ATAR ENGLISH

A GUIDE TO THE BASICS

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Table of Contents
Common text type features and conventions...................................................... 3
Persuasive Texts ......................................................................................................................................... 3

Imaginative Texts ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Interpretive Texts....................................................................................................................................... 3

Visual Texts ................................................................................................................................................ 4

Narrative Conventions......................................................................................... 4
Narrative point of view .............................................................................................................................. 4

Plot structure ............................................................................................................................................. 4

Setting ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

Characterisation ......................................................................................................................................... 6

Style and Language features ...................................................................................................................... 6

Tone ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

Themes or Ideas ......................................................................................................................................... 6

Language features .............................................................................................. 7

Imaginative/Interpretive ............................................................................................................................ 7

Persuasive/Interpretive ............................................................................................................................. 9

Visual texts ............................................................................................................................................... 12

Text Structure .................................................................................................... 14

Text Structure of Imaginative texts and Interpretive texts ...................................................................... 14

Persuasive texts and Interpretive texts ................................................................................................... 15

Interpretive texts ..................................................................................................................................... 16

Word banks ....................................................................................................... 16

Tone ......................................................................................................................................................... 16

Style ......................................................................................................................................................... 16

Mood........................................................................................................................................................ 17

Transitions ............................................................................................................................................... 17

Characterisation ....................................................................................................................................... 17

Purpose .................................................................................................................................................... 18

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Common text type features and conventions

• Main Contention
• Structure
• Appeals to the audience
• Appeals to logic (logo), values (ethos) or emotion (pathos)
• Expert opinion and evidence
• Selection and omission of detail
• Anecdotes
• Rhetorical language
• Tone and style

• Narrative point of view

• Setting
• Characterisation
• Language features
• Style
• Themes and ideas
• Plot/structure

Please remember that some interpretive texts can sometimes have a secondary purpose of being persuasive,
they blur the boundaries between being a persuasive text and an interpretive text, such as documentaries.
Interpretative texts also include elements from persuasive texts and imaginative texts in their construction.
• Autobiography
o An account of the writer’s life, usually from birth to the time of writing
o Contains personal reflections on events, people and places in the writer’s life
o Is real; however, is a version of reality – creative treatment of reality
o Written in the first person
o May use informal language
o Personal and intimate
• Biography
o Assumed to essentially truthful
o Usually covers the subject’s entire life
o Supported by research and evidence including interviews, articles, personal letters
and photographs
o Written in third person generally uses formal language
• Documentary
o Subject matter
o Selection of detail
o Visual elements
o Voice over
o Interviewees and interviewers
o Real footage
o Archival footage
o Re-enactments

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 • Objects
• Animals
• People
• Viewer perspectives (camera angle etc.)
• Composition
• Leading lines
• Lighting and colour
• Stylistic features/devices
• Lexical Choice – Diction
• Structure – paragraph, whole text.
• Figurative language
• Juxtaposition
• Narrative point of view
• Syntax

Narrative Conventions

FIRSTPERSON:
•Uses the pronouns – I, me, my, us.
•Interior monologue – train of thought of the character that is “overhear” by the reader.
•Subjective narrator – narrator seems unreliable, tries to get reader to share their “side”.
•Observer narration – narrator is an observer rather than the main participant.
THIRD PERSON:
• Uses the pronouns – she, he, they, it.
• Omniscient – all knowing of all characters and events. Allows for authorial subjectivity.
• Limited – associated with a character that does not know all or see all. May not know what
happened.

EXPOSITION/ORIENTATION
Introduces the setting and characters; creates the mood and atmosphere; and incites the reader to read
on.

RISING ACTION
Establishes the conflict, creates mood and atmosphere

CONFLICT
Human against human, human against society, human against environment, human against self.

CLIMAX
The action and conflict of the story is at its highest intensity.

FALLING ACTION
Conflict start to be resolved.

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RESOLUTION
The end of the story
OTHER STRUCTURAL ASPECTS:
DESCRIPTION
Sense of drama, reveal personality of the character, creates mood and atmosphere.
NARRATIONAL COMMENTARY
Positions the reader in relation to the characters, events or the world of the text.
FRAME
A story within a story, leads readers from a first story into another, smaller one within it.
PARALLELISM
Similarities between objects, events or characters.
IN MEDIA RES
Beginning in the middle of the action
JUXTAPOSITION
The placement of two different things in close proximity to each other in order to create a meaning that
would not be otherwise created.
FLASHBACK
To provide an explanation, can change perceptions or a character or event
CIRCULARITY
Returning to an earlier point in the story
FORESHADOWING
Hinting at things to come.
SURPRISES OR UNEXPECTED TWISTS
Forces the reader to perceive a situation or character in a new way.
SHIFTS
In setting, point of view, place and/or time.
WITHHOLDING
Failing to reveal important information to create mystery or suspense.

Where, When, and (under) What Circumstances?

• Where (place): The “physical” environment where the story takes place. Includes description of
the specific location, manner of dress, customs, speech patterns and slang expressions.
• When (time): Time includes all of its dimensions: What was going on at that time? What, if any,
importance has the period and/or time-span of events with regard to the themes, motifs,
characterizations, atmosphere, tone, etc.?
o What is the period (century, decade, year) during which the action occurs?
o Over how many hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, etc. does the action
take place?

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 o The effects of the setting may include a particular atmosphere, insight to the
characters and/or their motivations, and a key or connection to or reflection of
other aspects of the story.

Character is the mental, emotional, and social qualities to distinguish one entity from another (people,
animals, spirits, automatons, pieces of furniture, and other animated objects). Character development is
the change that a character undergoes from the beginning of a story to the end. The importance of a
character to the story determines how fully the character is developed.

Characterization = process by which fictional characters are presented/developed

METHODS OF CHARACTERIZATION:
Direct description
o described and/or explained by the narrator

Indirect description
• actions that show the kind of person the character is through:
o His/Her own actions, behaviour, speech, and recorded thoughts and/or
o Qualities are apparent by what other characters say about him/her
o Setting – where the character can be found.

Refers to the qualities that distinguish the works of one author from another’s, including:
• Diction: word choice
• Sentence Structure (simple or complex), Syntax: sentence patterns of language - grammatical
and ungrammatical arrangements of words
• Figurative Language: similes, metaphors, personification, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia
• Dialogue: can be either more dialogue than description, or dialogue limited to certain
characters, or simply lacking dialogue altogether
• Imagery: sensory details such as visual, aural, olfactory, tactile, gustatory
• Allegory: a literary work in which the symbols, characters, and events come to represent, in a
somewhat point-to-point fashion, a different metaphysical, political, or social situation.
• Symbolism and Motifs

Tone is the narrator’s attitude toward his subject and audience

• Narrator’s tone may show, for example, admiration for the subject or a character
• Or the narrative tone can suggest pity or hostility; on the other hand, the narrator may be
condescending or “folksy” with the audience
• Sometimes the narrative tone is ironic
• The narrative tone may be demonstrated by direct comment, by characterization, or by choice of
words, symbols, or other literary devices.

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
Guiding Questions: Why did this writer bring these characters to this place at this time?
What is the point? What do readers now know, or what should they understand?

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 • Theme is the central or dominating ideas in a literary work, may be several, particularly in longer,
complex fiction.
• The theme must be expressible in the form of a statement - not "motherhood" but "Motherhood
sometimes has more frustration than reward."
• A theme reflects a central vision of life or a statement about the human condition/experience
conveyed in a work. Themes add understanding of life and leave it to the readers to arrive at
rules of behaviour through the increased perception offered by the story.
• It is important to remember that the theme is not the same as a moral of the story.

The means by which themes may be expressed include:

• Narrator may sum up the significance or meaning in a pithy paragraph
• Narrator may use a wise character to voice the theme
• Modern writers generally embody the theme in dramatization – the action, dialogue, or other
elements.

Language features

These language features are commonly found in imaginative texts and some forms of interpretative texts.
You may also encounter them in persuasive texts.
ONOMATOPOEIA
This is a word that sounds like the noise it is describing.
For example: “splash, bang, pop, hiss”.

COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE
This is language used in speech with an informal meaning.
For example: “chill”, “mate”, “take a rain check”.

OXYMORON
This is where two words normally not associated are brought together.
For example: “cold heat”, “bitter sweet”

ASSONANCE
This is where the same vowel sound is repeated but the consonants are different.
For example: “he passed her a sharp, dark glance, she shot a cool, foolish look across the room.”

PERSONIFICATION
This is where a human quality is attributed to a thing or idea.
For example: “the moon calls me to her darkened world.”

IMAGERY
This is where strong pictures or ideas are created in the mind of the reader. Similes, metaphors and
personification can all be used to achieve this - they all compare something 'real' with something
'imagined'.

SIMILE
This is where a phrase establishes similarity between two things. Similes usually involve the words 'like'
or 'as'-
For example: “he is as quick as an arrow in flight, as white as snow, like a burning star.”

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METAPHOR
This is where a word or phrase is used to imply figurative resemblance, not a literal or 'actual' one.
For example: “he flew into the room.”

ALLITERATION
This is where the first letter of a word is repeated in words that follow.
For example: “the cold, crisp, crust of clean, clear ice”

IMAGERY
This is the creation of of visual images in a text. It is writing that appeals ot the sense and feelings in such
a way that encourages the reaer to form a mental image.
Types and examples:
• It was dark and dim in the forest.
The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
• The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
“Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense.
• He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.
“Whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory sense.
• The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.
The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch, or tactile sense.
• The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet.
“Juicy” and “sweet” – when associated with oranges – have an effect on our sense of taste, or
gustatory sense.

CONNOTATION
This refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly.
Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal meanings or
denotations. Can be classified as positive or negative.
For example, the words ‘animal’ and ‘beast’ refer to the same type of creature, but the second term has
connotations of wildness and savagery that are lacking in the first.

DICTION
This can also be referred to as word choice It refers to an author's choice of language. Authors may use
words commonly associated with a certain subject, experience or state of mind.
A strong understanding of nouns, verbs, adjectives and connotations will help you to discuss diction
effectively.

SYMBOLISM
Objects, colours, sounds and places may work as symbols. They can sometimes give us an insight into the
themes. So, snakes are often symbols of temptation as in the story of Adam and Eve, white usually
symbolises innocence and a ringing bell can be a symbol for impending doom.

TONE
Tone is the creation of mood in a text, such as sadness, gloom, celebration, joy, anxiety, dissatisfaction,
regret or anger. Different elements of writing can help to create these moods.
For example: long sentences or verses, with assonance, tend to create a sad, melancholic

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These language features are commonly found in persuasive texts as well as some forms of interpretive texts.
You may even find some in imaginative texts.
TONE
Tone is the creation of mood in a text, such as sadness, gloom, celebration, joy, anxiety, dissatisfaction,
regret or anger. Different elements of writing can help to create these moods.
For example: long sentences or verses, with assonance, tend to create a sad, melancholic
mood. But short syllabic, alliterative lines can create an upbeat and pacey atmosphere.

IDIOM
This is an expression in which the meaning is quite different from the literal meaning, to in which the
meaning cannot be deduced from the individual words.
For example: “elbow grease”, “the whole hog”, “hit the books”.

CONNOTATION
This refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly.
Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal meanings or
denotations. Can be classified as positive or negative.
For example: “Wall Street” literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan, but connotatively it
refers to wealth and power.

RHETORICAL QUESTION
A question in which the answer is so obvious it is not required. The idea here is not to receive an answer,
merely to reinforce a point.
For example: “Should footballers be treated as above the law?”

INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
This aims to directly address the reader, either personally or as a member of a shared group. This involves
using such words as us, we, you, our.
For example: “It is time for us to show our belief in the value of mateship and a fair go, and give
generously to the Good Friday Appeal.”

HYPERBOLE
A writer may describe a situation in forceful, overblown language in order to make the issue seem more
important or urgent than it may otherwise be considered. Exaggerating the scale of an issue can draw an
emotional response from a reader. Also known as hyperbole.
For example: “Councils are losing the war against vandals.”

STATISTICAL EVIDENCE
This can be used to make an argument seem more conclusive, a writer’s opinion more valid. Often
statistics are used that are out of context, or from unreliable sources. As the saying goes, “There are lies,
damned lies, and statistics.”
For example: “A recent survey found that 90% of students favoured no school uniforms at all.”

REPETITION
This is when a single word is repeated a number of times.
For example: We will all suffer for years to come unless we stop this government, stop them in the
workplace, stop them in the polls, and stop them on election day.

EXPERT OPINION

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This is used to make a writer’s position seem more credible. They may quote the opinions of experts that
correspond with their own, to make one side seem stronger and more believable.
For Example: “My stand on the issue of exposed underwear is supported by fashion designer Ruby Reed,
who recently stated: ‘Anyone whose underwear is exposed due to low slung jeans should be punished as
forcefully as possible.’”

ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE
This is a tale involving real life events, a true story. Such stories can be used by writers as evidence to
back their claims, to support a contention, and to make themselves appear more credible, writers often
use personal anecdotes.
For example: “I can tell you that, as a single mother of two, I received very little in the way of financial
support during my attempts to return to fulltime work.”

ATTACKS
This is an attempt to belittle or embarrass or just plain insult an opponent. Also, attention can be taken
away from the issue itself and put on to the personality. The idea is that the weaker you can make your
opposition appear, the stronger you and your contention will appear.
For example: “That’s the sort of suggestion I’d expect from a nose-in-the-air toff like Turnbull.”

COLLOQUIAL (SLANG) LANGUAGE

This can be used in different ways. It can set the writer up as knowledgeable, on the inside of a social
group. A writer may also use slang in a sarcastic manner, to attack an opponent or mock an argument. It
may also be used to appeal to a reader’s own sense of cultural identity or reinforce a writer’s overall
tone.
For example: “She’s a top sheila that Jessica Rowe. Channel Nine are stark raving to give her the boot.”

EMOTIVE APPEALS AND LANGUAGE

Aim to engage people’s feelings, not logic or reason. If a writer can manipulate a reader to feel a certain
way, that reader should be more likely to agree with the writer’s overall contention. Often writers will
use other forms of persuasive language techniques in order to appeal to people’s emotions.

There is a huge variety of emotive responses that can be aimed at by writers, such as:
Democracy Family values Hedonism Reason and logic
Charity Fashion-sense Hip-pocket nerve Safety
Compassion Fear of change Morality Self-interest
Environmentalism Freedom Nostalgia Sense of justice
Fairness Group loyalty Patriotism Vanity

For example: “Soon we will see civilians lying dead in our own streets if we do not act against terrorism.”
For example: “In our society today there are people living without food or adequate shelter. Such basics
of life can be provided if those of us who can afford to, give to organisations such as the Salvation Army,
to help those unable to help themselves.”

IRONY
This is when the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning of what is written or said.
For example: “The bread is soft as a stone.”
“So nice of you to Break my knew phone!”

GENERALISATIONS
These are a statement or concept obtained from specific cases. Generalizations are the most common
persuasive writing technique.

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For example: A store manager might see one or two teenagers shoplifting and write a letter to the editor
claiming all teenagers steal and can’t be trusted.

ALLITERATION
This is the repetition of the first sound in consecutive words is alliteration.
For example: “To rip people off so blatantly shows Mr. Craven to be cruel, calculating and crooked.”

EXCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
This technique excludes somebody else through the words they use. You can recognize them by the use
of pronouns ‘they’, ‘them,’ and ‘those.’
For example: “It’s all their fault because they are the ones who made the decision.’’

JARGON
This is the special words or expressions used by profession or group that are difficult for others to
understand.
For example: “I need a script in order to pick up the medicine.” (medical jargon for “prescription”)
“Your objection is overruled.” (legal jargon)

PUN
A joke is exploiting the different possible meanings of a word or the fact that there are words which
sound alike but have different meanings.
For example: “The cartoon animator felt imprisoned by his job. He could not free himself from his cell”.

CLICHÉ
This is a term that has been overused to the extent that they are commonly understood by the society.
For example: “It is not the destination that matters most, but the journey along the way.”

L O G O S (L O G I C )
A logical appeal is one that appeals to the mind. A logical appeal is the strategic use of claim, evidence,
and warrant to convince an audience to do or believe something. Logos is an appeal to logic and is a way
of persuading an audience by reason.
For example: “History has shown time and again that absolute power corrupts absolutely.”

E T H O S (E T H I C S )
Ethos is an appeal to ethics, and it is a means of convincing someone of the character or credibility of the
persuader. It establishes the writer as fair, unbiased, open-minded, ethical, and honest. The writer
creates a sense of him or herself as trustworthy, honourable, and credible.
For example: “As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the
best results.”

P A T H O S (E M O T I O N )
Pathos is an appeal to emotion and is a way of convincing an audience of an argument by creating an
emotional response. Emotional appeals target the emotions of the reader to create some kind of
connection with the writer and his or her claim. Since humans are in many ways emotional creatures,
pathos can be a very powerful strategy in an argument. However, emotional appeals can be transparently
manipulative.
For example: “If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to
stay?”

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CONTENT OF THE IMAGE
Items/People/Place within the image
• Objects
• Animals
• Places: Generic such as the beach or the outback; or specific such as Paris or the Taj
Mahal.
• People: Generic – occupation roles, nationality/ethnicity, clothing, physical
appearance, body language (see palm card on body language. Specific: well known
celebrities etc.
• Colour: consider the symbolic use of colour to represent ideas and emotions with in
the image

Body language
• Facial expression
• Gaze (where the person is looking and bodily orientation). Gaze can be at another
person, at an object, off into the distance or directly at the viewer. Consider the
affect the gaze has on the viewer.
• Posture
• Gestures
• Proximity (closeness to or distance from other people)
• Contact or touch with others in the image.

TECHNICAL
Camera angles
• AERIAL (BIRD’S EYE VIEW) – viewer is looking directly down on the subject. Effect:
subject looks small, vulnerable or insignificant.
• HIGH CAMERA ANGLE – looking down on the object/setting. Effect: subject looks
small, vulnerable or insignificant.
• EYE LEVEL – most natural angle. Effect – suggests real-life or equality.
• LOW CAMERA ANGLE – looking up at the object/setting. Effect: subject looks
powerful, large and intimidating – suggests dominance
• WORM’S EYE VIEW – looking directly up, for example undershot of a vehicle or
stampeding animals. Effect: suggests extreme danger power or danger
• CANTED (OR DUTCH ANGLE) – orientation of the image is on an angle, off the
horizontal.

Camera shot/distance
• EXTREME CLOSE UP – focuses on a very small part of the figure being framed, for
example, an eye.
• CLOSE UP – almost no background – usually only the face or one part of the figure.
Provides more detail. Effect: if it is a face, it gives a sense of intimacy and closeness.
• MID SHOT – shows about half of the full figure being filmed.
• FULL SHOT – contains a whole figure, be it human, animal, house etc. Can be more
than one figure.
• LONG SHOT – can contain lots of landscape or background and human figures are
recognisable. Effect: shows humans in the ir environment.
• EXTREME LONG SHOT – contains lots of landscape. Effect: establishes the location of
the action.

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COMPOSITION
Refers to how the elements of an image are arranged – sometimes referred to as mise en scène. Two
important aspects are:
• Foregrounding and background
• Centring and marginalisation.
Objects that are foregrounded and centred appear more important or powerful than those that are I the
background or towards the edge of the frame (marginalised). Another aspect is the size of particular
visual elements in relation to others and in relation to the frame of the image.

LIGHTING
• Key lighting – main lighting on the set – the strongest light
• High key lighting – the key lighting is placed in a position to suggest a natural light
source or a very strong internal source – e.g. helicopter search light or a light above
to replicate the sun.
• Back lighting – the key light is behind the subject to create a silhouette.
• Low key lighting – used in night scene or inside dark places. Used to suggest
something is scary or intimate. Creates shadow.
• Fill lighting – used to surround the subject to remove shadows caused by key
lighting
§ softens the harsh effect of key lighting.

RULE OF THIRDS
Consider the image as three equally spaced horizontal bands and three equally spaced vertical bands, is
the image consists of nine parts.
The main points of interest should be placed along one of the bands of in one of the intersection pints, as
this is where the eye is usually drawn. It can be used to create

LEADING LINES
Leads the viewer’s eyes in a particular direction, usually to the most important part of the image. Creates
emphasis and positions the viewer to see a subject in a particular way. Can be created through natural
features, physical objects, gestures, eye-line and light, among other things.

JUXTAPOSITION
This is the placement of two unexpected things next to each other in order to create a meaning that each
thing alone would not suggest.

FOCUS
This confers importance. The parts of the image that are in focus are the ones the viewer is positioned to
see as the most important. Those parts of the image that are out of focus are the ones we are positioned
to see as of less importance. Focus can also establish mystery or suspense.

CAMERA MOVEMENT
• Panning shot – camera moves from side to side, or up or down from object to
object or following the object around – camera must move slowly. Often used with
extreme long shots to establish location.
• Tracking shot – camera moves on a movable platform and moves with the subject
of the frame. Subject kept in focus at all times. Give the impression that the viewer
is moving along with the subject.

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 • Dolly shot – similar to tracking as it is mounted on some movable object, but it
moves in or out from the subject of the frame.
• Tilt or Dutch tilt – movement of the camera (like a wobble) in any direction that
gives the viewer a sense of strangeness imbalance or confusion.
• Point of View shot – takes on the view of one of the characters, becoming the
character’s eyes. Can have a surreal effect, especially if the character is slightly
unbalanced or psychologically unstable.
• Zoom – taken with a zoom lens that allows continuous movement from a long shot
to a close-up without moving the camera.

SOUND
In film sound refers to what we hear – it incorporates diegetic (natural to the action) and non-diegetic
(extra to the action.
• Non diegetic – includes sounds that are included afterwards such as voiceovers,
songs and soundtracks that paly in the background of the main action.
• Diegetic – includes dialogue, music and songs that the characters create or would
hear. Natural sounds assist in creating sense and feeling (ambience) of the sitting or
location. For example, the sound of water running in a stream, ambulance sirens on
a city street.

Text Structure
The choice of content and subject matter dealt with in a text often affects the way that a text is
structured. Structure and content interrelate closely because the ordering or sequence of information
presented has the power to manipulate the reader or viewer’s understanding and responses.
Conventional sequences and patterns associated with particular generic structures can be reinforced,
subverted or distracted. Structure can be examined on three levels: sentence structure; passage structure
and whole text structure.

EXPOSITION
background information, motivation of the characters’ sense of place to enhance the realism of the story,
atmosphere.

DRAMATISED ACTION
advances the plot, reveals the conflict, reveals and encourages certain responses to character, creates
mood and atmosphere.

DESCRIPTION
sense of drama, reveal personality of the character, creates mood and atmosphere.

NARRATIONAL COMMENTARY
positions the reader in relation to the characters, events or the world of the text.
LINEAR
events happening in a chronological manner.

FRAME
a story within a story, leads readers from a first story into another, smaller one within it. The frame story
may also be used to allow readers to understand a part of the story, then jump to another part that can
now be understood.

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PARALLELISM
similarities between objects, events or characters.

IN MEDIA RES
beginning in the middle of the action

JUXTAPOSITION
the placement of two different things in close proximity to each other in order to create a meaning that
would not be otherwise created.

FLASHBACK
to provide an explanation, can change perceptions or a character or event

CIRCULARITY
returning to an earlier point in the story

FORESHADOWING
hinting at things to come.

SURPRISES OR UNEXPECTED TWISTS

forces the reader to perceive a situation or character in a new way.

SHIFTS
in setting, point of view, place and/or time. Provides further explanation or allows us to see different
perspectives on an event; perceive conflicts; creates suspense; see connections; similarities or
differences, depending on the type of shift.

WITHHOLDING
failing to reveal important information to create mystery or suspense.

FREYTAG’S TRIANGLE
• Exposition/Orientation – introduces the setting and characters; creates the mood and
atmosphere; and incites the reader to read on.
• Rising action – establishes the conflict.
• Conflict – Human against human, human against society, human against environment, human
against self.
• Climax – the action and conflict of the story is at its highest intensity.
• Falling action – conflict start to be resolved.
• Resolution – the end of the story

1. Establish the main contention and where it is placed in the text.

2. Examine the supporting arguments or key reasons for the contention and how these are developed
as the text progresses.
3. Consider the shift in tone
4. Examine the introduction of the issue: does it start with an anecdote or a statistic, does in lead with
a rhetorical question? What the writer uses at the beginning will give an indication of how they are
positioning the audience and if they are structuring their argument around logic or emotion.

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5. How is the argument concluded? Does it provide recommendations, or end with an emotional
appeal
6. Examine layout and design, sentence structure and paragraph structure and use of formatting
7. Repetition: sets out the main contention, provides examples of anecdotes that repeat or reinforce
the contention, concludes through repetition or reinforcement of the main contention
8. Cause and effect: describe a problem, outlines the causes of the problem and outlines the effects,
may offer a solution.
9. Compare/contrast: sets out the different ideas to be compared to be contrasted, may set out one
idea in detail and then alternate between the others, provides an evaluation of the ideas and may
recommend one over the other.
10. Sequence: sets out the main contention, provides a sequence of reasoned arguments finishing with a
summation of the argument.
11. Problem and solution: describes the problem, breaks in down into parts, then offers a solution.
12. Counter-argument: may be combined with other structures, but acknowledges an opposing
argument then undermines it.
13. Call to action: may be combined with other structures, but concludes by inciting the audience to
some type of action.

Depending on the type of interpretative text, different structural devices will be employed. For example,
an autobiography will employ the structural aspects of an imaginative text.

Word banks

• Tone is the author’s attitude toward the topic.

• Tone is expressed through the words and details the author selects.
• To determine the author’s tone, you must notice how these words and details are
used within the writing.

accusatory earnest pessimistic

ambivalent formal playful
amused ironic righteous
angry intense satiric
authoritative intimate skeptical
caustic joyous sympathetic
condescending loving vindictive
chatty mocking malicious
critical objective optimistic
cynical detached nostalgic

• Style refers to the qualities that distinguish the works of one author from another’s

articulate emphatic verbose

conversational fluent wordy
declamatory informal poetic
eloquent lyrical ornate
diffuse literary journalistic
formal punchy inarticulate
incoherent rambling idiomatic
economical succinct euphemistic

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 • Mood, or atmosphere, refers to the feelings created by a text and it plays an
important role in how an audience responds to a text.
• It can be created through syntax, setting and character’s thoughts for written texts
and music, lighting, colour, set and location as well as costuming for visual texts.

carefree gloomy oppressive

cheerful glum passionate
despondent joyous peaceful
eerie idyllic romantic
elated macabre sinister
erotic melancholic suspenseful
forbidding mysterious uncanny
ghoulish ominous whimsical

As an illustration After all Additionally

For example However Finally
To demonstrate In contrast First, firstly
To illustrate Nevertheless Further
specifically Yet Second, secondly
At the same time On the contrary As a result
Accordingly Therefore again
As a result Thus hence
consequently because In a similar fashion
To clarify Lastly likewise
To explain For this purpose To conclude

• Direct characterisation occurs when a text directly tells us about what a character is
like.
• Indirect characterisation occurs when the text implies ideas rather than stating them
out right through:
• Name, setting, physical appearance, dialogue, character’s thoughts, other people’s
reactions, behaviour, body language or narratorial commentary. These things can
mostly be divided into the acronym:
• SAAO = Speech, Appearance, Action and Others.

humble selfless studious

brave confident honest
courageous respectful mischievous
serious imaginative adventurous
resourceful considerate hardworking
loyal intelligent daring
gullible creative lazy
selfish carefree patriotic
cowardly responsible cautious
gentle loyal conceited
proud bossy foolish

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wise trustworthy thoughtful
sly grumpy miserable
foolish strict determined
witty ambitious eager
shy timid evil
stoic heroic humble

• The purpose of a text is simply the writer's reason for writing.

• Many texts have more than one purpose, but usually one will stand out as primary.
• Readers have the job of determining the purpose or purposes of a text and
understanding why the writer is writing and what the writer wants the reader to do
with the text.
• An author writes to share a main idea about a topic. An author’s main idea is directly
related to the author’s purpose.
• One of the three following purposes will drive a main idea: to inform, to entertain,
and to persuade.

To inform To entertain To persuade

To analyse To amuse To argue
To clarify To delight To convince
To discuss To frighten To criticize
To establish To explore To inspire
To explain To provoke thought To call to action

TO THINK, FEEL OR DO

YOU WILL FIND THE COURSE GLOSSARY ON THE NEXT PAGE

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Aesthetic A sense of beauty or an appreciation of artistic expression.
Analyse Consider in detail for the purpose of finding meaning or relationships, and identifying
patterns, similarities and differences.
Appreciation The act of discerning quality and value of literary texts.
Attitudes An outlook or a specific feeling about something. Our values underlie our attitudes. Attitudes
can be expressed by what we say, do and wear.
Audience The group of readers, listeners or viewers that the writer, designer, filmmaker or speaker is
addressing. Audience includes students in the classroom, an individual, the wider community,
review writers, critics and the implied audience.
Author The composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay,
autobiography).
Context The environment in which a text is responded to or created. Context can include the general
social, historical and cultural conditions in which a text is responded to and created (the
context of culture) or the specific features of its immediate environment (context of
situation). The term is also used to refer to the wording surrounding an unfamiliar word that a
reader or listener uses to understand its meaning.
Convention An accepted practice that has developed over time and is generally used and understood, for
example, the use of specific structural aspects of texts such as in report writing with sections
for introduction, background, discussion and recommendations.
Digital technologies The use of digital resources to effectively find, analyse, create, communicate, and use
information in a digital context and incorporates the hardware of mobile phones, cameras,
tablets, laptops and computers and the software to power these devices.
Digital texts Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology, which
may be interactive and include animations and hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include
DVDs, websites and e-literature.
Evaluate Evaluation of an issue or information that includes considering important factors and available
evidence in making judgement that can be justified.
Figurative language Word groups/phrases used in a way that differs from the expected or everyday usage. They
are used in a non-literal way for particular effect
(for example, simile – ‘white as a sheet’; metaphor – ‘all the world’s a stage’; personification –
‘the wind grabbed at my clothes’).
Form; forms of texts The shape and structure of texts. Literary texts, for example, include a broad range of forms
such as novels, poetry, short stories, plays, fiction, multimodal texts, and non-fiction. (See
Texts under Organisation of content.)
Genre The categories into which texts are grouped. The term has a complex history within literary
theory and is often used to distinguish texts on the basis of their subject matter (for example,
detective fiction, romance, science fiction, fantasy fiction), form and structure (for example,
poetry, novels, biography, short stories).
Hybrid texts Composite texts resulting from a mixing of elements from different sources or genres (for
example, infotainment). Email is an example of a hybrid text, combining the immediacy of talk
and the expectation of a reply with the permanence of print.
Ideas In this course the word has an open meaning and can be interpreted as understandings,
thoughts, notions, opinions, views or beliefs.
Idiom A group of (more or less) fixed words having a meaning not deducible from the individual
words. Idioms are typically informal expressions used by particular social groups and need to
be explained as one unit (for example, ‘I am over the moon’, ‘on thin ice’, ‘a fish out of water’,
‘fed up to the back teeth’).
Interpretation See Reading and Readings.
Issues Matters of personal or public concern that are in dispute; things which directly or indirectly
affect a person or members of a society and are considered to be problems. Many issues are
raised in texts and it is for the reader/audience to identify these.

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Language features The features of language that support meaning (for example, sentence structure, noun
group/phrase, vocabulary, punctuation, figurative language, framing, camera angles). Choices
in language features and text structures together define a type of text and shape its meaning.
These choices vary according to the purpose of a text, its subject matter, audience, and mode
or medium of production.
Language patterns The arrangement of identifiable repeated or corresponding elements in a text. These include
patterns of repetition or similarity (for example, the repeated use of verbs at the beginning of
each step in a recipe, or the repetition of a chorus after each verse in a song). The patterns
may alternate (for example, the call and response pattern of some games, or the to and fro of
a dialogue). Other patterns may contrast (for example, opposing viewpoints in a discussion, or
contrasting patterns of imagery in a poem). The language patterns of a text contribute to the
distinctive nature of its overall organisation and shape its meaning.
Literary texts Literary texts refers to past and present texts across a range of cultural contexts that are
valued for their form and style and are recognised as having enduring or artistic value. While
the nature of what constitutes ‘literary texts’ is dynamic and evolving, they are seen as having
personal, social, cultural and aesthetic appeal and potential for enriching students’ scope of
experience. Literary texts include a broad range of forms, such as novels, poetry, short stories,
plays, fiction,
non-fiction and multimodal texts.
Media texts Spoken, print, graphic or electronic communications with a public audience. They often
involve numerous people in their construction and are usually shaped by the technology used
in their production. The media texts studied in English courses can be found in newspapers
and magazines and on television, film, radio, computer software and the internet.
Medium The means or channel of communication such as the spoken word, print, graphics,
electronic/digital forms (for example, the medium of television, the medium of newspapers
and the medium of radio).
Metalanguage Language used to discuss language (for example, language used to discuss film or literary
study, such as mise-en-scène, symbolism, characterisation, or language used to talk about
grammatical terms, such as ‘sentence’, ‘clause’, ‘conjunction’).
Mode The various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading/viewing and
writing/creating. Modes are also used to refer to the semiotic
(meaning-making) resources associated with these communicative processes, such as sound,
print, image and gesture.
Mood The atmosphere or feeling in a particular text. For example, a text might create a sombre,
reflective, exhilarating or menacing mood or atmosphere depending on the imagery or other
language used.
Multimodal text Combination of two or more communication modes (for example, print, image and spoken
text, as in film or computer presentations).
Narrative A story of events or experiences, real or imagined. In literary theory, narrative includes the
story (what is narrated) and the discourse (how it is narrated).
Narrative point of view The ways in which a narrator may be related to the story. For example, the narrator might
take the role of first or third person, omniscient or restricted in knowledge of events, reliable
or unreliable in interpreting what happens.
Personification The description of an inanimate object as though it were a person or living thing.
Perspective(s) A position from which things may be viewed or considered. People may have different
perspectives on events or issues due to (for example) their age, gender, social position and
beliefs and values. A perspective is more than an opinion; it is a viewpoint informed by one or
more contexts. While a pregnant woman, a homeless man and a police officer, for example,
view the world from different perspectives, they may still share the same opinion about
something. Texts through an embedded ideology can also present a particular perspective
Point of view (See also Narrative point of view.) The opinion or viewpoint expressed by an individual in a
text, for example an author, a narrator, a character or an implied reader.

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Prose Ordinary language used in speaking or writing, distinguished from poetry by its lack of a
marked metrical structure. Many modern genres, such as short stories, novels in fiction, for
example, and letters, essays, and other types of non-fiction writing are typically written in
prose.
Reading The process of making meaning of text. This process draws on a repertoire of social, cultural
and cognitive resources. Reading occurs in different ways, for different purposes, in a variety
of public and domestic settings. Reading is therefore a cultural, economic, ideological, political
and psychological act. The term applies to the act of reading print texts or the act of viewing a
film or static image.

Readings Readings are particular interpretations of a text. The classification of readings into alternative,
resistant or dominant is quite arbitrary, depending on the ideology held by the reader.
Alternative readings: readings that focus on the gaps and silences in texts to create meanings
that vary from those meanings that seem to be foregrounded by the text.
Dominant reading: is the reading that seems to be, for the majority of people in society, the
natural or normal way to interpret a text. In a society where there are strongly competing
discourses (i.e. most societies), the definition of what is a dominant reading depends on the
ideology of the person making the decision.
Resistant reading: a way of reading or making meaning from a text which challenges or
questions the assumptions underlying the text. Resistant readings employ a discourse
different from the discourse that produces the dominant reading.
Representation Representation refers to the way people, events, issues or subjects are presented in a text.
The term implies that texts are not mirrors of the real world; they are constructions of
‘reality’. These constructions are partially shaped through the writer’s use of conventions and
techniques.
Rhetoric The language of argument, using persuasive and forceful language.
Rhetorical devices Language techniques used in argument to persuade audiences
(for example, rhetorical questions, repetition, propositions, figurative language).
Short answer response Well-developed paragraph or paragraphs in Standard Australian English which include
supporting detail and typically ranging between 200-300 words depending on time allocation.
While not required to conform to the conventions of formal essay writing, short answer
responses should be succinct and directly address the question.
Standard Australian English The variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings
(SAE) such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and
grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the ‘common language’
of Australians.
Stylistic choices The selection of stylistic features to achieve a particular effect.
Stylistic features The ways in which aspects of texts (such as words, sentences, images) are arranged and how
they affect meaning. Style can distinguish the work of individual authors (for example,
Jennings’ stories, Lawson’s poems), as well as the work of a particular period (for example,
Elizabethan drama,
nineteenth-century novels), or of a particular genre or type of text
(for example, recipes, scientific articles, play-by-play commentary). Examples of stylistic
features are narrative viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition, nominalisation,
alliteration, metaphor and lexical choice.
Synthesise Combine elements (information/ideas/components) into a coherent whole.
Text structure The ways in which information is organised in different types of texts
(for example, chapter headings, subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries,
overviews, introductory and concluding paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies,
cause and effect). Choices in text structures and language features together define a text type
and shape its meaning. Examples of text structures in literary texts include sonnets,
monologues and hypertext.

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Theme An idea, concern or argument developed in a text; a recurring element
(for example, the subject of a text may be love, and its theme could be how love involves
sacrifice). A work may have more than one theme.
Tone Tone describes the way the ‘voice’ is delivered. For example, the tone of a voice or the tone in
a passage of writing could be friendly or angry or persuasive.
Types of texts Classifications of texts according to the particular purposes they are designed to achieve. In
general, in the senior courses in the English curriculum, texts are classified as imaginative,
interpretive, persuasive or analytical types of texts, although these distinctions are neither
static nor discrete and particular texts can belong to more than one category.
Analytical texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to identify, examine and draw conclusions about the
elements or components that make up other texts. Analytical texts develop an argument or
consider or advance an interpretation. Examples of these texts include commentaries, essays
in criticism, reflective or discursive responses and reviews.
Imaginative texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to entertain or provoke thought through their imaginative use
of literary elements. They are recognised for their form, style and artistic or aesthetic value.
These texts include novels, traditional tales, poetry, stories, plays, fiction for young adults and
children, including picture books, and multimodal texts such as film.
Interpretive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to explain and interpret personalities, events, ideas,
representations or concepts. They include autobiography, biography, media feature articles,
documentary film and other non-fiction texts. There is a focus on interpretive rather than
informative texts in the senior years of schooling.
Persuasive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a reader, viewer
or listener. They form a significant part of modern communication in both print and digital
environments. They include advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics and essays
and articles.
Visual elements Visual components of a text such as composition, framing, representation of action or
reaction, shot size, social distance and camera angle.
Voice/Voices in texts Authorial voice
(see also Narrative point In the literary sense, voice can be used to refer to the nature of the voice projected in a text
of view and Tone) by an author; the persona, role or character adopted by an author.
Narrative voice
The ways in which a narrator may be related to the story. For example, the narrator might
take the role of first or third person, omniscient or restricted in knowledge of events, reliable
or unreliable in interpreting what happens.
Voices in texts As well as an author’s voice, texts often contain ‘multiple voices’. These are the views,
positions, ideas and perspectives of other individuals or groups. It is important to recognise
the various voices in a text, how they relate to one another, and how the creator of a text
uses these to shape audience response.

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