtained by machine vision system, an
307
intelligent information processing system is required that will be able to identify the plant
growth stage and diagnose symptoms of stress.
2. Control Strategies
2.1. BIO-RESPONSE FEEDBACK
Figure 1 shows the neural network adaptive control system with a bio-response
feedback loop containing another neural network which converts the pictorial
information of plants into plant growth indices for evaluating the plant growth status.
The control element of this system is the environment surrounding the plant consisting
of temperature, humidity, CO 2 concentration, light intensity, and water potential of the
root zone.
u(I·I )
Te mperalur.
Yo (I)
Humidi lY _ I Vegetables y(1) growth
• Carbon dioxide ., growing in • ..
Li ht ----+-I~
g
:;(1) Ihe Centrifuge
Phytotron
Root Wtncr POlenlioJ
t
. Geometric
Cm.... th indiC'C!i: ("f arn. numborr
orlf'4l Yt'$.lIl~ m l(' nRth.t'IC.
y(l-I )
. Noll-geometric
Growth ~r::J ~r~I~~~:;f?t:-~~ Pictorial
Status r-r.N fealures. CSM(t'2Iun!5. I!k. informatioll
Image Growth Monitoring
features
Fig. 1 Block diagram of neural network adaptive control system based on

the speaking plant approach.
2.2. MACHINE VISION SYSTEM
The machine vision system monitoring of plants growth (Fig. 2) consist of the scene,
vision hardware, calibration processor, image feature extraction processor, growth index
evaluation processor and finally the control system. The image of a plant canopy or a
community of plants is captured by the vision system and calibrated. The raw data of
the calibrated image is fed into the image feature extraction processor. The output from
the image feature extraction processor is then directed to the growth index processor.
308
Because of the large number of parameter involved in evaluating the plant growth, a
neural network should be used. The current growth indices of plants are compared with
the reference input (set value) of growth indices. Then, deviation from normal
appearance is calculated.
Scene (Plants)
Image acquisition
Calibration
Feature extraction
Growth index evaluation
Control system
Fig. 2 Process of machine vision monitoring of plant growth.
3. Image Features
The problem concerning image features in this particular machine vision system is to
identify or classify any pictorial image variation due to vegetative growth or growth
disorder caused by disease or stress of a whole community of plants rather than a single
body of plant growing in the phytotron. As a result, the image recognition
(segmentation) should employ non-contextural approach as opposed to contextural
approach such as edge-based approaches. Textural segmentation was applied.
Although a strict definition of texture does not exist, the notion of image texture is
familiar to most viewers. Texture typically refers to the perceived gray level variations in
an image subregion. One of the most typical textural approaches is the probabilistic
approach using co-occurrence matrices (Zucker and Terzopoulos, 1981) known as the
textural analysis.
3.1. TEXTURAL ANALYSIS
Statistical models for gray tone variation play an important role in the process of image
segmentation. Region segmentation may be performed on the basis of regional stochastic
309
properties and images may be partitioned into regions that are statistically homogeneous.
The co-occurrence matrix (gray tone spatial dependence matrix) is a second order image
variation. It can provide a basis for a number of textural features. The textural analysis
can be considered as one of applicable techniques for extracting texture features of image
(Murase et al.,1994; Haralick et al. ,1973).
The texture-contex information is adequately specified by the matrix of relative
frequencies P ij with which two neighboring resolution cells separated by distance d
occur on the image, one with gray tone i and the other with gray tone j as shown in Fig.
3 (Haralick et aI., 1973). The joint probability density function is expressed by the
notation P (d,q)(i,j).
,,
---~~I
, I 1 'PSolUlion cell
, , ,/ ~V f gray level= j
,,
/ ........ I
1/
~
) .~
Fig. 3 Composition of co-occurrence matrix.
When d=1 and q=O, some of the textural features are calculated as follows:
(a)Homogeneity:
n n
L L P (1,0) (i,j) 2 (1)
i=l j=l
(b )Contrast:
n n
L L (i-j) 2 P(l,O) (i,j) (2)
i=l j=l
(c )Local Homogeneity:
n n
L L {P(l,o/i,j)}I{ 1+(i_j)2} (3)
i=l j=l
310
The performance or specification of the co-occurrence matrix can be set by fixing d

and e e
values. The choice of d and values determines the sensitivity of the textural
features.
Some of problems in implementing the textural analysis are that there is too much
flexibility to construct the co-occurrence matrix and the construction of the co-occurrence
matrix requires extremely long calculation time.
3.2 FINITE ELEMENT RETINA
Broadly speaking, image features are any extractable measurement of use. Examples of
low-level image features are pixel intensities or geometric distances between pixels.
Features may also result from applying a feature extraction algorithm or operator to the
image data. In order to achieve the aim of developing such a bio-response feedback
control system, the primary concern should be to develop an effective and practical
technique for extracting image features which can eventualy indicate the plant growth
status. In this study, the finite element algorithm is employed to calculate some kind of
non-geometric image features (FE features; finite element features).
The basic mechanism of Finite Element Retina proposed by Murase et al. (1995) for
generating image features is the conversion of incident light intensity distribution
projected over the area comprising of finite element input nodes into a vector form of
image features distributed over the output nodes. Figure 4 is a conceptual
representation of the finite element retina. The pictorial image of the object is projected
over the finite element grid (meshed area) which is considered as retina. The boundary
of the finite element grid where the outputs are retrieved serves as the optic nerve of
human eye. Other part of the boundary is a choroid.
.-s..
(,Jrr.,
~
s..
~::I
S~
o.~
~
OI/Q,I
cOJ)
o
Z.5
C':,l
Output
Finite Element Retina
Fig. 4. The apparent function of finite element retina.
Figure 5 shows a schematic representation of the finite element image processing grid
that converts pictorial image into non-geometric image features numerically. This non
311
geometric image feature can be calculated based on the differences of gray level between
every input node of the finite element grid. Each of input nodes serves as a
photosensitive receptor (retinal cells). In practice, for instance, signals transferred from
sensing elements of CCD area array should be given to these input nodes. Nodal values
of the output nodes (Optic nerve cells) become the finite element features. Other nodes
are boundary nodes (Choroidal cells) on which boundary conditions are specified.
~
Triangular
Finite Eleme~ ~
Output Node
Fig. 5. Finite element image processing grid.
The algorithm to relate input and output signals of the finite element image processing
grid can be a linear mapping as described by a linear finite element equation. In this
research work, a 2-D Poisson's equation was utilized as a governing equation given by
Eq.(4). The finite element equation used here is expressed as Eq.(5). The basic
mechanism of finite element image processing grid for generating image features is the
conversion of incident light intensity distribution projected over the area comprising of
finite element input nodes into a vector form of image features distributed over the output
nodes.
dl/!2 dl/!2
Kx---;)2; + ~~ = Q (4)
Kx:information conductivity in x direction

Ky:information conductivity in y direction
1J :potential
Q :constant
312
A
2
[K]-l
B
C 3
(5)
[Kr 1: inverse matrix of stiffness matrix

{A } : input vector
{I} :output vector (image features)
The performance or specification of the finite element information processing grid

can be set by fixing K values and the node arrangement. The choice of K values and
the node arrangements determines the sensitivity of the grid. The K value is usually
taken as unity. The number of nodes depends on allowable calculation capacity. The
arrangement of nodes is arbitrary. However, some trial procedure is usually required to
optirnize the grid performance.
4. Experiment
4.1. NODE ARRANGEMENT OF FINITE ELEMENT RETINA
A growth of a community of radish sprouts was observed. The change of pictorial

image due to the growth was recorded on a video tape. The digital image of the
community of radish sprouts was used to calculate the co-occurrence matrix and also
used for input data of a finite element retina. Figure 6 shows the digital image (top view)
of growing radish sprouts taken every 24 hours after seeding. The image feature was
extracted from each of the five digital image frames shown in Fig.6.
...............
,::~
........
" ..........
, ::::.:::; :i~:!
.... ,:. .......... .

:iii:::::!!!:::
...-.................
, ...... , .... _.
... • t . . . . . . . .., .... .
ohour 24 hours 48 hours 72 hours 96 hours

Time after seeding
Fig. 6. Digital images showing change in appearance of a community of radish sprout.
313
Five by five retinal array of the finite element was used. Three nodes were allocated
for the output of the finite element retina. The nodal arrangement was varied to
investigate the sensitivity and resolution of the finite element retina. The value of
information conductivity, K, was kept one.
4.2. GROWTH MONITORING OF PLANTS IN A CENTRIFUGE PHYTOTRON
4.2.1 Centrifuge Phytotron used for the experiment. Figure 7 shows a schematic
diagram of a prototype centrifuge phytotron used for this experiment. Centrifugal force
is generated by rotating the cultivation drum in the growth chamber of the centrifugal
phytotron. Centrifugal force from I G to 6G can be set by adjusting the rotating speed of
the drum. In addition to centrifugal force, environmental factors such as air temperature,
humidity, CO 2 concentration and light intensity can be controlled, which enables one to
cultivate plants over a long period.
Air conditioning Grovth chamber

unit unit
Cultivation(") Wind
drum "~'<~1fA protection boan:!
l
/
.~.,.. ~W Fluorescent-
lamp
§ Control
L
:: \) 0
~':
. i)
Air cin:ulation E
<=>
pannel 0
~~i" ~
c:> 1I11 E
N
duct
,-
3 120 mm
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of centrifuge phytotron.
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Okayama) and turnip (Brassica campestris L. subsp.
Rapa. cv. Akamaru) were cultivated from seeds under IG, 3G and 6G in the centrifuge
phytotron (Figure 8). Almost all seeds germinated within 6 days after sowing. Fresh
weights of the two plant species were less in 1G than in 3G seven days after sowing
(Figure 9). Thereafter, relative growth rates of plants grown under IG and 3G were
similar to each other. The reason for the delay of initial growth at 1G is related to the
artificial gravity in the lateral direction. Although, the lateral gravity changes within 1G
at any centrifugal forces, the inhibitory effect was less in 3G, where longitudinal gravity
is high, pressing the plants down more strongly than in 1G. Growth of both species of
plants was most inhibited under 6G icondition. Water distribution in the medium and
314
water flow from medium to root, from root to leaf and from leaf to atmosphere (so-
called SPAC model) seem to be affected by artificial gravity. These factors might inhibit
plant growth under 6G.
Fig. 8. Photograph of lettuce and turnip 30 days after start of the

experiment.
100 • 100
I
-4- IG
:§ 10 :§ 10 I- ~ 3G
:c ~
""
'B
~
B
~
..c: ..c:
'"~ '"
~ 0. 1 e
Ll. 0.1 ~ a/"/ Turnip
0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Days after sowi ng Days after sow ing
Fig. 9. Changes in fresh weight of lettuce and turnip.
A motor is used as the primary drive for rotating the cultivation drum. The power for
rotating the motor is transmitted to a roller fitted to the drum through a timing belt. The
315
rotation of the motor and the belt lead to vibration of the culture drum that would inhibit
the growth of plants. Therefore investigation of the relationship between the centrifugal
force and the vibration of the drum was done (Tani et aI., 1996). The sensor of a
vibration meter (Machine Analyzer MK-31O, KAWATETSU ADTECH Co.) was placed
near the roller in a direction perpendicular to the center of the drum. The vibration was
analyzed using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Figure 10 shows the results of FFT
analysis of the vibration of the culture drum. The higher the values of the centrifugal
forces is, the higher the vibrations. Vibration is considered to be one of the factors
affecting plant growth in space. In this experiment, vibration occurred with relatively
low acceleration.
1
Centrifugal force: 0.680
o o
,-.,
'-" 1
2.090
=
o
';:1
~
~
;> o
1
3.480
00 1 2
Frequency (KHz)
Fig. 10. Spectral analysis of vibration in the centrifuge phytotron.
Air stream might also change with centrifugal force (Tani et aI., 1994). In the
experiment, wind protection boards were applied to the surface of the cultivation drum
(Figure 7). The height of the boards was 15 cm. It is somewhat doubtful, however, that
the board effectively protect plants from wind, because well-grown plants had 10 to 15
cm height 4 weeks after the start of the experiment.
The medium for plant cultivation under artificial gravity should be considered. In
experiments for seed germination and gravitripism under rnicrogravity, gel media were
used in many cases. A granular zeolite "Balkamine" for SVET was developed as a
cultivation medium for long-term experiment such as from seed to seed experiment
(Bingham et aI., 1996). But, it was reported that a tendency of plant initial growth as
316
affected by artificial gravity differed between gel medium and vermiculite (Shen-Miller et
aI., 1968). The medium for gravity experiment should be selected in terms of nutrient
storage and supply, water potential, plant support, and so on.
4.2.2. Image acquisition. Figure 11 illustrates the experimental setup used for capturing
the plants image data. A digital camera was set at a fixed position over a population of
lettuce plants. The digital camera was focused on a plant community consisting of two
lettuce plants. The pictorial data were collected under artificial lighting to provide a
constant illumination condition. Image data was collected for 15 days. Twenty five
values of quantized gray tones of the green component of the RGB data obtained from
the domain consisting of 256 x 256 resolution cells marked were used. Five by five
retinal array of the finite element was used. Three nodes were allocated for the output of
the finite element retina.
Fig. 11 Image acquisition using CCD video camera.
5. Result and Discussion
The varIatIOns of the finite element features extracted from pictorial image of a
community of growing radish sprouts after seeding were plotted in Fig.12. The
obvious varying factor of the pictorial image of growing radish sprouts is the increasing
area of leaves. The change was fairly consistent as shown in Fig. 12. The course of
image feature variables for the finite element retina seems reasonable. As indicated in
Fig. 12, the arrangement of output node locations and number of choroidal cells may
improve the sensitivity and resolution accuracy of the finite element features. In Fig. 12,
the nodal arrangement of Retina 2 gives better resolution than Retina 1. In Retina 2,
each output node is separated from other output cells by a choroidal cell. Retina 3 is
much more sensitive than the Retina 2. The reduction of number of choroidal cells
makes the boundary constrain less tight which increases the sensitivity of the retin
317
~ 2500
~
3
~
C
2000 ___ Node 1
-
-
....... NOde Z
e 1500
0)
....... Node 3
0)
0)
.'2
0)
1000
t;::
::--
"0 500
• Optic nerve cells
0)
::l ~
o Choroidal cells
e;j
> o ~-
o 24 48 72 96
• Retinal cells Time after seeding (houras)
~ 2500
....
::l
'i;j
~ 2000 ........ Node 1 I--
C
0)
___ Node 2
~ 1500 ....... Node3 t--
0)
£
·S 1000
t----..
t;:: ~
.....
o 500
• Optic nerve cells 0)
::l ~
o Choroidal cells
e;j
> 0
---4
• Relinal cells o 24 48 72 96
Time after seeding (hours)
~ 2500
2 ~
~ 2000
C
0)
E 1500
0)
___ Node 1
0)
_ _ Node 2
.~
,::
1000
......... Node 3
RETINA3 t;::
"0 500
• Optic nerve cells 0)
::l
o Choroidal cells e;j

> 0
o 24 48 72 96
• Retinal cells
Time after seeding (hours)
Fig. 12. Variation of finite element due to the change in appearance of a

community of radish sprouts.
318
Figure 13 shows the comparison of two digital image of growing lettuce plants. The
image on the left in Fig. 13 was captured when the experiment started. The other image
in Fig. 13 was captured 15 days after starting the experiment. As seen in both images,
the appearance of focused plants shows some kind of pattern or texture rather than their
morphological form. If a high speed CCD camera were used to capture their image,
much more clear shape of plants would be captured. However, such effort is not
required in this experiment as along as proper calibration is made since image
recognition is based on the texture analysis. RETINA 3 shown in Fig. 12 was used for
this feature extraction. The value of information conductivity (K) was also kept as one.
The variation of extracted features is plotted in Fig. 14. The result shows that extracted
finite element features clearly indicate the change in texture of the captured image due to
plant growth.
~
""':''l!J''
- IL"I
::,~.:
f; ~ ..... . - ..
~~' ... ;,.;.

~ .......
~
~'.i'.JJ ....
, ,.
• 7f~_
~
Fig. 13. Digital image of moving lettuce plants: 1st day on the left; 15th
day on the right.
1500
___ Node 1
~ 1400 ~
~ 1300 t-
---.... ....... NOde 2
- ---
:: 1200
c:: Node 3
3 . E 1100 -.............. -6-
f~j '" 1000

'ii !--... ....r-...
'2'" 900 ............
0.::
~
........,
• Op.;c nerve cells '0 800
1l
-.........,.
o Choroidal «lis ';;j
700
• Re.in.1 cells > 600 """""

500
o 5 10 15
Days after the test started (days)
Fig. 14. Variation of image features of growing lettuce plants calculate by

finite element retina.
319
References
Bingham, G. E. et al. (1996) The Spacelab-Mir-l "greenhouse-2" experiment. Adv.

Space Res., 18(4/5),225-232.
Hashimoto, Y, et al. (1985) Some speaking plant approach to the synthesis of control
system in the greenhouse. Acta Horticulturae, 174, 226-229.
Haralick, et al. (1973) Textural features for image classification, IEEE Trans. on
Systems, man, and Cybernetics, Vol. SMC-3, 6, 610-621.
MacElroy, R. D., et al. (1987) Controlled Ecological Life Support System, NASA
Conference Publication 2479, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA,
USA
Murase, H., et al. (1994) Textural features/neural network for plant growth monitoring,
ASAE Paper NO.944016, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, USA
Murase, H., et al. (1995) Environmental control strategies based on plant response using
intelligent machine vision technique, Proc. of 1st. IFAC/CIGRleuraGeng/ISHS
workshop on Control Application in Post-harvest and Processing Technology, 143-
149.
Shen-Miller, 1. et al. (1968) Thresholds for georesponse to acceleration in gravity-
compensated avena seedlings, Plant physiol., 43, 338-344.
Tarn, A et al. (1994) Design and fabrication of a centrifugal phytotron to investigate
effects of gravity on the plant growth, CELSS Journal, 6, 11-16.
Tani, A et al. (1996) Performance of a centrifugal phytotron., Adv. Space Res., 18(4/5),
251-254.
Zucker, S. W., and Terzopoulos D. (1981) Finding structure in co-occurrence matrices
for texture analysis. In Rosenfeld, A, ed, Image modeling, Academic press, New
York, USA
CLOSED PLANT EXPERIMENT FACILITY (CPEF) IN CLOSED ECOLOGY
EXPERIMENT FACILITIES (CEEF) AND PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON CPEF
OPERATION
Y. Tako
Institute for Environmental Sciences
Department of Environmental Simulation
1-7 Ienomae, Obuchi, Rokkasho, Kamikita. Aomori 039-32, Japan
ABSTRACT. The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) has been under
construction in northern Japan since 1994. This facility contains the Closed Plant
Experiment Facility (CPEF), as well as other facilities, in all of which, Controlled
Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) research and development can be conducted.
Examples of the types of research that are applicable to these facilities were given.
These included an experimental study on CO 2 and O2 exchange rates, transpiration rate
and yield of edible and inedible parts of rice. Rice is one of the candidate crops for the
CPEF to grow, in its closed environment, for an entire growing season. In addition, a
series of experiments examining the suitability of waste wet oxidized solution (WOS) as
nutrient solution for plant growing were also presented.
1. General Introduction
Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) will be vital components of any
long term manned space mission. These advanced life support systems will be used in
future habitats such as a lunar base or a Mars colony. CELSS are self-sufficient
material circulatory utilization systems, which provide food and clean air and water, at a
minimum cost and independent of a constant re-supply from the Earth. To determine
the design, operation, and contents of CELSS requires special testing facilities. In
these facilities researchers would be able to conduct experiments in a simulated space
based closed environment. These experiments are necessary to evaluate CELSS, in
order to optimize their performance and determine their suitability for a space mission.
The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) are a closed material system,
through which only information and energy will be exchanged between the interior and
exterior of the facilities. Plants are to be grown and animals are to be bred within this
limited space. Equipment for continuous measurement, control and analysis of the
material flow in the system will be installed. The CEEF have two fundamental
321
E. Goto et al. (eds.). Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 321-338.
322
characteristics:
1) The facilities are equipped with the necessary components to sustain plants,
animals and other organisms for long term study.
2) The research conducted within the facilities is CELSS applicable. i.e., closed
system food production, C02 consumptionl02 production, solid waste recycling,
water reclamation, etc., requiring low energy input and a highly controlled
environment.
The construction of the CEEF began in 1994 in Rokkasho, a village in northern
Japan. These facilities consist of a Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF), a Closed
Breeding & Habitation Facility (CBHF), and a Closed Geo-Hydrosphere Experiment
Facility (CGEF), which are shown in Figure 1. Each facility is self-contained with
individual life support equipment modules. Within the CEEF, the CPEF has the role
of food production, CO 2 removal, O2 generation and water reclamation through plant
transpiration.
An outline of the CPEF will be given in the next section of this paper. Following the
outline are examples of preliminary studies which were conducted in order to plan the
operation of the CPEF. The first example is a project using rice, since it is one of the
candidate crops for the CPEF. This research examines its rates of CO 2 and O 2
exchange, transpiration rate and yield of edible and inedible parts. The second
example is a study of the suitability of waste wet oxidized solution (WOS) as a nutrient
solution for plant growth.
2. An Outline of the CPEF
The CPEF includes Plant Cultivation Moduies (PC M) and Material Circulation System
I (MCS I), which are for artificial material processing (see Figure 1). These use
physico-chemical methods for water and gas recycling, waste treatment, fertilizer
production, environmental control, as well as other operations. The CPEF are planned
to be completed in March 1997. The construction of the facilities will take place in
three phases.
2.1. PHASE 1: INSTALLATION COMPLETED BY MARCH 1995
Construction of the buildings containing the CPEF and the installation of one of the
PCM and part of MCSI were completed in March 1995. The PCM consists of three
cultivation rooms and a preparation room with an air lock. Each cultivation room has
an independently controlled environment. The volume of each cultivation room is 134.5
m 3 . The air leakage rate, defined as the fraction of air volume exchanged between a
cultivation room and other rooms within the PCM per air volume of the cultivation
room per unit time, was ca. 0.6% vol hour'l. Each of these cultivation rooms has 6
hydroponic cultivation beds, each of which has 5 m 2 cultivation area. The beds are
323
illuminated solely by 108 high pressure sodium lamps, each at 940W. The
photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was measured 120 cm above cultivation bed
under full lighting was 1935 ± 5 fl mol m- 2 S-I. This PCM was called the "PCM with
artificial lighting". The ranges of temperature and relative humidity within the PCM's
cultivation rooms are 18 to 30 D C and 60 to 80%, respectively. The range of control
settings of C02 and 02 concentration levels within the cultivation rooms are 0 to 2,000
fl mol mor l and 180 to 210 mmol mOri, respectively. The MCS 1 installed in phase 1
consists of several components. These include a CO 2 and O 2 injection system, which
contains CO 2, 02 and N2 tanks and mass flow controllers, a C02 concentration analyzing
system, a nutrient solution management system, which adjusted the balance of the
solution and the irrigation/drainage of the cultivation beds, a water
purification/distribution system, a condensed water recycling system to transfer water
from the dehumidifiers to the humidifiers and the nutrient solution system, charcoal
filter deodorizer and several other smaller systems. The PCM and the MCS 1 also both
contain data acquisition systems to monitor and maintain the controlled environment
within the cultivation rooms.
2.2. PHASE 2: INSTALLATION COMPLETED BY MARCH 1996
In the same building as the first PCM, a second PCM was installed by March 1996. The
second PCM is located on the second floor and has a glass ceiling for natural lighting
and contains a cultivation room and a preparation room. This PCM was dubbed the
"PC M with natural lighting". The volume of the cultivation room is 227.2 m 3 . The
air leakage rate between the cultivation room and the preparation room was ca. 0.1 % vol
hour-I. In addition to the natural lighting, this cultivation room has supplemental
lighting from 60 metal halide lamps, each at 400W. The supplemental PPFD from these
lamps was calculated to be 180 fl mol m- 2 S-I. On a clear day in early summer, the
maximum PPFD in the cultivation room reached 1,400 fl molm- 2 S-I. This was when the
natural light was supplemented with all of the lamps and the sensor was not shaded by
building or module framing. This cultivation room has 12 hydroponic beds, which is
twice as many beds as the PCM with artificial lighting (see Section 2.1). The ranges
for air temperature, relative humidity and CO 2 and O 2 concentration in the cultivation
room of this PCM are also the same (see Section 2.1).
Air pressure in both of the peM is kept somewhat higher than outside. This is to
avoid permeation of outer gases. An air buffer system was installed during this phase,
since when the temperature in the PCM or the pressure of outer atmosphere changes, the
air buffer system automatically compensates for the pressure difference to avoid the
build-up of a mechanical load on the walls of the PCM. The normal pressure difference
is 40 Pa, with a working maximum of 250 Pa. This system consists of rubber buffers for
each room, and a mechanical system which is composed of a hard high pressure air tank
and compressors common to all rooms of the PCM.
MCS 1 installed during phase 2 includes a waste nutrient solution distiller, a plant
324
inedible part pulverizer, a waste wet oxidation processor, a tank for capturing gas
produced from the wet oxidation process, a wet oxidized solution concentrate system
using a reverse osmosis membrane, O 2 and N2 separators, an NH3 and NH4N03
synthesizer and as well as other systems.
2.3. PHASE 3: INSTALLATIONS TO BE COMPLETED BY MARCH 1997
Closed passage connecting PCMs, Animal Breeding Module (ABM) and Habitation
Module (HM) are to be installed by March 1997. The entire atmospheric volume of the
PC M, including closed passage connecting the PCM, deodorizing system connected to
PCMs and rubber air buffers, is to be 931.8 m3. The air leakage rate of the entire CPEF
was designed to be less than 6% vol yea(l. MCS 1 to be installed by March 1997
includes an 02 recovery system using Sabatier reaction, a trace contaminant gas
processor and a C02 separator.
3. Example 1: An Experimental Study on C02 and 02 Exchange, Transpiration

and Yield of Rice in a Small Closed Chamber
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the CEEF, plants have maj0r roles in food production, CO 2 removal, 02 production
and water reclamation through transpiration. In order to determine the design parameters
of the CEEF, material flow in the system need to be estimated based on experimental
data. Studies on the growth characteristics of candidate crops needed to be conducted in
order to evaluate their utility in a CELSS application. Specifically, the rates of CO 2
uptake and O 2 release, the rates of respiration and transpiration during each growth stage,
the duration from sowing to harvesting and the yield of edible and inedible parts of the
crops need to be studied. Note that this data will vary according to the growth
environment (controlled environment or open field) and the culturing system
(hydroponics or soil culture).
In the CPEF. various kinds of plants need to be cultivated in order to fulfill
nutritional requirement of human beings. Provisionally, seven candidate crops, i.e., rice,
soybean, sesame (oil rich), Komatsuna (leafy vegetable), white or sweet potato, tomato
and buckwheat were selected to be cultivated in the CPEF, based on the published data
on field grown crops.
Rice is the most important crop in the CPEF, mainly to meet the carbohydrate
requirement. Rice is to be cultivated in 12 beds in PCM with artificial lighting. Rice
would then occupy 40% of the available cultivation area. Therefore, rice was selected
for the experiment in this study. The data obtained using rice were regarded as a
standard in designing the crop cultivation system in the CPEF.
325
3.2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
A closed cultivation environment was assembled using the equipment shown in Figure 2.
The details of the equipment are described in another report (Tako et al. 1992; Oguchi et
al. 1994). The evapo-transpiration rate of the plant in the assimilation chamber was
calculated from the ventilation rate and the difference in water vapor concentration
calculated using the temperature and relative humidity between the inlet and outlet air.
The rate of CO 2 exchange by means of photosynthesis and respiration was calculated
from the ventilation rate and the difference in C02 concentration between the inlet and
outlet air. The rate of O2 exchange was estimated using the assumption that the
quotients of assimilation and respiration were 1.0 (mol CO2 / mol 02).
Although the final goal is to grow plants from sowing to harvesting in the closed
environment, seedlings grown in an open type growth chamber for 14 days were used in
this experiment. Four seeds of Oryza sativa L. cv. KITAAKE (relatively insensitive to
photoperiod) rice were germinated in ca. 30°C water for three days were sown in a rock
wool block. Prior to sowing, the block (55 X 55 X 35 mm) was sterilized at 90°C for 24
hours, weighted and submerged in the nutrient solution for 24 hours. The nutrient
solution was identical to that used during seedling growth, the pH of which had been
adjusted to 5.5. The constituents of the nutrient solution used are shown in Table 1 and
the seedling growing conditions are shown in Table 2.
The seedlings in the rock wool block were then transplanted into the assimilation
chamber on the 15th day after sowing. The surface of the rock wool block was covered
with a thin aluminum coated polyethylene sheet in order to prevent algae growth on the
surface and evaporation directly from the surface. The cultivation density in the chamber
was 25 plants m· 2. The constituents of the initial nutrient solution and the refill
concentrated solution used in the closed cultivation are shown in Table 3. The set
conditions during the closed growth period are shown in Table 4.
The rice plants were harvested on the 96th day after closure. The harvested plants
were divided into grains, chaffs, spikelet axis, leaves, culms, stems and roots. These
components were then oven-dried at 90°C for 24 hours and weighed.
3.3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ESTIMATIONS
3.3.1. Gas exchange and transpiration. Ontogenetic changes in the rates of C02
exchange and transpiration of the rice plants during the closed experiment are shown in
Figure 3. The first nine days after transplanting (OAT) there was a lag phase, during
which no substantial increase in the rates occurred. Following the lag phase was an
exponential phase. during which an exponential increase in the CO2 exchange and
transpiration rates occurred. This phase lasted to until 25 OAT. This phase coincided
with vigorous tillerring and vegetative growth. By the end of the exponential phase,
most of the area in the assimilation chamber was covered with the plant canopy. On 25
DAT. the photoperiod was altered from 16L18D to 12L1l2D. During following 15 days,
overlapping of leaves increased more and more, but the increase of the C02 exchange
326
and transpiration rates became less and less. At 35 OAT the C02 exchange and
transpiration rates peaked and heading was observed during the period from 40 to 50
OAT. A gradual decrease in the daily mean CO 2 uptake rate during light period observed
from 40 to 80 OAT. Following this phase, a sharp decline of the CO 2 uptake rate was
observed until harvest, at 96 OAT. The rates of transpiration and dark respiration
remained at their maximum levels by ca. 75 OAT, and then declined until the harvest.
The maximum of daily mean C02 uptake and 02 release rates during the light period
was 0.086 mol h- I m-2 or 3.8 g C02 h- I m- 2 and 2.8 g O 2 h- I m- 2. The maximum of daily
mean C02 release and 02 uptake rates during the dark period was 0.017 mol h- I m- 2 or
0.75 g C02 h- I m-2 and 0.55 g 02 h- I m- 2. The maximum of daily mean transpiration rate
was 19 mol h- I m- 2 or 340 g H 20 h- I m- 2. During the maximum phase, the quantities of
mean C02 uptake rate was 0.91 mol C02 dai l m- 2 or 40 g CO 2 dai l m- 2, mean O 2
release rate was 0.91 mol O 2 day' I m- 2 or 29 g O 2 dai l m- 2 and mean transpiration rate
per day during was 230 mol dai' m- 2 or 4,100 g H20 dai' m-2. For the entire growing
period, the quantities of mean CO 2 uptake rate was 0.73 mol C0 2dai l m- 2 or 32 g CO 2
dai l m- 2, mean 02 release rate was 0.73 mol O 2 dai l m- 2 or 23 g O 2 dai l m- 2 and mean
transpiration rate was 190 mol dai l m-2 or 3,400 g H 20 dai l m- 2.
3.3.2. Duration from sowing to harvesting, grain yield and harvest index. Duration from
sowing to harvesting was 110 days. This is substantially shorter than those of field
grown rice as shown in Table 5. Probably, this is a result of sustained uniform favorable
conditions maintained through environmental control.
Total dry weight at the harvest and grain yield were 2,056 g m- 2 and 615 g m- 2,
respectively. The grain yield is comparable to those of field grown rice as shown in
Table 5. Harvest index defined as grain dry weight per total dry weight was 29.9%.
The grain dry weight per aerial part dry weight was also comparable to those of field
grown rice.
3.3.3. Estimation of cultivation area needed to support a person's life. According to

Nitta et al. (1990), the quantity of C02 needed to be removed to support a person is
estimated to be ca. 1,000 g C02 dai' person-I. In this experiment, quantity of CO 2
uptake by rice plants was 32 g C02 dai l m- 2 on the average. Therefore, the rice
cultivation area needed to remove CO 2 exhausted by a human was estimated to be 1,000
-;- 32 = 31 m 2 person-I. The literature also states that the quantity of O 2 necessary to
support a human is estimated to be ca. 836 g 02 dai l person-I. The rice plants tested in
this study released a daily mean quantity of 23 g O 2 dai l m-2. So, to supply a person
with enough oxygen each day requires a rice cultivation area estimated to be 836 -;- 23 =
36 m 2 person-I. It was also estimated the quantity of H 20 required to support a person is
ca. 3,077 g H20 dai l person-I. In the present study, rice plants transpired a mean daily
value of 3,400 g H 20 dai l m-2. The rice cultivation area needed to evaporateitranspire a
sufficient amount of H20, which would be reclaimed later for human use, is estimated to
be 3,077 -;- 3,400 = 0.905 m 2 person-I.
327
Although no consideration was given to nutritional balance, according to published

reports, the quantity of food needed to be supplied to support a person is estimated to be
ca. 603 g day" I person-I. The quantity of edible parts produced by the rice plants in this
study was 615 g (cultivation periodr l m-2, and cultivation period was 110 days.
Therefore, the rice cultivation area needed to supply food consumed by a human is
estimated to be 603 ~ (615 ~ 110) = 108 m 2 person-I.
3.4 CONCLUSION
A closed cultivation experiment was carried out using rice plants. The semi-closed
environment chamber was produced. Using this chamber, the exchange rates of CO 2 and
O 2 and the transpiration/respiration rate of the rice plants were continuously monitored
and recorded. The percentage of time under closed cultivation relative to the whole
duration from sowing to harvesting was 87%.
Rice was adopted in this study as a representative of several candidate crops which
need a certain length of dark period in each photocycle for initiation of edible part
growth. Rice plants were successfully cultivated and the grain yield per unit cultivation
area was comparable to those of field grown rice. Duration of cultivation from sowing to
harvesting could be shortened by 33 - 81 days relative to those of field grown rice,
probably because the uniform conditions favorable to rice were maintained.
Using gas exchange rates, transpiration rate and yield data, the cultivation area
necessary to support one human was estimated. It was confirmed that food production is
critical to determine the necessary area in the case of rice. Although without concern for
nutritional balance, the quantity (dry weight) of food necessary to sustain one person's
life could be supplied by 108 m 2 rice cultivation. Surplus O 2 production and additional
CO 2 removal by plant cultivation system are available for animal breeding, waste wet
oxidation process, and other areas too. Excess water reclaimed through transpiration is
also available for nutrient solution adjustment in plant cultivation. The necessary area,
108 m2, is substantially larger than those estimated in reports published from NASA's
Kennedy Space Center. Improvement of cultivation procedures and growth conditions
will reduce the necessary cultivation area.
4. Example 2: A Study for Improvement of Suitability of Waste Wet Oxidized

Solution as Nutrient Solution for Plant Growing
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The coupling of plant growth and waste recycling systems is an important step toward
the integration of the CEEF. This study examines the suitability of waste wet-oxidized
solution (WOS) for use as a plant nutrient solution. In the CEEF, the WOS obtained
from the management of human or animal waste and inedible parts of plants are used as
nutrient solutions for plant cultivation. There have been several reports on the
328
decomposition efficiency of organic materials in waste wet-oxidation (Hayashi et a!.

1993; Yokota et a!. 1994). There has been little attention given to the toxicity of WOS
to plants. The objectives of this study are to identifY elements which are toxic to plants
in the WOS, quantifY the constituents in the WOS and determine if additives are needed
to produce an effective nutrient solution, and devise a method to avoid the introduction
of the toxic elements into the WOS production process.
4.2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
4.2.1. Experiment 1: Quantitative analysis of constituents in was of rabbit feces

obtained with experimental equipment made of stainless steel. Waste suspension was
prepared using 5.9 g of dried rabbit feces and 550 ml of distilled water for wet-oxidation
processing. To produce WOS, wet-oxidation waste management equipment (WOWME)
was assembled. The equipment contained a 1 liter primary reactor furnace and a 220
ml secondary reactor furnace with catalysts (3 %wt Ru-Ti0 2). Both furnaces were made
of stainless steel (SUS316). The waste suspension was first put into the primary reactor
furnace and the remaining volume of the furnace was filled with O 2 gas (2.45 MPa).
Temperature and pressure in the WOWME were 320°C and 12.3 MPa, respectively.
Total processing time was 1 hour. The waste suspension was only in the primary reactor
for 30 minutes. After this process, the solution was pumped, in closed circuit through
the primary and secondary reactors, for 30 minutes. The organic materials in the
solution were fully decomposed by the catalysts in the secondary reactor. This process
was repeated four times to produce the necessary amount of WOS for quantitative
analysis of its constituents.
The insoluble residue (sediment) was filtered from the WOS to identifY suitable
constituents useful for plant cultivation. The constituents of rabbit feces, filtered WOS
and sediment were analyzed and identified primarily by ICP and ion-chromatography.
EC and pH of the filtered WOS were also measured. Using these analytical results, the
amount and percentage of each element coming from feces and other sources (probably
equipment) were calculated.
4.2.2. Experiment 2: Plant cultivation with simulated was and modified wass of rabbit
feces. The WOWME used in Experiment 1 was manufactured for a small scale
experiment. The quantity of WOS produced per operation cycle was only 500 m!.
Enormous time and labor would be needed to accumulate necessary quantity of WOS
for a plant cultivation experiment. With so many repetitions of this operation, the
catalysts would deteriorate. Therefore, the necessary quantity of WOS with stable
constituents could not be produced for a plant cultivation experiment. Simulated WOS,
which had components similar to those of WOS analyzed in Experiment I, was prepared
with reagents (see Table 6). Additionally, phosphorous and iron-enriched simulated
WOS were also prepared in order to examine whether plants could be grown with was
enriched with essential elements for plants which were obviously insufficient in WOS
329
(see Table 6). Furthermore, in order to define shortcomings ofWOS as nutrient solution,
six types of modified WOS were prepared with reagents (see Table 6). The standard
solution used for lettuce, Welsh onion, field pea and spinach was half strength Otsuka-
house fertilizer A solution, which is normally used in hydroponic production systems.
The standard solution for soybean was modified Hewitt solution (see Table 7). To
examine the effect of the addition of N0 3' - N to WOS, two types of modified WOS
were also prepared (see Table 7).
CD NFT culture experiment
Seeds of lettuce (Lactum saliva L. cv. Okayama), Welsh onion (Alliumfistilosum L. cv.
Kuzyoufuto), field pea (Pisium sativum L. cv. Akabane-kinusaya) and spinach (Spinacia
oleracea L. cv. Okame) were sown in the 20x20x20 mm rock wool blocks.
Approximately 30 seedlings of each crop were grown with half strength Otsuka-house
fertilizer A solution under continuous light for 14 days. The PPFD at the leafs surface,
air temperature and relative humidity during seedling 'cultivation were lOO~mol m· 2 S·I,
22°C and 70%, respectively. From the 30 seedlings, 20 of each of the four crops were
selected and grown using half strength Otsuka-house fertilizer A solution, simulated
WOS and phosphorous and iron-enriched simulated WOS in NFT culture beds for 10
days. The PPFD at the leaf surface was 200~mol m·2 S·1 and the photoperiod was 16
hours light /8 hours dark. The light/dark air temperature, relative humidity and nutrient
solution temperature were 24~26CI19~21°C. 65~75% and 19~21°C. Ten seedlings of
each crop were sampled, dried and weighed just before transplanting. Ten plants for
each crop were then sampled from each solution, dried and weighed at 4 DA l' and 10
DAT.
CV Pot culture experiment
Germinated seeds of lettuce (Lac!uca saliva L. cv. Okayama) and soybean (Glycine max
(L.) Merril cv. Tachisuzunari) were sown in the 20x20x30 mm urethane foam blocks
placed in 3.3 I pots. Lettuce plants were grown, four plants per solution, with half
strength Otsuka-house fertilizer A solution, simulated WOS, phosphorous and iron-
enriched simulated WOS and six modified WOS (see Table 6) for 31 days. To examine
effect of addition of N0 3'- N to WOS, soybean plants were grown, ten per solution, with
standard nutrient solution (modified Hewitt solution) and two types of modified WOS
(see Table 7). The PPFD at the surface of the lettuce was 200~mol m· 2 S·I. For
soybeans the PPFD was 400~mol m· 2 S·I. The photoperiod (16 hours light / 8 hours
dark), the light/dark air temperature (25~26 DC / 24~25C), the light/dark relative
humidity (60~ 70%170~80%) and the temperature of nutrient solution (23~25°C) were
identical for both crops. The plant culture solutions were aerated with air pumps and
supplemented with distilled water every other day. For lettuce, the solutions were
renewed two weeks after sowing. The renewal of solution for soy beans occurred at 2, 4,
6, 8, 10 and 12 weeks. Germinated seeds, ten each, of lettuce and soybean were sampled
just before sowing. Two lettuce plants were sampled from each solution, dried and
weighed 14 and 31 days after sowing. Four soybean plants were sampled from each
solution, dried and weighed at 2, 7, 12 and 15 weeks after sowing.
330
4.2.3. Experiment 3. Quantitative analysis of heavy metals in WOS obtained using a

WOWME with a reactor furnace made of Ti-alloy. To decrease the elution of heavy
metals, an experimental WOWME with a Ti-alloy reactor furnace was made (Tako et aI.,
\995). The improved WOWME had a 1 liter furnace, which had a rotating basket in
which the catalysts were placed. Waste suspension using 7.0 g of dried and pulverized
whole rice plants and 500 m! of distilled water was prepared. Prior to wet oxidation, the
furnace was filled with the waste suspension and 1.37 MPa 02 gas. The WOWME
processing temperature and pressure of 300 QC and 10.3 MPa, respectively, were
maintained for 1 hour. Concentrations of Ni, Cr, Co, Ti, Cu and Cd in the resulting
WOS were determined by ICP analysis.
4.2.4. Experiment 4: Determination of allowable concentration of heavy metals in

nutrient solution for plant cultivation. Rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Nipponbare) plants
were grown using five experimental nutrient solutions. These five solutions had
concentrations levels 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 5 mgll of each of the heavy metals, Ni, Co, and
Cr. The basic solution for these experimental solutions was Otsuka-house fertilizer A
(1/2 strength), which was the same as the solution used in NFT culture in Experiment 2.
Rice seedlings were grown under the same conditions as in seedling cultures examined
in the NFT culture in Experiment 2. Ten rice plants for each of the five different
solutions were grown for 20 days under the same condition as in NFT culture in
Experiment 2. Ten seedlings were sampled, dried and weighed before the
transplantation. Ten plants were sampled, dried and weighed on 20 days after
transplanting.
4.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.3.1. Experiment 1: Quantitative analysis of constituents in WOS of rabbit feces

obtained with an experimental equipment made of stainless steel. The constituents of
WOS using rabbit feces, which was obtained using the stainless steel WOWME, are
shown in Table 6. The EC and pH levels were 1.4 mS cm-' and 7.17, respectively. The
concentration levels of phosphorous and iron were insufficient to cultivate plants. The
concentration of Ni in the WOS seemed to be too high and might be inhibitive to plant
growth if this WOS was to be used as nutrient solution (Chino and Kitagishi, 1966).
Table 8 shows the constituent concentrations in the WOS produced with the stainless
steel WOWME using rabbit feces. These values were calculated from the results of
analysis of the constituents in the rabbit feces, filtered WOS and sediment. It is
considered that 99.3% of nickel contained in the WOS was eluted from the stainless
steel furnace and most of the nitrogen in the feces, 85%, was converted into N2 gas. The
phosphorous (98.5%) and iron (99.96%) in the feces were in the sediment, remained in
the furnace or deposited on the surface of the catalysts in wet-oxidation process.
331
4.3.2. Experiment 2. Plant cultivation with simulated was and modified wass of rabbit
feces.
CD NFT culture experiment.
Figure 4 shows the changes in the dry weight of lettuce, Welsh onions, field peas and
spinach grown using NFT cultivation with half strength Otsuka-house fertilizer A
solution, simulated WOS and phosphorous and iron-enriched simulated WOS. The dry
matter growth of these four crops cultivated with the phosphorous and iron-enriched
simulated WOS was strongly inhibited, especially after the 4th day of treatment. The
addition of phosphorous and iron had little effect on plant growth and damage was
observed after the 3rd or 4th day of treatment, it is likely that concentration of some
material in the WOS reached a toxic level for these plants.
@ Pot culture experiment.
Figure 5 shows the changes in dry weight of lettuce grown in pots using half strength
Otsuka-house fertilizer A solution, simulated WOS, phosphorous and iron-enriched
simulated WOS, and six modified simulated WOS. Table 6 lists the constituents
contained in all of the simulated WOS used in this study. Dry weight of lettuce plants
grown with solutions containing 17 mg ["I Ni, namely, simulated WOS, phosphorous
and iron enriched simulated WOS and organic, acid-free, simulated WOS ranged from
2.2 to 2.4 mg/plant at 14th day. All of the plants grown using these solutions had
expired by the 31 st day.
The dry weights of lettuce grown with Ni-free simulated WOS and Ni and Cr-free
simulated WOS ranged from 6.9 to 7.4 mg planrl on the 14th day. The plants grown on
these solutions also had expired by the 31 st day. The dry weights of lettuce grown with
Ni-free phosphorous and iron-enriched simulated WOS, Ni and Cr-free phosphorous
and iron-enriched simulated WOS and unnecessary constituent-free phosphorous and
iron-enriched simulated WOS ranged from 40.9 to 75.9 mg planrl on the 14th day. On
the 31 st day, the dry weights of the plants grown in these solutions ranged from 1,800 to
2,300 mg planrl, or 40% of the control plants. Therefore, the important shortcomings of
WOS exist in an excess amount of nickel and a shortage of phosphorous and/or iron.
Figure 6 shows the changes in dry weight of soy bean plants grown in pots using half
strength Otsuka-house fertilizer A solution and two types of modified simulated WOS.
Biomass and yield (edible part) at harvest, of the plants grown with Ni-free
phosphorous and iron-enriched simulated WOS, reached to 50% and 40% of the control,
respectively. The soybean plants grown with Ni-free P, Fe and NO} -N-enriched
simulated WOS had biomasses that were 90% and yields that were 80% of the control,
respectively. From these results, it was confirmed that the addition of N0 3 -N to
simulated WOS improved the growth and yield rates considerably.
4.3.3. Experiment 3: Quantitative analysis of heavy metals in was obtained using a

WaWME with a reactor furnace made of ri-alloy. Table 9 shows the concentrations
of Ni, Cr, Co, Ti, Cu, and Cd in WOS using harvested rice plants produced in the
improved WOWME with a Ti-alloy reactor furnace. These heavy metal elements are
332
likely to become toxic to plants at certain concentration levels. Concentrations of these

elements in the WOS from the Ti-alloy reactor furnace were fairly lower than in WOS
produced using the stainless steel furnace. The concentration level of nickel in the WOS
from the Ti-alloy furnace was about 1/6,000 of that from the other furnace.
4.3.4. Experiment 4: Determination o/, allowable concentration of heavy metals in

nutrient solution for plant cultivation. Figure 7 shows the influence of the heavy metal
concentration levels in the nutrient solution on shoot dry weight of rice on the 20th day
of treatment. If the concentration levels of all three heavy metals tested, i.e., Ni, Co and
Cr, were less than 0.1 mg/l, the initial growth of rice would not be entirely inhibited.
The allowable concentration range of nickel in the nutrient solution seems to be 0.1 ~0.5
mg/I. This seems to be true, even if the concentrations levels of Co and Cr in the
nutrient solution vary over the same range. As shown by results obtained in Experiment
3, it appears that the concentrations of these heavy metals in the WOS obtained using a
WOWME with a Ti-alloy furnace are low enough not to inhibit plant growth.
4.4. CONCLUSION
Utilization of processed waste solution as a nutrient solution for plant cultivation would
improve the material recycling efficiency in the CEEF. Wet-oxidation is one of the
physio-chemical waste decomposition processes, which could produce a useful waste
solution. To examine this possibility, a series of experiments were conducted.
First. WOS. using rabbit feces and distilled water. was produced using a WOWME
with a stainless steel furnace. The constituents in the WOS were identified and then
recreated using reagents. This simulated WOS solution was used in an NFT
hydroponic system to grow Seeds of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Okayama), Welsh
onion (Alliumfistilosum L. cv. Kuzyoufuto), field pea (Pisium sativum L. cv. Akabane-
kinusaya) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L. cv. Okame). However, none of these crops
could grow using the simulated WOS.
The lettuce cultivating experiment clarified the major reasons why the crops did not
grow with the simulated WOS. The concentration of nickel in the WOS, which was
eluted from the equipment made of stainless steel (SUS316), reached a toxic level and
the concentrations of phosphorous and iron in the WOS are insufficient to grow plants.
Analysis of the heavy metals in the WOS produced from a WOWME with a Ti-alloy
furnace was completed. In addition, the allowable concentrations of heavy metals in half
strength Otsuka-house fertilizer A solution for rice plants were also determined. This
showed that the concentration of nickel in the WOS from the Ti-alloy furnace would not
inhibit rice growth.
A considerable part of the nitrogen and almost all of the phosphorous and iron
contained in organic waste could not be contained in the WOS. These must be added or
returned to the solution in order to cultivate plants with the WOS in the CEEF. The
CEEF has been constructed for material recycling experiments also. Denitrified nitrogen
(N2 gas) is to be converted into NH3 or NH 4N0 3 by a nitrogen fixation system and
333
returned to solution. At the present time in operation at the CEEF, H3P0 4, Fe-EDTA
and NH3 or NH 4N0 3 are added to the WOS. In the future, phosphorous and iron will
also need to be dissolved into the solution.
5. Referenees
Chino M and Kitagishi K (1966) A study on damage of rice crop by excess of heavy
metal elements( I ), Rice crop growth under treatment with different concentrations of
copper. nickel, cobalt and zinc, J. Sci. Soil and Manure, Japan, 37, 342-347.
Hayashi K et al. (1993) A study on catalyst performance for wet-oxidation waste
management process, 10th. IAA. Tokyo.
Nitta K et al. (1990) Interface problems between material recycling systems and plants,
Proceedings of the 28th. COSPAR.
JIBP/PP (1969-1972) Photosynthesis and utilization of solar energy, level I experiments,
report 2 - 5.
Oguchi M. et al. (1994) Measurement of rice crop metabolism using closed-type plant
cultivation equipment, Adv. Space Res., 14(11),237-240.
Tako Y et al. (1992) A study on metabolism for incorporating plant growing subsystem
into CELSS material recycling system, Proceedings of the 18th. ISTS, 1439-1448.
Tako Y et al. (1995) A study on utilization of processed organic waste solution for plant
cultivation in closed ecological systems, CELSS journal, 7(2), 19-26
Yokota A et al. (1994) A study on wet-oxidation waste management process design.
SAE technical paper series 941498
Cultl\atlOl1 Cultl\atloll Animal Geo&

'-
Room A Room F Breedlllg Ilydrosphere
Cultivation Preparation Module Modules
Room B Room (ABM)
Cultivation Plant Cultivation
RoomC
Preparation
Module
(PCM) With
Habitation
Module
I
Room n turallighting (HM)
I
PCM with ~ T
t
arti!icia lightlllg Material
Circulation
I- I---
Material
Circulation
Material Circulation System I ~ System 2 System 3
(MCSI) ~ f-- (MCS2)
I--
(MCS3)
Closed Plant Experiment F"cllit, Closed Breeding & Closed Geo·Hydrosphere

((,PEF) lIabitatlon Facility Experiment Facility
((,BHF) (CGEF)
Closed Ecolugy bpcrimcnt Facilities (Cf-:EFl
I'igurc I. I:ullctiunal diagram ufthe Clused Ecological E\pcrimcnt Facilities (CEEF).

334
AIr~ I Cool" ~ BOClumps

I
-7 F.D O / IRml~
,"'0 Glass
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the small closed growth chamber.
Table I. The nutrient solution used in rice seedling growth in a preliminary experiment.
Constituents Concentrations Constituents Concentrations Constituents Concentrations
(mglL) (mglL) (mg/L)
(NH4)2S04 16S Mg(N03)2.6H20 89.S CuS0 4.SH20 0.0500
KN0 3 50.5 Fe-EDTA(Na-Salt) 20.0 Na2Mo04.2H20 0.0250
KH2P0 4 92.1 MnS0 4·5H20 3.08 28% Potassium 1,430
CaCI 2·2H20 54.8 H:J3°3 3.00 silicate solution
KCI 11.1 ZnS04· 7H20 0.500
Table 2. Seedling growth condition of rice in a preliminary experiment.
DaylNight length 16hoursl8hours DaylNight air relative humidity 70%/80%

DaylNight air temperature 28"c/23"c Daytime PPFD 500 J1 mol m·2 S·I
Table 3. The constituents of nutrient solutions used in the rice preliminary experiment.
Constituents Concentrations {mglL} Constituents Concentrations {mglL}
Initial solution Refill concentrated Initial solution Refill concentrated
solution solution
(NH4hS04 330 3,300 MnS0 4.SHp 3.08 IS.4
KN0 3 101 808 H:J3°3 3.00 IS.O
KH2P0 4 184 1,380 ZnS04· 7Hp 0.500 2.50
CaCI 2·2H2O 110 658 CuS04· 5Hp 0.0500 0.2S0
KCI 22.2 144 Na2Mo04·2H20 0.0250 0.125
Mg(N°3n· 6H20 179 983 28% Potassium 2,860 38,600
Fe-EDTA(Na-Salt) 20.0 100 silicate solution
335
Closed Cultivation
!;I, ~ 100
16hours OaY---4, 12hours Oay/ t2hours Night ;"
<.
a ."8..-:-
"fi
IShou rs ,H ghc Head ing
f.e~
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c
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8 co '0 10 ..... 4. ............. ~._........ 50 70 90 : ••..".

~ '2 E ................................. .............
OIl
f "
"'0
E
- .20
:~.,
~ £
< ~ Days after sowing
Figure 3. Ontogenetic changes in the rates of CO 2 exchange CO :average

during light-period, . :average during dark-period) and transpiration CO )
of rice during the closed growth in a preliminary experiment.
0,1
r
Lettuce r o.oel Welsh onion
e
-[ 3
e..
Q. 0.06
.!?) .!?)
t~
~O.04
'~
~ 0.02
Cl Cl
0 0
0 234 5 6 7 e 9 10 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Days a./Ier IrnnSJ>Ianting Days a./Ier IrnnSJ>lanting
3
2 j
Field pea Spinach
r r 1.5
~ 2 ~
Q. Q.
..
.!?) .!?)
.E
.~
~
.~
~ ~ 0.5
Cl Cl
0
0 , 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
0 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 10
Days after <I3RSplanting Days a./Ier transplanting
Figure 4. Changes in dry weight oflettuce, Welsh onion, field pea

and spinach grown with the standard nutrient solution C.),
the simulated wet-oxidized solution (WOS) of rabbit feces
(.), and the P and Fe enriched simulated
WOS CA) in NFT cultivation.
336
Table 4. The set condition during the closed growth of rice in a preliminary experiment.
Period (days after closure)

1~24 25~96
DaylNight length 6 hoursl8 hours 12 hoursll2 hours

DaylNight air temperature 28°C/23"C
DaylNight air relative humidity 70%180%
Daytime PPFD 1,200 J1 mol m- 2 S-I
Atmospheric CO 2 concentration 500 J1 mol mor l
Atmospheric O2 concentration 20~21%
EC of the nutrient solution 1.9~2.4
pH of the nutrient solution 5.2~5.8
O2 concentration of the bubbling

air through the nutrient solution 200~210 m mol mor l
co
~ 25
:e.
.9 20
..
:E
.5!' 15
l:
.
..,~ 10
..
Cl
E
0
....... 10000
C
1( 10 15
Jl!
.!!- Weeks after sowing
.s.,
Cl)
1000
''E"" Figure 6. Changes in total (open symbols)

~ 100 and edible part (closed symbols) mean
."
dry weight of soy beans grown with STD
.
00
~ solution (D.), WOS-Ni+Fe, P (6A) and
10
WOS-Ni+Fe, P, N (Oe) in pot cultivation.
"Cl)
l!
~
10 20 30 40
Days after sowing
0.4
Figure 5. Changes in dry weight ofJettuces grown with the
standard nutrient solution (.), the simulated wet-oxidized ~
-a 0.3
t
solution (WOS) of rabbit feces (e), the P and Fe enriched ~
simulated WOS (A), the Ni-free simulated WOS (+), the
Ni-free P and Fe enriched simulated WOS (-), the Ni and 0.2
Cr free simulated WOS (0), the Ni and Cr free P and Fe
enriched WOS (0), the organic acid free P and Fe enriched ~
_ 0.1
0
WOS (D), and the "unnecessary constituent" free P and Fe 0
-"
enriched WOS (L\,) in pot cultivation.
'" 0
Ni 0 0. 1 0.5 1.0 5.0
Co 0 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0
Cr 0 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0
Concentrations of heavy metals. in nutrienL solution (m!VL)
Figure 7. Shoot dry weight of rice plants grown with

nutrient solutions in which concentrations of heavy
metals were different from each other for 20 days.
Different letters indicate statistically significant
differences (P <0.05).
337
Table 5. Comparison of rice yield data obtained in a preliminary closed experiment with data
obtained in the open field cultivation from literature (JIBPIPP, 1969-1972).
Item A preliminary The open field cultivation

closed experiment
Duration from sowing to harvesting (days) 110 143~191
Grain dry weight per unit cultivation area (g m-2) 615 480~807
"Harvest index" (Grain dry weight / Total dry weight 0.299
Grain dry weight / Aerial part dry weight 0.410 0.329~0.45l
Table 6. Concentration of elements and organic acids in the wet- oxidized solution (WOS) of rabbit
feces obtained with an experimental equipment made of stainless steel (SUS316),
those in the simulated WOS, the P and Fe-enriched simulated WOS tested in lettuce,
Welsh onion, field pea and spinach cultivation and those in 6 kinds of modified WOS
tested in lettuce cultivation.
Tested crop ..
Concentrations (mg/L)
Elements WOS Simulated P, Fe- Ni-free Ni-free Ni, Cr-free Ni, Cr-free OA'" free UC···· free
or of enriched simulated P, Fe- simulated P, Fe- p. Fe- P. Fe-
organic acid rabbit feces WOS simulated WOS enriched WOS enriched enriched enriched
WOS simulated simulated simulated simulated
WOS WOS wos WOS
NH;-N 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
N03 -N 62. 0~66. 7 62. 0 62.0 62.0 62.0 62.0 62.0 62.0 62.0
P 2.8 2.8 14.4 2.8 14.4 2.8 14.4 14.4 14.4
K 107~110 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107
Ca 134~140 134 134 134 134 134 134 134 134
Mg 28.7~31.0 30.0 30.0 30. 0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30. 0
S 72. 7~83. 5 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83. 3
Cl 55. 0~57. 0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55. 0
B 0.53 0.50 0.50 O. 50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 O. 50
Fe 0.011 0.01 0.90 0.01 0.90 0.01 0.90 0.90 O. 90
Mn 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 O. 10
Mo O. OO~O. 01
Cu O. OO~O. 01
Zn O. OO~O. 01
Si 14.1~16.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
Na 35. 9~36. 0 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0
Ni 17.1~20.0 17.0 17.0 17.0
Al 0.030
Ba O. 060~0. 064 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 O. 10 0.10
Ce O. 006
Co O. 072~0. 139 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 O. 10
Cl' O. 053~0. 50 O. 50 0.50 O. 50 0.50 0.50
Li O. 015~0. 024
Sr O. 358~0. 40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
Ti O. 005
Ru 0.019
HCOOH O. 80 O. 80 O. 80 0.80 O. 80 0.80 0.80 0.80
CH3COOH 6. 0 6. 0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
·lettuce, Welsh onion, field pea and spinach. ··Lettuce. ·"Organic acid. •• .. "Unnecessary constituent"
338
Table 7. Concentrations of elements in the standard solution (STD),

the Ni-a1most free P and Fe enriched simuleted WOS of rabbit feces
(WOS-Ni+Fe, P) and the Ni-almost free P, Fe and NO;-N enriched
simulated WOS (WOS-Ni+Fe, P, N) tested in soybean cultivation (mglL).
Elements NH4+-N N03-N P K Ca Mg S Cl B Fe
STD 15.3 152.3 41.3 158 160 36.3 48.3 3.6 0.3 4.6
WOS-Ni+Fe, P 1.2 62.0 41.3 107 134 30.0 83.3 55.0 0.5 0.90
WOS-Ni+Fe,P,N 1.2 152.3 4\.3 107 134 30.0 83.3 55.0 0.5 0.90
Elements Mn Mo Cu Zn Si Na Ni Co Cr Sr
STD 0.5 0.05 0.03 0.07 8.0 34.0 0.01 0.01
WOS-Ni+Fe, P 0.\0 15.0 36.0 0.01 0.10 0.50 0.40
WOS-Ni+Fe, P, N 0.10 15.0 36.0 0.01 0.10 0.50 0.40
Table 8. Balances of elements in the process of wet-oxidation of rabbit feces (5.9 g dry weight per I
operation) with an experimental equipment made of stainless steel (SUS316). Each figure shows
amount (mg) of each element per operation. Each figure in parenthesis shows percentage of each
in total amount of each element.
Elements Amount (Eercentage) of each element

Coming from Distributed to
Feces Others· Filtered WOS Sediment Others··
N 179 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 27 (15.1) 0 (0.0) 152 (84.9)
P 73.8 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 1.\2 (1.5) 28.5 (38.7) 44.2 (59.8)
K 50.4 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 43.6 (86.5) 0.37 (0.7) 6.43 (12.8)
Ca 233 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 54.8 (23.5) 43.8 (18.8) 134.5 (57.7)
Mg 26.8 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 11.9 (44.4) 6.44 (24.0) 8.46 (31.6 )
S 22.8 (72.5) 8.64 (27.5) 31.2 (99.2) 0.24 (0.8) 0 (0.0)
Cl 12.8 (57.0) 9.64 (43.0) 22.4 (99.8) 0.037 (0.2) 0 (0.0)
B 0.153 (70.4) 0.064 (29.6) 0.212 (97.6) 0.005 (2.4) 0 (0.0)
Fe \0.7 (\00.0) 0 . (0.0) 0.004 (0.0) 8.47 (79.1) 2.23 (20.8)
Mn 1.42 (\00.0) 0 (0.0) 0.Q4 (0.8) 0.164 (11.5) 1.22 (85.6)
Mo <0.02 <0.02 0.046
Cu 0.15 <0.2 0.016
Zn \.04 (\00.0) 0 (0.0) <0.02 «1.9) 0.19 (18.3) 0.83< (79.8<)
<0.85 «8\,7)
Si 11.0 (88.7) 1.41 (11.3) 6.04 (48.7) 6.37 (5 \.3) 0 (0.0)
Na 12.5 (85.0) 2.20 (15.0) 14.4 (98.0) 0.298 (2.0) 0 (0.0)
Ni 0.089 (0.7) 13.0 (99.3) 7.44 (56.9) 5.63 (43.1) 0 (0.0)
Al 6.57 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 0.012 (0.2) 4.23 (64.3) 35.5 (35.5)
Ba 0.292 (\00.0) 0 (0.0) 0.025 (8.5) 0.024 (8.0) 83.5 (83.5)
Ce 0.053 0.002
Co 0.041 (47.0) 0.046 (53.0) 0.042 (48.6) 0.045 (51.4) 0 (0.0)
Cr 0.05 (15.8) 0.267 (84.2) 0.011 (3.5) 0.306 (96.5) 0 (0.0)
Li 0.008 (9\.7) 0.0007 (8.3) 0.008 (95.2) 0.0004 (4.8) 0 (0.0)
Sr 0.738 (94.0) 0.047 (6.0) 0.152 (19.4) 0.633 (80.6) 0 (0.0)
Ti 0.386 (\9.9) 1.56 (80.1) 0.002 (0.1 ) 1.94 (99.9) 0 (0.0)
Ru <0.06 0.0076 (16.9) 0.0374 (83.1)
·probably wet-oxidation equipment.
"Probably inner surface of wet-oxidation equipment or surface of catalysts.
Table 9. Concentrations of7 heavy metal elements in the filtered wet-oxidized solution of harvested rice
plant obtained using an experimental equipment with a reactor furnace made of Ti-alloy.
Heavy metal elements Ni Cr Co Ti Ru Cu Cd
Concentrations (mglL) 0.003 0.02 <0.001 0.002 <0.002 <0.06 <0.001
INDEX
AIB-diluter, 109 carbon dioxide (C0 2), 189, 192, 226,

absorption of nutrient, 90 227, 265, 275, 281, 292, 323, 326
acclimatization, 161 concentration, 154, 232
unit, 157 enrichment, 233, 248, 249, 255,
accumulation, 85 283
factor, 91 exchange rate, 156
adaptive control, 307 centrifugal force, 313
advanced life support system, 205 centrifuge phytotron, 306, 313
aeroponics, 11, 106 chemical pesticides, 13, 50
air buffer system, 323 chlorella, 298
air current, 160 closed ecological system, 297
air exchange closed ecosystems, 140, 143
number of, 164 closed growth chamber, 249
rate, 235 closed plant production systems, 140,
air flow visualization, 35 143
air pressure, 233, 280, 323 closed systems, 105
air temperature, 158 co-occurrence matrice, 308
allelopathy, 199,237 coloring system, 125
animal, 272, 324 communication, 177
artificial ecosystem, 246, 255 compartmentation, 234
artificial energy consumption, 141 computer control, 6, 253
artificial gravity, 314 concentration
artificial lighting, 140, 143, 145-147, maximum acceptable, 85
280, 287, 323 uptake, 85
artificial neural network, 176 concurrent engineering, 182
artificial substrates, 106 concurrent science, 182
automation, 174 contaminant, 226, 237
contamination, 198
bio-film, 140, 142, 144 con textural approach, 308
multi-functional, 140, 144 control, 35, 200, 216
bio-response feedback control, 306 adaptive, 307
biocontrol industry, 56 bio-response feedback, 306
biological control, 13, 49, 50, 62 biological, 13, 50, 62
biological system, 206 computer, 6, 253
bioregenerative life support system, derivative, 36
192, 263 environment, 161
bioregenerative system, 206, 213, 265 environmental,S, 69, 280
biosphere 2, 263 feedback, 216, 306
Bowen ratio, 38 feed-forward, 216
buffering capacity, 85 integral, 35
bumblebees, 49, 55 light, 41
339
340
control fertiliser mixture, 90

proportional, 35 film
robustness in, 116 multifunctional, 143
strategies, 176 plastic, 123
thermal, 215 polyethylene, 68
controlled ecological life support finite element, 310
system (CELSS), 205, 245, 279, retina, 310
321 flowering, 16
controlled environment, 172 food processing, 210
controlled environment agriculture food requirement, 192
(CEA), 1, 36, 44, 140, 279 functional module, 181
controlled environment plant
production system (CEPPS), 173 gas contaminant, 274
gas diffusion, 233, 282
decision support system, 182 gas exchange, 228
depletion, 85 gas turnover, 230
derivative control, 36 glazing transmittance, 39
diet, 272 global issues, 139, 142
DIF, 158 gravity, 196, 313
diffusive optical fiber, 148 artificial,314
dim light, 163 greenhouse, 1, 68, 173
disease, 195, 270 cover, l23
dissolved oxygen, 286 passive, 143
drainage water technology, 139
reuse of, 84 growth chamber
drip solution, 94 closed,249
growth suppression, 163
ecological system
closed, 297 harvest index, 227, 246
ecosystem heat
artificial, 246, 255 latent, 38
closed, 140, 143 sensible, 38
electrical conductivity (EC), 110 herbaceous perennials, 15
environment, 33 heterotrophy, 155
control, 5, 69, 161, 172,280 human food requirement, 297
in vitro, 153, 154 humidity, 286
root, 84 hydroponic, 1, 8, 194, 248
thermal, 33, 34, 44 hypobaric condition, 280
ethylene, 237 hypogravity, 196
expert system, 176 hypoxia, 276
far-red, 124 image, 306

light, 19 feature, 308
feed-forward control, 216 extraction, 307
feedback control, 216, 306 segmentation, 308
bio-response, 306 imaging, 196
341
in vitro environment, 153, 154 maximum acceptable concentration, 85

infonnational module, 181 media, 194
injection diluters, 110 medium composition, 156
insect, 195, 270 medium ionic concentration, 162
integral control, 35 methane, 68, 70
integrated pest management (IPM), 13, microorganism, 195, 198, 236, 267
49, 52, 53, 60 micropropagated plantlet, 153
integration, 178 micropropagated transplants, 145
interference, 126, 134 micropropagation, 195
ISE electrode, 111 microwave-powered lamp, 148, 288
ISFET sensor, 112 monitoring, 216, 313
Moon base, 265
juvenility,20 movable shade, 37
multi-functional bio-films, 140, 144
latent heat, 38 multi-functional film, 143
leaching, 90
fraction, 89 natural enemies, 56, 57
leaf resistance, 282 neural net, 36
leaf temperature, 288 neural network, 307
legislation, 50, 58, 105 artificial, 176
light night-interruption lighting, 15, 17
compensation point, 164 nitrogen, 231
control, 41 fixation, 231
dim, 163 non-contextural approach, 308
emitting diode (LED), 148, 288 non-geometric image feature, 310
far-red, 19 non-invasive, 306
intensity, 288 nutrient
quality, 18, 158, 159 absorption of, 90
lighting, 19 nutrient film technique (NFT), 10, 84,
artificial, 140, 143, 145-147,280, 106,329
287, 323 nutrient solution, 90, 113, 194, 197,
cycle, 158, 289 248, 280, 327
direction, 158 . nutrient supply, 84, 104, 113
night-interruption, 15, 17 nutrient uptake, 94
supplemental, 36, 43, 72
system optic nerve, 310
sideward, 161 oxygen (02)' 189, 192, 225, 250, 264,
loopshaping, 116 275, 281, 285, 292, 323, 326
low pressure, 249
low temperature storage, 147, 151, 163 passive greenhouse, 143
luminaire, 38, 41, 288 perception, 174
peroxyacetyl-nitrate (PAN), 237
machine vision, 172, 175, 306 pest, 270
manned space mission, 266, 321 pesticide-free, 49, 59
Mars base, 265 pesticides, 49, 62, 105
mathematical model, 164, 176 chemical, 50
342
pH,96,I1O reasoning, 172, 175

photo autotrophic micropropagation, recycling, 199, 207, 209, 225, 248, 267
149, 154 red/far-red ratio, 124
photoautotrophy, 155 relative humidity, 157
photomixotrophy, 155 resources, 141
photoperiod, 16, 246 respiration, 228, 254, 324
photorespiration, 282, 285 respiratory quotient, 230
photosynthesis, 228, 254,281, 298, retina, 310
325 reuse of drainage water, 84
photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 36 robot workcell, 177
photosynthetic photon flux density robustness in control, 116
(PPFD), 154 rockwool, 12
photosynthetic rate, 228, 281 root environment, 84
photosynthetic ally active radiation
(PAR), 36, 124 sensible heat, 38
physicaVchemical system, 267 sensors, 34
physico-chemical life support system, shade
264 movable, 37
physico-chemical system, 206, 213, sideward lighting system, 148, 161
265 single truss tomato production system
phytoremediation, 183 (STIPS), 71, 185
pigment, 125 soilless culture, 8, 248
plant growth model, 292 soilless systems, 106
plant production systems solar transmittance, 41
closed, 140, 143 space mission
plant spacing, 292 manned, 266, 321
plantlet spacing management, 292
micropropagated, 153 speaking plant approach, 306
quality, 153 steady-state, 34
plastic film, 123 analysis, 34
plug production, 183 structural transmittance, 39
Poisson's equation, 311 sugar, 154, 162
polyethylene film, 68 supplemental lighting, 36, 43, 72
pressure, 197, 233 supporting material, 156
air, 233, 280, 323 sweetpotato, 139, 142, 145
low, 249 systems abstraction, 179
total, 250, 281 systems analysis, 178
vapor, 283 ar.d integration, 172
probabilistic approach, 308
production scheme, 180 tap water, 89, 107
propagation, 195 task execution, 177
proportional control, 35 task planning, 177
pseudo-derivative feedback, 36 temperature, 33
psychology, 274 profile, 160
textural analysis, 308
quality plantlet, 153 texture-contex, 309
343
thermal control, 215 trickle irrigation system, 108

thermal conductance, 41
thermal environment, 33, 34, 44 uptake concentration, 85
thermal screen, 70 UV,125
thermal time constant, 34
3-D model, 178 vapor pressure, 283
Tichelmann system, 108, 116 vernalization, 21
time constant, 44
tip burn, 37, 286, 289 waste, 215, 266
tomato production, 68 processing, 194, 197,248
total pressure, 250, 281 recycling, 327
toxicitities, 88 system, 273
transient thermal analysis, 34 water, 189, 207, 264, 298
transmi ttance processing, 213
glazing, 39 quality, 86
solar, 41 vapor, 233
structural, 39 wet-oxidized solution, 327
transpiration, 233, 298, 324 world population, 139
rate, 213, 282
transplant, 139, 142, 145, 151
micro propagated, 145
production, 147
systems, 140, 147

Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems The International Symposium On Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems Held in Narita Japan August 26 29 1996 PDF

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Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems The International Symposium On Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems Held in Narita Japan August 26 29 1996 PDF

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PLANT PRODUCTION IN CLOSED ECOSYSTEMS

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

ISBN 978-90-481-4798-4 ISBN 978-94-015-8889-8 (eBook)

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

List of Contributors and Editors XI

Part A: GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY

Food Production in Greenhouses

Controlled Flowering of Herbaceous Perennial Plants 15

Greenhouse Thermal Environment and Light Control 33

R&D Research/Demonstration Greenhouse using Methane Gas from

Nutrient Management in Closed Growing Systems for Greenhouse Production 83

Monitoring and Control of Water and Nutrient Supply in Closed Growing

Recent Advances in Photoselective Films with Interference Effects 123

Recent Advances in Environment Control in Micropropagation 153

Part B: CELSS AND SPACE AGRICULTURE

Automation and Systems Analysis 171

Food Production in Space: Challenges and Perspectives 189

Concepts, Components, and Controls for a CELSS 205

Gas Turnover and Gas Conditions in Hermetically Closed Plant

CELSS Research: Interaction between Space and Terrestrial Approaches

BIOSPHERE 2: A Closed Bioregenerative Life Support System,

Environmental Control for Plant Production in Space CELSS 279

Optimal Structure of Plant Conveyor for Human Life Support

Growth Monitoring of Green Vegetables Cultured in a Centrifuge Phytotron 305

Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF) in Closed Ecology Experiment

Subject Index 339

Tokyo, October 1996

ABSTRACT. Growing greenhouse vegetables is one of the most exacting and

E. Goto et al. (eds.), Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 1-14.

If improper attention is given to the greenhouse structure and its environment, no

Table 1. Estimated world use of plastic greenhouses (1995).

4. Economics of Food Production in Greenhouses

Table 2. Yields of vegetable crops grown hydroponically in desert

Gross returns from greenhouse vegetables must be high. This is accomplished by

5. Structures and Environmental Control

6. ComputerslData Acquisition Systems

Today, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation throughout

computers will become increasingly popular in greenhouse agriculture. In developing

Table 3. Number of crop diseases

The principle disadvantages of hydroponics, relative to conventional open-field

7.1 LIQUID (NON AGGREGATE) HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS

7.1.3. Aeroponics. In an unusual application of closed system hydroponics, plants are

7.2 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS

8. Disease and Insect Control

9. The Future of Food Production in Greenhouses

There seems to be a kind of technological imperative driving development of

R.D. Heins, A.C. Cameron, W.H. Carlson, E. Runkle, C. Whitman, M. Yuan, C.

ABSTRACT. We have determined the juvenility, cold (vemalization), photoperiod, and

Plants traditionally have been divided into day-neutral, quantitative (facultative), or

In all cases, 4 hours oflow-intensity night-interruption lighting (10 foot-candles)

ID beneficial horticulturally. For these plants, the beneficial effect of LD is

ID not required (day-neutral plants). These plants bloom under LD or SD.

if : I < Isaturation then RI = bo+ bI I [2]

if : I > Isaturation then ~ = b2 + b3 I [3]

2.2 JUVENILITY ANO VERNALIZATION

Flowering of seed-propagated herbaceous perennials requires correct timing of

Cold treatment hastens or otherwise improves flowering. Plants in this group

3.1 THE ROLE OF TEMPERATURE IN FLOWERING

Although flower induction in most herbaceous perennials is controlled by cold and

3.2 PRODUCTION SCHEDULES

Table 1. Response of selected herbaceous perennials to long days (LD).

I. LD required (obligate LD plant)