Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vol. I by
Thomas M. Riddick
Zeta Potential represents a basic law of Nature, and it plays a vital role in all forms of plant
and animal life.
It is the force that maintains the discreteness of the billions of circulating cells, which
nourish the organism.
The stability of simple inorganic man–made systems is governed by these same laws.
The relevance and application of these principles is the subject of this book.
INTRODUCTION
My pulse "skipped a beat" about once every four to six beats. I did not
then, nor do I now, consider such malfunction is "not important"; or "within
normal limits." A PVC is very important to me. Any atypical beat is
important to me, and any malfunction* is distressing to me.
[ * I have discussed the importance of malfunctional heartbeats, which throw no blood
with a number of competent cardiologists and general practitioners. The ones I consulted
consider the PVC to be extremely important. However, I understand that some medical
men consider it unimportant. In my own field, we would not consider a malfunctioning
valve in a chemical feed pump as normal, nor would we view the periodic failure of an
electrical control device as unimportant. ]
Let me emphasize that I do not blame my physician for this state. While I
had long been under his general care and was considered "reasonably
healthy," there was nothing he could have done to forestall this
development, or even foresee it. After all, every day, often without warning
cardiologists and general practitioners die of heart disease in their 40's,
50's and 60's.*
[ * It seems significant that Representative John E. Fogarty of Rhode Island, who had
suffered a heart attack in 1953, literally devoted his life to raising funds for expanding the
cardiovascular research of the NIH. In 1966, in recognition of the extent of his recovery he
was decorated by President Johnson as the "Heart of the Year." He died January 13, 1967,
at the age of 53 of a heart attack. In 1965, the head cardiologist of a leading New York
hospital died at the age of 43; and the pathologist of the hospital that had long furnished
the writer with blood for research, died at the age of 45 — both from heart attacks. These
and many other such cases point to the actual paucity of definitive knowledge of
cardiovascular disease. ]
Strictly from a physical chemist's point of view, one may seriously question
the validity of the chemistry and the rationale presently being applied it
was intimately associated with morbidity and to the basic problems of
cardiovascular disease.
I was not then aware that Melvin Knisely and Edward Bloch (and
associates), more than ten years earlier, had explored intravascular
coagulation and "blood sludge" extensively. [ See Refs. 11-16 and 11-47. ] They
had shown it was widespread in human beings and could be induced in
test animals. They also revealed that, in extreme, it was intimately
associated with morbidity and death. After studying Knisely's reprints, I
realized that while I did not actually know these facts, I had long felt that
the conditions he described must exist.
I also resolved that I would attempt to solve this problem strictly within the
confines of my own field of professional competence, where I am duly
qualified and professionally licensed. For thirty years, I have headed my
own firm, as an Engineer and Chemist, engaged in the design, operation
and supervision of municipal and industrial Waterworks and Waste
Treatment Plants. Moreover, I have continuously operated a laboratory
devoted to research, as well as routine examinations of water.
A few stories of my father's practice and sense of humor are still alive after
sixty years. One of his first cases after medical school was a local woman
who had become demented with pain, and addicted to drugs. When he saw
her she was considered a "hopeless case" by the four local physicians,
who scoffed at my father's diagnosis of "tumor of the womb." And so, he
publicly stated that on a certain Wednesday at 3 o'clock he would remove
the tumor, and he predicted it would weigh over a pound. In his
announcement, he invited the four doctors to be present, and, under the
circumstances, they could not refuse. As it developed, the tumor weighed
almost two pounds. Over my mother's vigorous protestations, my father
had it brought in for the "appraisal and delectation" of his confreres on a
large platter intended for serving a roast suckling pig. Ultimately, the
woman recovered her senses and no longer required morphine. Three of
these physicians became my father's closest friends; one never spoke to
him again. Medicine has come a long way since then. But the dedicated
physicians of today are just as dedicated as they were then; they are just
harder to find. And of course, such professional rivalry no longer exists.
From the point of view of physical chemistry, the writer will now develop
the sequence of the cause, prevention and control of cardiovascular
disease as it presently appears.
As a country boy, I was impressed by the rapid transfer of liquid from the
stomach to the bladder in "watermelon season," and also the quick transfer
of asparagus. Later, I was further impressed by the even more rapid
transfer of beverage alcohol from the stomach to the blood–stream and
brain.
From 1825 to 1835, William Beaumont produced visual evidence that water
admitted to the stomach is always absorbed within a few minutes. This is
an interesting story and deserves retelling. On June 6, 1822, at Fort
Mackinac, Michigan (near the Canadian border), an incident occurred that
was to result in some of the most bizarre research ever recorded in medical
history. On that date, William Beaumont, a young surgeon with the U.S.
Army, treated Alexis St. Martin, an 18–year–old Canadian, for a shotgun–
blast at three–foot range. The charge entered just below the left breast,
tearing off a large portion of the side . . . . the ribs fractured and openings
were made into the cavities of the chest and abdomen (about 2½" diameter)
through which protruded portions of the lungs and stomach, much
lacerated and burnt." These openings healed peripherally, and were closed
internally by a "flap valve" of tissue (actually the inner coats of the
stomach), which could be readily pushed aside, enabling ready access and
direct view of the stomach.
St. Martin recovered and became the servant of Beaumont, who performed
innumerable digestion experiments on him for ten years, beginning May,
1825.* [ * Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of
Digestion — William Beaumont, M.D. — Original Edition 1833 — Dover Publications,
1959. ] For experiments in vitro, Beaumont would insert a tube through the
hole into the stomach several times each week, and draw off about 1½
ounces of "pure gastric juice." We quote Beaumont:
On pressing down the valve when the stomach is full, the contents flow out
copiously. When the stomach is nearly empty, and quiescent, the interior of
the cavity may be examined to the depth of five or six inches, if kept
distended by artificial means; and the food and drinks may be seen
entering it, if swallowed at this time, through the ring of the esophagus ...
water, ardent spirits, and most other fluids are not affected by the gastric
juice, but are passed from the stomach soon after they have been received.
Experiment 68. At 9 o'clock P.M. . . . St. Martin having eaten nothing since
2 o'clock, and feeling quite hungry, I put into the stomach, at the aperture,
eight ounces of beef and barley soup, introduced gently through a tube,
with a syringe, lukewarm. It caused no unpleasant sensation, but allayed
the sense of hunger. It satisfied the appetite; and he said he had no desire
to eat. At 10 o'clock, he said he felt a little hungry again, and ate eight
ounces more of the same kind of soup, which had a similar effect as the
other.
Experiment 71. At 1 o'clock P.M. . . . St. Martin complaining of being quite
hungry, I put into the stomach at the aperture, twelve raw oysters, more
than middling size. The sensation was allayed, and the appetite satisfied,
the same as if swallowed. He was not hungry again till half after 4 o'clock,
when he ate a dozen more of the same kind of oysters, with bread. At 10
o'clock P.M., stomach empty and clean. Weather damp and rainy. Wind N.E.
and brisk. Temperature of the stomach, 99½°.
A.M., he breakfasted on fresh broiled fish (Flounder), bread and coffee, and
kept exercising moderately. 11 o'clock, stomach half empty — pulp of
bread only appeared. 11 o'clock, 30 mins., particles of fish and bread still to
be seen in the stomach. 1 o'clock P.M., stomach entirely clear of food.
Temperature 101°.
Beaumont showed that gastric juice, either in situ or in a warmed test tube
will digest foodstuffs. In situ, digestion periods ranged from 1 to 4 hours,
depending upon the nature and maceration of the food. Average digestion
time was about 3 hours. He also showed that even the bone of a hog's rib
would be digested in 21 days.
St. Martin lived to an old age, and was buried in Canada in a grave eight
feet deep. Apparently he didn't want any further experimentation on his
stomach.
Now to return to the subject of the rapid absorption of liquids from the
stomach. It would seem that this absorption (surely in the case of alcohol)
is directly into the blood stream. Thus the blood is very slightly and
temporarily diluted (for a period of perhaps 10 to 30 minutes) each time we
drink liquids such as water, tea or coffee. These liquids carry a small intake
of mineral salts, but it is a very small percentage of our daily mineral
intake. Tap water usually has a range of 150 to 1,000 micromhos;*
[ * An eight–oz. glass of water contains 250 ml. At 1000 micromhos, it would be equivalent
to 0.12 grams of sodium chloride. Some physiologists hold that liquids such as water are
significantly increased in mineral salts before absorption to the blood stream. Beaumont
seems to have felt that water absorbed almost instantly, and that gastric juice was never
found in the stomach except when food was present. ]
milk (an exception to this rule) 5,000 to 6,000 micromhos; coffee and tea,
1,000 to 1,500 micromhos; beer, 1,700 to 2,500 micromhos. Alcoholic
beverages are low to virtually absent in mineral solids content. Foodstuffs
have a range that will be considered later in detail, but they represent a
mineral intake approximating 18 grams per day.
But the exactness of the figure is not too important here. They also state
that low–sodium diets restrict sodium to 585–780 mg/day— equivalent to
1.5–2.0 grams of sodium chloride per day.
TABLE NO. 24
Range Average
Elkinton and Danowski in The Body Fluids* [ * Ref. 12-8, p. 494. ] list data,
which the writer has rounded out, condensed, and used as a basis for
Table 24. These reflect the range of daily input and output for an average
male weighing 155 pounds.
In medical circles it has long been believed that too much "salt" was
conducive to a cardiovascular condition, and that if such condition was
evident, the diet should include much less salt; hence the so called "low
salt" or "salt–free" diets. From the standpoint of Physical Chemistry, the
writer could not agree more. It is perhaps a minor point, but the medical
profession singles out sodium chloride, (as contrasted with potassium
chloride or potassium sulphate) as being the offender. On this, the writer
cannot agree. Figures 19, Fig. 20, and Figs. 157 and 158 (pp. 232 and 233)
show that any electrolyte, regardless of type, will "salt out" substantially
any colloid system if carried to extreme. Therefore, in the writer's opinion,
excessive potassium chloride or sodium sulphate or potassium sulphate
would if present be substantially as harmful as sodium chloride. There
would be some difference in the three, but regardless of such difference, all
could (and would) be lethal if carried to extreme. But, as to the preference
between sodium and potassium, the writer has good evidence and agrees
with others who hold that potassium salts are much more favorably
received by the system than sodium.
In Ethiopia in 1943, there were two varieties of "native salt" neither of which
remotely resembled the sodium chloride we employ for human
consumption. One was the residue from evaporated Red Sea water,
produced commercially at Aden; the other was the residue from natural
evaporation of the Awash River as it flowed Eastward toward the sea.** [ **
The entire River "disappears" on the desert floor (due to evaporation) and forms a salt flat.
When the River flows off the escarpments at "normal humidity," it drops to an elevation 5
ft. above sea level, where humidity is only 5 to 15%. Natives gather the dried plates of
"salt," and barter them to desert people in North Africa. This residue was comparable in
mineral composition to that from a typical limestone water found, say, in New Jersey. Is
this salt (or perhaps lack of salt) associated with the fact that Yemenites, with a history of
freedom from cardiovascular disease, suddenly begin to acquire it when they move into
the metropolitan cities in Israel? ]
We list the composition of these two salts in Table No. 25, together with the
composition of human plasma.
TABLE NO. 25
Water from the
Typical Human
Constituents Awash River
Ocean Water Plasma
(approximate)
( Column 1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
MgS04 50 21.2
SiO2 5 2.1
KNO3 5 7.1
KBr 96 0.3
H3BO4 26 —
SrCl2 24 —
NaF 3 —
We now divert the reader's attention again to Fig. 19. As we have before
noted, "normal" human blood (freshly spun–out serum) has a Specific
Conductance approximating 12,000 micromhos, equivalent to 6,000 ppm of
NaCl.
That is to say, substitute a 1:2 type for a 1:1; or a 1:3 for a 1:2. Thus, if our
difficulty in intravascular coagulation lies in the simple condition of the
blood being "salted out" by too much 1:1 type electrolyte (plus the
presence of a low concentration of a 3:1 type), an answer would be to
decrease the 1:1. electrolyte, and eliminate the 3:1 type. This can be
accomplished in the human system by reducing our mineral intake
(employing a low–salt diet); and/or by drinking an increased amount of
water containing a 1:2 or 1:3 electrolyte. Whereas anionic electrolytes are
by nature dispersing, most municipal water supplies are by nature
"coagulating." **
[ ** Most natural waters in the United States principally contain Ca(HCO3)2 and MgS04. The
former is a 2:1 and the latter a 2:2 electrolyte. Compared with 1:1 or 1:2 or 1:3 electrolytes,
such waters are coagulating (rather than dispersing) in their effect. Moreover, lime is
employed extensively as a primary and secondary alkali in water treatment plants. The
writer does not believe that any calcium compounds should ever be employed at any
municipal waterworks, except for water softening, existing concepts notwithstanding.
In the April 23, 1960, issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association (Vol. 172,
pp. 1902–1908), Henry M. Schroeder, M.D., of West Brattleboro, Vermont, published an
article entitled "Relation Between Mortality From Cardiovascular Disease and Treated
Water Supplies." This was a rather abstract correlation of statistics, which indicated that
the incidence of cardiovascular disease lowers as the hardness of municipal water
increases. Schroeder closed with the statement that the data offered a "clue" to an
influence of environment on cardiovascular disease. Some have interpreted the paper as
an approval of calcium carbonate (which causes hardness) in water supplies. Although the
writer has the very highest regard for Dr. Schroeder's work, he cannot agree with this
thesis. The water supply for Roseto, Penna., the town with the lowest incidence of
cardiovascular disease in the United States, is the softest natural water in the U.S.A. (This
matter will be discussed in detail in Volume II.) ]
With regard to the size of molecules that will pass from the stomach into
the bloodstream, heparin, with a molecular weight approximating 17,000, is
not absorbed. This can mean that the molecular sieve (controlling this
absorption) will not pass a polymer of this size. On the other hand, there
seems to be no difficulty in absorbing molecules with a MW in the 1,000 to
2,000 range.
********
Again returning to the subject of blood electrolytes, although human blood
the world over tends to be constant in its physicochemical characteristics,
the writer firmly believes that there must be variations reflecting one's
intake of foodstuffs and liquids — and their attendant mineral salts. These
salts are, of course, very definitely reflected in the mineral constituents of
urine.
One will note from Table No. 24 that about half our water intake derives
from food. The other liter represents intake of water per se. Thus, to double
urine output requires only that we increase water input by about 1 liter. On
the water output side, note that about one–half largely represents breath
moisture, which remains constant. Thus, 1 liter per day of increased water
intake results in 1 liter per day of increased urine output — which halves
the dissolved mineral solids concentration of the urine, and reduces the
"percent increase" of electrolytes from 150% to 25%.
There are many hypotheses to account for the modus operandi through
which the kidney can convert blood electrolytes at 12,000 micromhos, to
urine at 24,000, 30,000 or even 36,000 micromhos. These values represent
concentration factors of 1:2, 1:2½ and 1:3, respectively. /Although the large
surface area of the kidney undoubtedly plays a prominent role in the
concentration of urine, present concepts may be greatly in error.
We spent a day discussing this matter with Drs. Wayne MacRae and Daniel
Brown of the Research Laboratories of Ionics, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., who
specialize in the. electrochemical aspects of ion transfer. They felt that
when unexplained ionic concentration (rather than dilution) was
encountered, one generally looked for high temperature, high pressure, or
an electrical gradient. Since there can be no high pressure or temperature
involved, it suggests that the electrical impulse produced with each
heartbeat (through inverse electroendosmosis) could be the driving force.
According to Drs. MacRae and Brown, the significant criterion is that 26.8
ampere hours per equivalent molecular weight are required for
concentration.
The principal electrolyte in blood is, of course, sodium chloride. But , when
incrementally applied, all the 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 electrolytes (in dilute
colloid systems) form a sequence. From Fig. 19 it is evident that the Zeta
Potential curve is driven to an electronegative peak; followed by a plateau;
followed by a reversal of direction; then "salting out." A colloid system
poised in the region of 6,000 ppm NaCl will tend to coagulate if the
electrolyte concentration is materially increased, but will tend to become
more disperse if the electrolyte concentration is decreased. It is also
evident that a system composed of at mixture of 1:1 and 1:2, or 1:1 and 1:3
electrolytes would be more disperse than a system consisting entirely of a
1:1 electrolyte. There seems little doubt that these physicochemical
relationships form the crux of the relief from intravascular coagulation.
With regard to blood electrolytes, both Selye* [ * Refs. 11-13,11-14 and 11-
15. ] and Bajusz* [ * Refs. 11-39, 11-40 and 11-41. ] have stressed that they play a
most important role in the overall picture of ischemia, infarction, necrosis,
and cardiovascular disease in general.
It seems probable to the writer that our kidneys were not designed to
operate routinely at an "overload" greater than about 25% to 50%. This
would place the desirable limit of Specific Conductance of urine at 15,000
to 18,000 micromhos. Indeed it is possible they were not designed for any
routine concentration. It can well be that the kidneys' ability to concentrate
urine was just an emergency safeguard — comparable to an airplane
operating at overload for takeoff.
It is also possible that through habits acquired over the past few decades
(or centuries), humans drink much less water than Nature intended. It
would be of interest to know the SC of the blood and urine of animals, but
this evaluation is impossible since domesticated animals (or wild animals
held in captivity) often eat foodstuffs (from cans) that are far removed from
their native diet.
It is obvious that tests of kidney function and mineral output are best made
on humans, instead of animals. This is because one can tell a human to
increase his water input, and readily verify this by a check on the SC of his
urine. Animals cannot be "told" to drink, and forced feeding produces
"stress" — which Selye has shown produces symptoms of cardiovascular
disease ranging from ischemia to necrosis.
It has long been known that the concentrations of electrolytes in the blood
are controlled, probably by the glandular systems and hormones. That is to
say, if one could go on a diet completely free of minerals, the blood would
recycle its electrolytes, and the mineral content of the urine would tend to
approach that of distilled water. However, the writer believes that the
servo–mechanisms of the body will tend to keep the electrolytes of the
blood at minimum, if the mineral input is low. The reverse is also true, but
in a slightly different sense. Our mineral input occurs principally at meals,
of which there are generally three in the first twelve–hour cycle — with
none in the second. Thus after a meal, the mineral input must "stack up" in
the blood system, awaiting its turn to be "pumped" to waste by the
kidneys. Modern man makes available to his kidneys a very limited supply
of water for dilution purposes. His kidneys, therefore, must operate almost
continuously at near their maximum concentrating capacity. This is highly
conducive to the maintenance of an abnormally high electrolyte
concentration in the blood, which is tantamount to "salting out" the blood
system.
TABLE NO. 26
Specific Specific
Concentration Concentration
Conductance Conductance
Factor by Kidney —
of Blood — of Urine —
Column 2/1 % increase in SC
in micromhos in micromhos
(1) (2) (3) (4)
The writer will now briefly review the basic facets of Zeta Potential that
seem most pertinent to blood stability, thus extending our concepts set
forth in Chapter 14. One is at once confronted with the fact that this is a
veritable jigsaw puzzle. But its apparent complexity is due largely to the
condition that one of the major "pieces" is missing. Actually, Zeta
Potential, determinations of blood in its natural liquid state (in situ) would
be of the greatest aid in ascertaining just "how" and "why" the system
works. But unfortunately, there are no worthwhile ZP determinations
extant.* [ * There is a plethora of Zeta Potential determinations made in phosphate buffer
solutions and the like. The writer does not consider them really indicative of the ZP of a
specific system, as it exists in situ. But he will accept the prevalent ZP value of –17 mv as
usable. ] And this situation will prevail, until someone learns to arrest
(without use of chemicals in vivo or in vitro), the triggering mechanism that
induces blood coagulation. This is, and has long been, the missing piece of
the jigsaw puzzle. Elucidation of this mechanism will require meticulous,
unhurried research, with the highest order of cooperation from all
participating agencies and individuals. In this connection, my experience
with the Red Cross taught me much. And I shall not make this attempt
again unless I definitely have such cooperation. There is no urgency from
my standpoint. But one would think there would be urgency from the
standpoint of 975,000** persons in this country scheduled to die this year
of cardiovascular disease — unless more effective steps are taken to
alleviate this condition.
[ ** All statistical references in this book to cardiovascular disease are from the brochure
"Cardiovascular Diseases in the U.S.— Facts and Figures." This was published in 1965 by
the American Heart Association in cooperation with the NHI and the Heart Disease Control
Program of the PHSU.S. Dept. of HEW. ]
But despite the missing piece of the puzzle, the coagulation of blood does
not seem awe–inspiring, ultra–complex, or truly difficult. It is difficult only
to the extent that say electronics and radio were difficult prior to the
vacuum tube of DeForest.
3.) This leaves albumin and fibrinogen,* [ * It should be noted that from the
standpoint of electrophoretic mobility, fibrinogen is spaced in the series of plasma
proteins between beta and gamma globulin. ]
[ SPECIAL NOTE: — Certain brands of 25% albumin contain aluminum levels within the
toxic range. ]
both of which appear to play key roles in blood stability. Under normal
circumstances of blood flow, albumin (a lyophillic colloid with a MW of
69,000) probably exercises major control. But when the integrity of the
organism is threatened through loss of "shed" blood, fibrinogen
completely overrides albumin and produces a fluid gel in about five
minutes — a rigid gel in ten. (See the sketch of a gel, Fig. 161, p. 238.)
4.) The blood system is one of "reasonably rigid" balance. As are all of
Nature's systems, it is poised just slightly on the side of discrete (but
definite) stability.
6.) The blood electrolytes (considered simply as say sodium and potassium
chloride and bicarbonate; and potassium, calcium and magnesium
sulphate and phosphate) adsorb on, and control the stability of the
albumin.
7.) The albumin (in turn) adsorbs on, and controls the stability of all the
formed elements. It also adsorbs on, and renders significantly
electronegative, the walls of the vascular system.
9.) Stability (of the blood) is "locked in place" to a high degree by pH, to
which the albumin (but not the electrolytes) is quite sensitive. (See Figs.
110, 118 and 121, pp. 150, 159 and 163.)
12.) Calcium and thrombin are particularly and specifically adapted to the
lowering of Zeta Potential, which results in the coagulation of blood.
However, there are many cationic electrolytes and/or polyelectrolytes,
which will (if injected hypodermically) also produce massive coagulation in
situ.
13.) We will assume that the ZP of, the red cell in its "normal" state (in situ)
approximates –17 mv (an EM of –1.31 microns/sec per v/cm*). [ * This value
is of course quite veritable for red blood cells in a phosphate buffer solution. It was
established more than thirty years ago by Abramson. See Ref. 4-6. ]
Thus we have a stable, fluid system at constant temperature and pH.
Moreover, the system is continuously in motion, hence thixotropy must be
an aid in maintaining the fluidity of the system.
So long as the Zeta Potential of the system remains constant, the fluidity
(viscosity) of the system will also remain constant. But if the ZP of the
system is progressively lowered by the introduction of cationic electrolytes
or polyelectrolytes, then the stability of the system will undergo
progressive changes — from simple agglomeration to fluid gel formation —
and finally to a rigid gel.
TABLE NO. 27
Numerical "Grade" "Degree" of IVC Probable ZP of Red
(arbitrary) (Observed in Sclera) Blood Cells (in situ)
0 Absent –17
1 Slight –16
2 Moderate –15
3 Significant –14
4 Heavy –13
b.) A discharge (or release) into the system of a relatively strong cationic
polyelectrolyte.
One cannot exclude as suspect, the presence in the drinking water (of
some cities) of colloidal aluminum hydrate.** [ ** I once selected ten cities with
the highest incidence, and ten cities with the lowest incidence of cardiovascular disease in
the United States. I then asked the general manager of one of our major waterworks to
collect samples from them, and determine their free aluminum content. I suggested that he
send duplicate samples to Dr. Henry Schroeder and to me, for our laboratory appraisal.
Although the manager is a past president of the American Water Works Association, and
is on their Board of Directors, I was unable to elicit any interest on his part. Apparently
nobody wants to "rock the boat." I therefore just let the matter drop. These statistics,
however, could be interesting. ]
This is from improper and inadequate flocculation of raw water. The
concentration would be persistent, but not high. Nor can one exclude the
"excessive" use of beverage alcohol, because it can be proved visually
with the Sclerascope that 8 ounces of 90 proof spirits will induce
significant intravascular coagulation (see Fig. 168, p. 247).
But even if these forces were combined, they are not sufficient to produce
Grade 8 or Grade 10. These higher grades result solely from the release
into the system of a cationic polyelectrolyte. There is the greatest
probability that this polyelectrolyte exists in (or on) the platelet, and that it
is simply "expressed" into the system "when the need arises." The writer
has been able to prove the existence of this polyelectrolyte (by appropriate
Zeta Potential techniques) for the past nine years. It is, of course, the
thrombin and/or prothrombin — so thoroughly investigated by Walter
Seegers. It has been known, and named and renamed dozens of times by
hundreds of investigators in the medical field.
a.) The platelets are formed in the bone marrow in large cells —
megakaryocytes.
b.) In due time the megakaryocytes rupture, releasing the platelets into the
bloodstream where their concentration approximates 250,000 per cubic
millimeter.
c.) Upon the release of blood from the vascular system to an exterior
surface, the platelets (in some manner) rupture, and release some type of
reagent to the system. This "contact factor" is considered to be the
"triggering" mechanism.
f.) The thrombin (in the presence of an appropriate amount of calcium) then
combines with the fibrinogen (another inactive precursor) to form fibrin —
the polymer Which enmeshes the water of the blood and forms a rigid gel.
The writer sees no need for any "enzyme action" unless the change in Zeta
Potential, due to the platelet discharging a cationic polyelectrolyte to the
system, can be so termed. From the writer's point of view, one only clutters
the picture with concepts of thromboplastinogen, thromboplastin,
prothrombin, and enzyme action. The simple concept of Zeta Potential,
wherein a cationic polyelectrolyte is contained in and released by the
platelet to the system, is ample to account for the gelation noted.
Neither can the writer consider that heparin is connected with or related to
enzyme action — existing concepts notwithstanding. If we consider that
heparin involves enzyme action, then we must also consider that laundry
detergents are effective because of "enzyme action."
One more pertinent and unanswered question: "Does the platelet ever
undergo a slow leak into the system?" And is this a major cause of
intravascular coagulation and cardiovascular disease?
When time becomes available, the writer plans to work briefly with Frank
van den Bosch of Cedar Grove, N. J., whose ultraviolet microscope** is
now set up at Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn. [ ** This microscope
projects an image on a fine–lined TV screen. Magnification of 6,000 to 30,OOO X is
possible, and no desiccation is required. Therefore, it is well adapted to viewing and
photographing highly motile microorganisms — and blood cells. ]
If we are successful in overcoming some limitations of time, dilution and
tonicity, the writer believes it is possible we may be able to actually see the
platelet exude its liquid to the system.
In selecting an optical system, one might at first assume that the higher the
overall magnifying power — the better the view of the blood vessel. This is
not the case. Available with American Optical Company's equipment are six
"fixed" objectives (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 & 8X), and two eyepieces (15X & 2OX). As the
magnification of the objective is increased, the "depth of sharp focus"
becomes thinner. This situation is worsened by the natural curvature of the
eye, and inability of the person under study to remain motionless during
the examination. These considerations rule out use of the 6X and 8X
objectives, leaving only the 1, 2, 3 and 4X. Since the nosepiece of the
microscope will accommodate only three objectives, one of these must be
excluded.
The writer has worked for long periods with 1–2–3X, and 2–3–4X, and 1–3–
4X objectives, using both 15 and 20X eyepieces. The 1–2–3X combination
with 20X eyepieces, has proved the most satisfactory. This of course gives
overall magnifications of 20, 40 and 6OX. These considerations are of
prime importance because proper evaluation of the "degree of
intravascular coagulation" depends, to a large extent, upon how clearly and
definitively one can see the flow of blood in the arterioles and venules. It
should be stressed that the microscope must be carefully aligned,
particularly with regard to collimation.
In viewing the "white" of the eye, one first sees the bulbar conjunctiva —
the thin, opaque mucous membrane covering the anterior portion of the
globe of the eye. This membrane is heavily laced with blood vessels, which
are readily viewed with the microscope. The sclera, the firm fibrous outer
layer of the eyeball, is covered by the conjunctiva. It is likewise heavily
laced with visible blood vessels, but because of their position (to the rear)
they do not stand out as plainly as those in the conjunctiva. Hence the flow
of blood in the sclera is somewhat less visible than in the conjunctiva.
After selecting the critical vessel (or vessels) with the 1X objective,
confirmation and further study is made with the 2X objective. The 3X
objective is then employed for obtaining an enlarged and more detailed
view of the vessels under examination. An overall magnification of 6OX is
necessary for this final evaluation. Consequently ophthalmic microscopes
having a maximum magnification of 3OX are generally unsuitable.
One should examine both the conjunctiva and the sclera. The blood
vessels of the conjunctiva stand out clearer and are therefore more easily
studied. One will note, however, that "clumping" is often more pronounced
in the sclera than in the conjunctiva. This is because frequent blinking of
the eye during an examination tends to mechanically break up
agglomerates and clumped cells in the conjunctiva. The vessels of the
sclera are not affected by blinking.
AGGLOMERATION
Agglomeration is the condition when blood has partially lost its "fluidity,"
and cells flow in rope or chain–like fashion as though one cell was joined
to another. (This is not to be confused with rouleau formation.) The normal
"turbulent" flow appears to change, as the individual cells lose their
"discrete" mobility. This is undoubtedly brought about by a lowering of
Zeta Potential, which results in the formed elements becoming individually
enmeshed in the first stages of a "fluid gel." One may also hypothesize that
discrete strands of fibrin have formed to sufficient length to encapsulate
the red cells and loosely bind one cell to
another. This "cohesiveness" imparts a "rope–
like" tendency to the flow pattern, with each
cell closely following the path of the preceding
one. One might classify the physical
appearance of this blood flow as "coarsely
granular." This "rope–like" flow is in sharp
contrast to "turbulent flow" — wherein each cell stands out boldly and
seems to change its position continually in the general flow pattern.
STASIS
Arteries and arterioles can be distinguished from veins and venules in the
sclera and conjunctiva. Arteries branch and flow to the (smaller) arterioles,
single file only. With clumping, each cluster of cells which in turn branch
and flow to the (smaller) capillaries. Thus, the direction of flow follows the
branching.
Veins and venules show the opposite pattern. Capillaries flow to the
(larger) venules; venules to the (larger) veins. The direction of flow is,
therefore, counter to the direction of branching.
• Partial stasis (an abnormal state in which the normal flow of a liquid
(such as blood) is slowed or stopped
• inactivity resulting from a static balance between opposing forces)
CLUMPING
The term "clumping" is used when cells adhere to each other, forming
individual groups of about 5 to 100. In reality, this is a worsening of the
condition previously referred to as "agglomeration." Clumps may be found
in arteries, veins, arterioles and venules. They are not evident in capillaries,
where the small diameter permits red cells to traverse in single file only.
With clumping, each cluster of cells is separated from its adjacent group by
a "cylinder" of clear plasma. The length of these clumps is generally two to
five times the diameter of the venule or arteriole. Conversely, the length of
the clear cylinder is more often one to two times the diameter of the lumen,
as shown in the drawing.
SEDIMENTATION OF CELLS
1 Some comets.
TABLE NO. 28
GRADES AND DEGREES OF INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION
Noticeable in Noticeable in
4 Heavy — — Absent
some vessels some vessels
Pronounced Pronounced
5 Very Heavy — — in some in many Absent
vessels vessels
Pronounced
Heavy in Noticeable in a
6 Terminal — — in many
many vessels few vessels
vessels
Forty to fifty percent of the persons in the age bracket of 25 to 65 who were
examined by the writer have shown Grade 3 or higher. One male (age 75)
with Grade 5 coagulation, died shortly after being forced to climb two
flights of stairs during the New York City electric power blackout
(November 1965). Another male (age 63) with a known but inoperable tumor
of the pancreas was classified Grade 5. He died of cancer two months later.
The examination of the sclera and bulbar conjunctiva with the horizontally–
aimed microscope is highly essential to the evaluation of intravascular
coagulation. There is every evidence that IVC is closely allied to the
physicochemical manifestation of cardiovascular disease.
Minor illness (such as head colds
or "two–day virus") will, in 24
hours, increase an IVC grade of 0–
1 to Grade 3, and occasionally to
Grade 4. It is probable that
substantially all persons who are
gravely ill with a disease caused
by a microorganism will show a degree of Grade 4 to Grade 5. Indications
are that there is some increase in IVC during the menstrual period; and that
high blood pressure (through vasoconstriction) has a tendency to mask
intravascular coagulation.
The gravitational separation of plasma, white cells and red cells. Note that some of the
white cells are in clumps.
Diagram of rather rigid, elastic masses of agglutinated red cells coming down a stem
arteriole and passing out through terminal arterioles. At the upper left, the wall of the stem
arteriole resists distention sufficiently so that as each mass passes through it, the mass is
forced to distort toward fitting the internal form of the artery. As each mass passes down
into the terminal arteriole, it arrives at a point at which the force exerted by the thin–walled
terminal arterioze is considerably less than the
force exerted by the thicker–walled stem arteriole.
Each mass then rounds up by means of its own
internal elasticity and approaches a spherical form.
Note the three masses farthest out in the portrayed
vessels. It is not at all uncommon to observe
masses going through these reactions as they pass
through the terminal arterioles and pre–capillary
arterioles of the bulbar conjunctiva of diseased
humans. The significant point here is that the masses
have internal elasticity and return toward a spherical
form as they pass into the soft–walled vessels.
Diagram of soft plastic masses passing down an arteriole into terminal arterioles. Note
that these masses, unlike those shown in photo to the left, do not round up again as they
pass into the narrow soft–walled vessels. These masses are undergoing a plastic
deformation.
Cinetracing of a small vein containing. white blood cells in 3 separate types of location;
stuck to the wall of the vessel, as described by E. R. and E. L. Clark, entrapped between
large masses of settled, stationary erythrocytes located on the bottom of the vessel, and
carried freely suspended in the supernatant horizontally moving plasma.
Gravitational separation of settled red–cell masses from suspended circulating white cells.
One significant consequence is that any white cell carried along in the flowing supernatant
plasma cannot come in contact with, hence cannot ingest, a bacterium deep within the
settled stationary blood–cell masses (cinetracing).
Same artery as shown in figure on page 268, seen at a later time. The flow shown here was
almost quantitatively separating cell–free plasma from blood cells with just enough
plasma between them to lubricate their mutually opposing surfaces and thereby permit
forward motion.
Note that the capillaries of the system are partly obstructed. There were short segments of
capillaries in true stasis. This is a most significant phenomenon.
THE REGIMEN
TABLE NO. 29
COMPOSITION OF SPECIALLY PREPARED WATER WITH DISPERSING CHARACTERISTICS
Sodium
5 14NaPO3 • Na2O 1490 1:3(Eqv.) 0.67
Hexametaphosphate
Reagent dosages for our group are always adjusted upon the basis of
sclerascopic examinations and electrocardiograms. The periodicity of
these examinations is geared to meet changing situations. It may vary from
as few as one every two months, to bi–weekly.
4.) The 1–3 electrolytes are considerably more effective than the 1:2. This,
of course, agrees with all basic concepts of Zeta Potential.
6.) In instances where PVC's were initially found, a reduction in the Grade
of IVC has always been accompanied by a reduction in the percentage of
PVC'S. Where a Grade of IVC of 3+ to 4 is found, it is often difficult to lower
this to a Grade less than 2. Lowering to Grade 1 is sometimes possible —
but it requires meticulous adherence to the formula, and smoking and
alcoholic beverages must be held to a minimum. We consider that
avoidance of aluminum is mandatory.
7.) Indications are that time is of the essence in correcting a PVC. The
longer the duration and the higher the percentage of PVC'S, the more
difficult is the correction. The sooner remedial steps are taken after PVC's
are discovered, the simpler the task and more certain the recovery.
9.) Under our Regimen, the rate of reduction of PVC's generally forms a
pattern. Usually it is a reduction of malfunctional beats from say 30 to 15 to
7 to 4 to 2 to 1% in about 2½ months. Such reductions sometimes occur in
less than half this time. With very difficult situations, the pattern may level
off in the 1 to 5 or even 5 to 10% range.
11.) When PVC's are found in the 1 to 5% range, with no dual malfunctions,
control can often be effected with 1:2 electrolytes such as potassium
sulphate. More difficult situations require 1:3 (Or equivalent) electrolytes.
12.) If one abstains from the Regimen for a period of 24 to 48 hours, the
Grade of the IVC and the percentage of PVC's may increase appreciably. In
this respect, the Regimen is quite comparable to heparin.
14.) None of our group now employs aluminum cookware of any sort, or
partakes of foodstuffs that are known to have been in contact with
aluminum.
15.) It seems necessary to maintain this Regimen daily, and for "life." In
this respect, it is similar to heparin or eyeglasses. Thus far, in only one
instance has an individual been able to discontinue the Regimen without
any resumption of PVC'S.
16.) The SC of one's urine can be kept in the range of 8,000 to 16,000
micromhos until noon if one drinks 2½ glasses of the Regimen water
before, during, or immediately after breakfast.
17.) We agree with those who stress the need for a low–fat, low–calorie
diet.
23.) Distilling water each week in the home, preparing solutions, and
drinking four to six glasses a day at home or at the office — wherever you
are — is something of a chore. But to the writer (and others on this
Regimen) it seems preferable to having a hypodermic injection twice a day
for life — or dying of heart disease.
24.) We have noted no untoward side effects from the daily ingestion of 1.5
grams of the reagents listed in Table 29. Any of the electrolytes taken
internally at a dosage of 10 to 20 grams would have a pronounced laxative
effect. In fact, magnesium citrate is widely employed as a laxative. At 1.0
gram per liter, one cannot detect any taste of the reagent in distilled water.
25.) For obvious reasons, stills with block tin (not aluminum) condensers
should be employed.
[ Tin can also quickly become toxic in the human system. Stainless steel or lead–free
glass are the only truly safe materials that should be used. Reverse Osmosis units are
now available for homes, and provide an energy efficient alternative. — TRC — ]
For the small user, distilled water is preferable to deionized. Deionizers are
suitable for large, well–supervised installations, but they are not
recommended for small users because of possible bacterial growths.
26.) It is not possible in one's daily life to always maintain urine at SC less
than 15,000 or 18,000 micromhos. But this Regimen should be maintained
as far as possible.
It should be noted that even the most effective 1:3 electrolytes we have
employed thus far are barely capable of controlling the "really difficult"
PVC of long standing. This balance is so delicate that the dosage should be
carefully adjusted by frequent electrocardiograms and examinations of the
sclera.
It is believed that safe reagents can be found which will have more
pronounced electronegative effects on human albumin than the
electrolytes we have thus far employed. This is a long and tedious job of
reagent screening. Actually, the gastric juice brings all ingested foodstuffs
to a pH range of 1 to 3. Therefore, test reagents should also be acidified to
say pH 1.5, then elevated to pH 7.4–8.4 with caustic soda. It is quite
possible that some reagents would lose their dispersing power at a pH of
1.5, and fail to regain it when the pH is subsequently raised.
Now expand this concept further to the basic work of Schulze and Hardy,
von Helmholtz, et al. From mono–, to di–, to trivalent cations, our ratio
progresses as 1:15:600. Thus if we have a certain coagulating power from
3,000 ppm of sodium, we can double it by as small a quantity as 200 ppm of
calcium or 5 ppm of aluminum. These enormous changes in stability can
occur without noticeable changes in Specific Conductance. And so, at
12,000 micromhos, one can obtain no greater accuracy than ±100
micromhos. A change of this magnitude for a 1:1 electrolyte would be
insignificant. But such a change in SC due to CaCl2 would be considerable;
and due to AlCl3 overwhehning.
The writer does not wish to belabor the Point, but he feels strongly that
"trivalent cations," and "salting out" play by far the most important role in
the overall problem of blood stability and cardiovascular disease. Up to the
present, these aspects have been totally ignored by those who control our
food and beverage processing.
But to return to the kidney. With the limited amount of water available to
the kidneys each day (under our present habits of water intake), this
requires a concentration gradient from blood to urine (as we have
previously noted) of 1:2 or 1:3, i.e. 12,000 to 24,000 or to 36,000 micromhos.
Apparently, this represents an overload for which the kidneys were not
designed. it is difficult to establish even approximately when this overload
began — or its extent.
We can only surmise that this increased use of mineral salts in foodstuffs
began in this country about the turn of the century. (Actually, it could have
been decades to centuries before.) For many years, the writer has felt that a
simple comparison between the SC of freshly–spun blood serum from
patients on a coronary ward, and a group of non–coronary patients, would
be enlightening. We have no real standards for the SC of blood; and even
Albritton's values may not be too representative. A most informative
experiment would be to place a small group of persons on a mineral salt
intake of, say, 5 grams total (equivalent NaCl), and plot the lowering and
leveling off of SC in the blood and urine. We may never ascertain when our
overload of "salts" began, but it is an inescapable fact that this overload is
the direct result of failure on the part of those concerned with nutrition and
food processing to recognize that excessive electrolytes will "salt out"
substantially any colloid system** — including the blood system.
[ ** With proper technique and a suitable microscope, this statement can be verified with
dozens of systems. ]
Our Fig. 167 (p. 245) shows that ovalbumin provides a tremendous bulwark
against coagulation by strong cationic electrolytes such as AlCl3. It seems
likely that human albumin performs the same function, and in similar
manner. But apparently at age 45 to 65, this bulwark is sufficiently
overridden* to permit serious intravascular coagulation. [ * The detail
mechanism through which "resistance to coagulation" is lost, should be investigated
thoroughly. Once this resistance is lost, it apparently cannot be regained. ]
Doubtless this progression is: ischemia, cardiac infarction — and, in the
extreme, necrosis. One cannot fail to be impressed by the findings of Selye
and Bajusz on this subject.
With regard to the rhythm of the heart, we quote from Burton's Physiology
and Biophysics of the Circulation (Ref. 11-28):
Figure 184, from the Bayne–Jones paper of 1917 ("Blood Vessels of the Heart Valves" —
American journal of Anatomy, 21, 449) shows the tremendous vascular structure of a
human mitral valve. It would seem that blood in a fluid (rather than agglomerated) state
would be able to impart tone and flexibility to this valve, thus aiding in its proper closing
and seating. It should be noted that there has been much disagreement over a long period
as to whether or not the valves of the heart contain a vascular system.
Figure 184 pictures the elegant drawing by Max Brödel. Johns Hopkins Medical School
kindly loaned us the original for this reproduction. It is a composite made from photo-
graphs of dye–perfused mitral valves from 14 autopsies.
p. 375) That the consumption of canned foods increased in the U.S.A. from
one billion 500 million cans (20 cans per person) in 1900, to 23 billion cans
in 1955 (140 cans per person).
p. 381) That according to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, aluminum
foils and other aluminum containers are ideal (!)
p. 399) That the lethal oral dosage of aluminum acetate for test animals is 5
to 15 g/kg; and aluminum chloride, 1 to 3 g/kg.
P. 404) That acute and even fatal poisoning of test animals can result from
subcutaneous injection of aluminum sulphate (100 mg/kg).
The report closes (p. 415) with a statement to the effect that the public and
the producer need have no concern about the hazards to public health from
widespread usage of aluminum products. They not only felt sanguine about
the situation now, but saw no change in the future.**
[ ** The writer does not question the sincerity of this report, but he seriously questions its
factuality and believes that it should be reappraised. It should be recalled that prior to the
findings of Walter Reed and others, the role of the mosquito was not properly
recognized. ]
a.) The lethal subcutaneous dosage of aluminum chloride for test animals
approximates 73 mg/kg.
b.) The lethal oral dosage of aluminum chloride (for test animals)
approximates 1,000 to 3,000 mg/kg.
c.) Aluminum hydroxide is soluble in HCl at pH values less than 4.
d.) The oral dosage of aluminum hydroxide, that can be taken as an antacid
with apparent safety is as high as 2.07 grams per day of aluminum, which
is equivalent to 18.5 grams/day of aluminum chloride.
3. One more approach: In the past, many serious scientists must have
wondered how the human body can ingest up to 18.5 grams of (equivalent)
aluminum chloride and not be killed immediately. We believe that our Zeta
Potential curves do much to answer two basic questions: First, why does
only 2.4 to 7.3% of ingested aluminum chloride pass from the stomach to
the bloodstream? And second, what is the real resistance of the blood to
coagulation by a 3:1 electrolyte, In Chapters 8 and 10 (pp. 25 and 32), and
onFigs. 25 and 26 (pp. 34 and 37), we showed that the applied reagent must
be considered in two parts: that which remains in the bulk and forces the
adsorption; and that which is then adsorbed on the colloid. The passage of
aluminum chloride from the stomach to the bloodstream must represent
that which remains in the bulk — hence is free and available for this
absorption. The major portion (92.7 to 97.6%) must adsorb on the colloids
in the stomach and in the small intestine, and in particular on the villi
protruding from the walls of the small intestine, which are known to have a
tremendous surface area. But we again note the importance of the
condition that the daily absorption of aluminum from the stomach into the
bloodstream is undoubtedly limited to the quantity of aluminum chloride
that can be produced in the stomach over a period of 24 hours. This
production is due, of course, to the reaction of aluminum hydroxide with
the (natural) hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice.
Our Figure 167 (p. 245) indicates that albumin (or an albumin–like protein)
is the real bulwark against coagulation of the blood. In the presence of
3.2% albumin, the dosage of aluminum chloride required for this
coagulation was between 1,000 and 2,000 ppm (say 1,500 or 1.5
grams/liter). If we assume that our aforementioned 82 kg individual would
have 6 liters of blood, then his albumin would require 6 X 1.5 = 9 grams of
aluminum chloride to coagulate. This value checks very closely with the 6.0
grams (82 x 72 ÷ 1,000) set forth by Kettering. We are not attempting to
make aluminum the "whipping boy" for heart disease, but we believe that
its apparent position in the overall picture of blood coagulation should be
made clear. And all the suspected causative factors must be explored if the
answer is to be found why 975,000 persons die yearly of cardiovascular
disease.
It is unlikely that within the foreseeable future, one will be able to state
definitely, why cardiovascular disease becomes lethal principally in one's
50's and 60's. Why don't more succumb in their 20's and 30's? Surely, the
basic causes are there.
The answers would seem to lie along one or more of the following
speculative hypotheses. By the time, we have reached the age of 50 to 60:
4.) Platelets have become "leaky" and discharge small amounts of their
cationic polyelectrolyte into the system.
When one tries to go further than this, one encounters the still greater
enigma of why all plant and animal life "grows old."
We repeat that the Kettering Laboratory and the FDA should reexamine
their concepts in the light of Zeta Potential. In October 1966, we brought
these facets to the attention of the head of the New York office of the
Aluminum Association, who spent the day with us at our laboratory in
discussing these matters. We also took up this matter with certain other
officials in the aluminum field.
1.) The dollar value of food additives increased from 172 million dollars in
1955, to 285 million dollars in 1965, a gain of 66%. Food additives rose from
419 million pounds in 1955, to 661 million pounds in 1965. This is
equivalent to 3.4 pounds / person / year, or 4.2 grams / person / day. (This
does not include such items as sodium chloride.)
2.) The food industry is the largest single industry in the country. It is the
maximum item of the family budget. Retail sales amounted to
approximately 80 billion dollars in 1966.
3.) The public is becoming increasingly interested in more sophisticated,
flavorful and exotic foods — less bland and more "highly formulated."
5.) The laws of the Food and Drug Administration do not apply to certain
additives that, because of years of widespread use in foods, are "Generally
Recognized As Safe" by experts in the field. This category, abbreviated as
GRAS, includes: salt, pepper, cinnamon, baking powder, citric acid,
monosodium glutamate, mono– and diglycerides, and about 575 other
materials. (The September 1964 issue of Food Technology [pp. 131-134]
lists under the classification of GRAS: vinegar, salt, sugar, aluminum
ammonium sulphate, aluminum sodium sulphate, aluminum potassium
sulphate, calcium citrate, calcium phosphate, citric acid, potassium
bicarbonate, potassium citrate, sodium acetate, sodium aluminum
phosphate, sodium citrate, aluminum sulphate, papain, sodium phosphate,
sodium tripolyphosphate. The list under the classification of "Additives"
with stated tolerance and/or "restrictions" includes: sodium
hexametaphosphate; sodium metaphosphate; sodium phosphate; mono–,
di–, and trisodium pyrophosphate; sodium tetrapyrophosphate.)
6.) Chemical and Engineering News notes that "on the basis of somewhat
tortured reasoning," these GRAS substances are not even considered food
additives under the terms of the Food Additives Amendment.
7.) As of June 1966, about 2,430 food additives (not including GRAS
additives) were subject to FDA regulations.
20,000 7,900
2,5,000 9,900
30,000 11,800
35,000 13,700
These figures may not impress the reader, but we doubt that many
anthropologists would be surprised at the failure of the kidney and heart
under these circumstances.
TABLE NO. 31
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE AND pH OF CANNED v.s. FRESH VEGETABLES AND FRUITS *
Average — — 3,600 — — —
[ * Note that the SC of fresh vegetables averaged about 7,500 micromhos, and fresh fruit
about 3,600. It is obvious that a person substituting fruits for vegetables would halve his
mineral solids input. In this connection, it would also seem probable that produce from
"organic" gardening would be lower in mineral solids than produce raised with
conventional fertilizers. ]
PREVENTION
Unfortunately at the present time, the individual does not become fully
aware of CVD until he has experienced some sort of attack — such as
severe angina or paroxysmal tachycardia — and of course at this stage, the
proper time to institute preventive measures has long since passed. In the
writer's opinion, realistic, large–scale prevention can be readily effected —
but only through appropriate Food & Drug Administration regulations.
Only a few would be necessary and I list them as a "public service." (But I
suspect there is little likelihood they will be employed.)
2.) All beverages, including milk, should be similarly coded — with the
green, yellow and red criteria representing actual SC values of: zero to 750;
750 to 1,500; and over 1,500 micromhos, respectively.
3.) The label on all foodstuffs and beverages should show (in micromhos)
the initial SC, and the final processed SC.
4.) The release of metallic ions from "cans," and from vessels employed in
food and beverage packaging, should be controlled by more effective
linings and coatings. When empty food containers are thoroughly cleaned
and filled with distilled water, and kept under agitation at room
temperature, the allowable rise in the SC of this distilled water should be
limited to not more than 2 micromhos per day, 10 micromhos in 5 days, or
20 micromhos in 30 days.*
[ * Figure 185 shows the rise in Specific Conductance of distilled water added to the ten
cans containing the eight vegetables and two fruits shown on Table No. 31. Also shown is
an aluminum beverage can. We assume that conductivity is caused by metallic ions, but of
course, their nature should be determined by a spectographic analysis. ]
The concentration of the cation in the distilled water after standing 5 days
at room temperature should not exceed 3 ppm when analyzed by
spectrographic or other approved methods.
5.) No utensils for the preparation, handling or storage of food that permit
trivalent cations to be discharged to the foodstuff should be manufactured,
employed or offered for sale. The standards set forth in item 4 (above)
should apply.
In the light of our overall findings, we believe that all existing food
additives should be re–screened with respect to Zeta Potential. All
additives with dangerous cationic properties should be prohibited — now
and in the future.
CONTROL
(As previously noted, deionizers are preferred for the removal of mineral
salts from large volumes of water. They are not recommended for home
use because of the possibility of undetected bacterial contamination.) The
individual would thus be free to prepare a water containing a proper
dispersing agent for drinking use.
There should be mobile cardiological laboratories in every city in the
country where one could, without appointment, have a quick examination
and grading of his sclera. We have never observed malfunctional beats at
Grade 2 IVC. At Grade 3, malfunctions are sometimes observed, but in the
order of only 1 to 5%. At Grade 4 or 5, malfunctions in the range of 10 to
30% — or even higher — are not uncommon. Therefore, control should be
instituted at Grade 2. In these mobile laboratories, one should also be able
to have his ECG monitored for malfunctional beats.
These are realistic steps that could be taken. In the writer's view there is,
unfortunately, no probability of any meaningful program to control
cardiovascular disease on a national level in the foreseeable future. Thus,
those persons involved who are genuinely concerned, must face the
problem individually.
The writer is a research chemist and does not prescribe. This is left to
one's physician. But I feel no reluctance in setting forth and sharing with
any interested party or group my personal experience and the considerable
information that has become available through our research.
We have no way of knowing at this stage how our work will be received by
the medical profession — individually or as a whole. During the past year,
several physicians became personally acquainted with our research and
they seem convinced that we are on the "right track." They are enthusiastic
about our results. But, of course, "one swallow maketh not a spring."
The writer felt an obligation to prepare this chapter on blood stability and
cardiovascular disease. It was necessary to spend ten years of intensive
research to develop the role of Zeta Potential in the stability of industrial
colloids. And only after this basic pattern was firmly established, could one
hope to apply it successfully to biological systems. Moreover, the
application of basic principles of Zeta Potential to the human organism was
an ideal test of their verity — because a most important criterion for
evaluating any hypothesis involving a natural law is: "Does it obtain
(prevail) for biological systems?"
The writer has every confidence that cardiovascular disease will soon be
prevented, as well as controlled. If it is not accomplished in this country, it
will be in some country where politics and science are less financially
intertwined.
EXAMPLES OF THE REMEDIAL EFFECTS OF THE REGIMEN
His feet grew warm in 48 hours, and he began to fly in three days. He grew
back all his lost feathers in five weeks. The veterinarian thought his
recovery was amazing. Koko had drunk from the same dish for more than
three years. His delayed intravascular coagulation (of a truly serious
nature) may be compared to the death of most persons from
cardiovascular disease in their 40's, 50's and 60's, and the case is
interesting and significant. Koko's aluminum dish was cycled a dozen or so
times with distilled water to bring out the full bloom of the aluminum
oxides, and it is shown on Fig. 191. It is available to any genuinely
concerned party for further study.
For "treatment," I did not change his mode of life, except to eliminate his
intake of aluminum by substituting a Pyrex dish — and provide him with a
water of known dispersing characteristics. It would appear that the blood
and albumin of the parrot and human have much in common.
The General Manager of the company who made the cage was very
cooperative and promised to immediately change all his units to glass or
plastic feed dishes. It is a source of the greatest satisfaction to me that our
research enabled us to combine, for the first time, the basic contributions
of von Helmholtz and Knisely — and put them to such dramatic and
worthwhile use. Koko is (and has since remained) in excellent health, and
he is still on the same formula I employ.
The atrial rate varies usually between 140 and 220 per minute, but most
commonly between 180 and 200. Occasionally the atrial rate is as high as
300 per minute. The ventricles almost always respond to each atrial beat.
The onset is sudden and without warning. Often a rapid change in position
of the head or trunk, an unexpected emotional upset or an unpleasant
dream appears to unleash the attack. But usually there is no apparent
precipitating cause.
... The attack may occasionally terminate fatally, either with signs of
progressive failure or suddenly. As a rule, however, the paroxysm ends
abruptly, normal rhythm is restored and the symptoms and signs of
circulatory insufficiency abate rapidly. ...
In severe and prolonged attacks the patient may appear obviously anxious
or agitated and there may be objective signs of congestive failure.
A similar vagal reflex may be induced by firm pressure over one eyeball at
a time and then if necessary over both eyeballs simultaneously.
This inability of recall put the writer in about the same state as the long–
bearded octogenarian who was unable to get a good night's sleep after he
was asked: "Do you sleep with your beard under the covers, or on top of
the covers?" Therefore, I decided to solve this perplexing question of
polyuria, because I believed that the nature of the mineral salts discharged
during an attack (compared with normal) might give some clue as to the
basic cause of the attack. I therefore kept a graduated cylinder handy, and
forewarned an assistant that he might be called upon at any time of the
night to operate the oscilloscope. Eventually the attack occurred, and
measurements were duly recorded.
Figure 193 shows the plot of this data; also that of a subsequent attack
about one year later. This represents a current incidence of two attacks in
two years, compared with a previous ten–year experience of an attack
every month or two.
In collecting this data, I recorded the hour, the time interval between
sample collections, and the quantity. From this I computed the rate per
hour, and the "equivalent rate" for a 17–hour period. I term this the "rate
per day," because 17 hours represents one's normal, wakeful "micturating"
day. Values throughout a "normal" day range from about 0.5 to 3.0
liters/day, or an average of say 1.5 liters/day.
Referring to Fig. 193, I was awakened from normal sleep by these attacks,
and the slope of the curves indicates that I must have awakened at the
actual onset. By finger and thumb pressure on my carotid arteries, it was
evident that my pulse rate was about 100 per minute, and that there were
numerous malfunctional beats which threw no blood. At the onset of these
attacks I put on an overcoat and trousers, and was at my laboratory two
blocks away with leads connected and the oscilloscope in service within 20
minutes. I therefore had a continuous cardiographic picture of my electrical
output and wave forms.
The ECG and the traces of the radial pulse showed that the average rate of
heartbeat 20 minutes after the onset was 190/minute, and pulse rate 105.
Therefore, it was evident that 45% of my heartbeats were pumping no
blood. On most of the beats where blood was discharged, the pulse traces
indicated that the quantity was significantly subnormal.
It is seen from Fig. 193 that Episode #1 lasted 2 hours and 10 minutes; and
Episode #2, exactly 3 hours. In Episode #1, I passed 860 ml of urine in 130
minutes, or 6.6 ml/minute. This was equivalent to an average rate of 6.8
liters/day.* [ * 6.6 X 60 X 17 ÷ 1000 = 6.8 liters/day. ]
Thus, for good and sufficient reasons (known best to my glandular system)
my kidneys rid my blood of mineral salts at a rate of 1.9 to 2.3 (say 2) grams
per hour. Had they kept this up for a 17–hour period, they would have
removed 17 x 2 = 34 grams, or substantially the entire mineral content of
my blood system.
During Episode #1, I collected a composite urine sample from 1:00 to 3:10
A.M., which I thought would contain the electrolytes my kidneys were
endeavoring to "get rid of." I also collected a "catch" sample at 9:00 A.M., 6
hours after the termination of the Episode. My purpose was to determine
the norm after the Episode; that is to say, normal after the kidneys had
purged these unwanted salts.
Results are shown in Table No. 32. The constituents of columns 2 and 3 are
on the basis of mg/l.
One must be cautious in drawing conclusions from such sparse data. But
these indications are that my blood was overloaded with mineral salts. It
would seem that to produce these reactions, these salts would be of a
coagulating nature. And, in addition to 1:1 electrolytes, there also would be
an excess of the 2:1 and/or 3:1 types. These salts were probably "tied up"
somewhere in my blood system. Judging from the curves of Fig. 167 (p.
245), it is possible that the strong cations could be combined with my
albumin. Therefore it seems reasonable that during this "paroxysmal
purge" the kidneys would tend to discharge the objectionable cations and
anions, but retain the needed ones.
The results of analysis (Table 32) bear out this hypothesis, because the
kidneys:
2.) Discarded the calcium, but retained (to a very high degree) the
magnesium
Another point: For the past two years I have attempted to completely avoid
intake of aluminum in any form. But despite this, it is evident that my
system continued to ingest it — from sources unknown. Thus, as
previously noted, the ratio in my urine during and after this purge was 13:1.
TABLE NO. 32
SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSES* OF URINE COLLECTED DURING
(AND 6 HOURS AFTER) AN ATTACK OF PAROXYSMAL TACHYCARDIA
Adjusted Probable Concentration
mg per Liter Percent Ratio
During After During After Ratio Cols.
Element
Attack Attack Attack Attack 4:5
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
[ * Again, the spectrographic analyses were done under the supervision of Dr. Bell of
Lucius Pitkin, Inc. ]
4.) But the warning signal went through. My heart action was stepped
up, and my valves commenced to malfunction. As my heart beat
increased, the valve closure worsened. Thus the increased pumpage
which my Sensing mechanism called for, ironically resulted in
significantly diminished blood output.
7.) We again stress that the 860 ml of water for Episode #1, and 1,600
ml for Episode #2 could not have come from the blood system,
because this would have concentrated the blood electrolytes. This
water must therefore have been "borrowed" from some other source.
(The writer refrained from drinking water during these episodes.)
After Episode #2, the writer drank two quarts of water (from 9 A.M. to
5 P.M.) before any significant quantity of urine was discharged. This
indicates that the water had been "borrowed," and was being
"returned."
In closing this section, it should be noted that through the use of the
Regimen, the incidence of my paroxysmal tachycardia has decreased
about 80%. And the two episodes discussed herein came after out–of–town
trips which interrupted my Regimen for periods of 4 or 5 days.**
[ ** I do not now permit my Regimen to be interrupted. ]
This emphasizes that both heparin and the writer's Regimen should be
considered as regulatory and control techniques, not truly curative
measures. The writer has no idea how close the paroxysmal tachycardia
described conforms to the average pattern — or whether it resembles it at
all. But it would seem worthwhile for someone to find out. It can be that
paroxysmal tachycardia can be prevented.
Why Animals Don't Get Heart Attacks ... But People Do!
Matthias Rath, MD discusses his studies with Vitamin C and other Nutrients
Animals have an Enzyme in their Livers that makes Vitamin C !!! Lots of it !!!
Vitamin C controls “Free Radicals” a major factor in preventing heart disease.