British Journal of Music Education

http://journals.cambridge.org/BME

Additional services for British Journal of Music

Education:

Email alerts: Click here

Subscriptions: Click here
Commercial reprints: Click here
Terms of use : Click here

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice:

Implications for Teaching

Susan Hallam

British Journal of Music Education / Volume 12 / Issue 01 / March 1995, pp 3 - 19

DOI: 10.1017/S0265051700002357, Published online: 18 December 2008

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0265051700002357

How to cite this article:

Susan Hallam (1995). Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for
Teaching. British Journal of Music Education, 12, pp 3-19 doi:10.1017/S0265051700002357

Request Permissions : Click here

Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/BME, IP address: 61.129.42.30 on 02 May 2015

Professional Musicians' Orientations to
Practice: Implications for Teaching
Susan Hallam

The purpose of this study was to investigate the ways in which professional musicians
practise. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 freelance musicians spanning
a wide range of age and experience and encompassing most of the instruments of the
traditional orchestra. The interviews revealed considerable individual diversity in the ways
in which the musicians approached and undertook their practice. Thefindingsare discussed
in terms of their educational implications.

Introduction
A number of studies have suggested that to acquire expertise on a musical instrument
requires extensive practice. Bloom (1985), in research investigating several areas of
expertise including music, suggested that generally 16 years of practice were required
to achieve excellence. 25 hours of weekly practice were typical during adolescence,
subsequently increasing to as much as 50 hours. Ericsson, Tesch-Romer and Krampe
(1990) further suggested that the level of expertise achieved is directly related to the
amount of practice undertaken. However, caution is required in interpreting these
findings as analysis has been restricted to those successful in the field, not taking
account of individuals, who may have undertaken extensive practice and yet been
unsuccessful.
Further doubts regarding the notion that the amount of practice alone is sufficient
to predict the level of expertise achieved comes from research by Sloboda and Howe
(1991) who found that music students judged as 'better' than their peers had practised
less in childhood. Hallam (1983) also demonstrated that individual characteristics
relating to specialised abilities and motivation were crucial in determining whether a
child persevered sufficiently to enable the acquisition of high levels of expertise. So
while there is consensus that time spent practising is an important element in the
development of expertise, other factors also appear to be implicated.
Although musicians spend a considerable amount of time practising, historically
there has been little research into the ways in which they go about it. An early study
by Wicinski (1950; cited in Miklaszewski, 1989) based on interviews with ten eminent
Moscow pianists, indicated two distinctive individual approaches. One group of
musicians identified clearly separated stages in their work, usually three. The first
stage was devoted to acquiring knowledge of the music and developing preliminary
ideas regarding interpretation. The second stage generally consisted of practice
designed to acquire technical mastery, while the third and final stage integrated
technical skills with musical ideas to arrive at the final interpretation. The second
group of pianists, comprising three, appeared to work in an undifferentiated way, with

B. J. Music Ed. (1995), 12, 3-19 Copyright © 1995 Cambridge University Press

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

no clearly identifiable stages in their work. This research indicates that musicians may
not all approach the task of practising in the same way.
Miklaszewski (1989), in his study of a single piano student in the early stages of
learning Debussy's Prelude Feux d'Artifice, found that the student acquired a general
overview of the work while technical practice was undertaken. Progress was
continuously evaluated leading to different passages from the music receiving
attention at different times. In the early stages of practice the sections worked on
reflected the structure of the music, their length being determined by its complexity,
the more complex the music the shorter the sections. As practice progressed the
sections became longer and less time was spent practising them. The most frequently
observed activity included playing alternatively in fast and slow tempi. Miklaszewski
suggested that in doing this the musician was testing whether he could perform at the
required speed and then carrying out further adjustments. This interesting
observational study highlighted the way that practice is essentially a problem solving
activity. However, focussing on a single musician, the research cast no further light on
the question of individual diversity in practice behaviour.
Gruson (1981) examined differences in practising between professional and student
musicians. She recorded the practice of 40 piano students and 3 concert pianists. A
count was then made of the frequency of particular activities. Overall, uninterrupted
playing accounted for approximately 25 % of the total practising time. The other most
frequent activities were repeating a single note, repeating a bar, slowing down and,
errors. The most expert musicians repeated longer sections, spent more time
practising, played hands separately and verbalised more often. The single most
characteristic behaviour of the more advanced players was repeating sections longer
than a bar. Recordings of a smaller group of musicians, over a longer period of time,
demonstrated that there was consistency in rehearsal behaviour.
Gruson's (1981) study indicates that there are changes in practising behaviour as
expertise develops, while Miklaszewski (1989) indicates similar changes in practice
activity as a work is successfully mastered. Wicinski (1950) in contrast draws attention
to the possibility of individual differences in the way in which musicians undertake
their practice. Support for the notion of individuality in approach to practice is
seen in the common conception that there are two kinds of musician. As Milstein
illustrates:
'There are two requirements which must be present in a genius. First, a sensitive
imagination to interpret with feeling that which he plays. Second, physical
powers which will enable him to devote years of application to the steady study
necessary to the acquisition of a perfect technique. A rare combination'.
(Applebaum & Applebaum, 1972: 135).
Such a distinction has some psychological support. Sloboda (1985) suggests that
performance on an instrument is the product of an interaction between a mental plan,
which specifies what the performer intends, and aflexibleprogramming system which
has learned through experience to coordinate the patterns of necessary muscular
activity to achieve the intended plan. Musicians can develop their performance plans
through listening to, analysing and discussing music. In contrast, physical practice
enables the motor system to develop a range of effective routines, facilitating the
technical implementation of the musical plans. In this sense the practice of scales has
a sound psychological basis as they ensure that the learner is systematically exposed
to a vast array of programming problems. As the development of musical plans and the
acquisition of technique to implement them can be undertaken independently there

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

may be two types of musicians with preferences for each activity. Sloboda outlines the
possible characteristics of each:
'The first type is the musician who can play relatively simple music with the
utmost sensitivity and has a profound critical appreciation of other people's
performance, but falters when high levels of speed of fluency are required. Such
a person tends to spend a lot of time involved with music but neglects systematic
practice... The second type is the musician who can tackle the most demanding
pieces in the repertoire from a technical point of view, but often performs them
insensitively. Such a person tends to spend hours each day at his instrument,
diligently attending to scales and other technical exercises but neglects to deepen
his understanding of music through analysis and critical listening... the master
musician, of course, combines excellence in both these skills.'
It is a widely held view that such distinctions exist but there is to date no supporting
research evidence.
The aim of the present study is to consider individual diversity in the practising
activities of musicians in terms of the regularity and extent of practice, its content,
motivation, and the relative emphasis on technique and musicianship.

Method
A semi-structured interview technique was adopted to enable an in depth analysis of
the practising modes of the musicians. Initially the same questions were put to each
musician. The interviewer then explored issues arising from the responses by
generating further questions.
In the early stages of the research, to validate the content of the interviews, each
musician was shown a piece of music and asked to describe the activities he or she
would undertake during the initial stages of learning that work. The pieces of music
were selected on the basis of their rarity. The purpose was to provide an example
which would be unfamiliar to the musician involved. This would simulate the learning
of a new piece of music as closely as possible. The responses made were transcribed
in full and compared with those made during the interview.
For ethical reasons, and the difficulties inherent in classifying professionals in terms
of levels of expertise, all of the musicians interviewed were chosen on the basis of peer
evaluations of their high levels of technical competence and their sensitivity in
performance. Over a period of months before the study proper, the researcher, also a
professional musician, made detailed notes of comments made informally within the
peer group relating to the performance of colleagues. Only those musicians whose
performances were consistently referred to as being of a high standard, both
technically and musically, were included in the study.
Twenty-two professional musicians were interviewed, 11 female and 11 male with
an age range of 22 to 60. They were selected to represent differing spans of time in the
music profession, differing instrumentation, and a broad range of musical experience.
Representatives of most instruments of the modern symphony orchestra were
included, as well as an organist and a conductor. All were practising freelance
professionals working within a range of musical environments. Their activities
included solo work, chamber music, orchestral playing, conducting, and teaching. A
decision was taken not to include full-time symphony orchestra players because of the
limited time they have available for practice. However, a number of the musicians had
held such positions in the past.

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

 Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

Table 1. Orientation to practice

(a) the regularity of practice

(6) the extent of practice
(c) the structure of routine of practice
(d) the ways in which difficult sections are identified
(e) ways in which difficult sections are practised
(/) detailed methods of practice

Table 2. Structured questions

Is your practice regular?

How much practice do you do?
Do you practise every day?
Do you enjoy practising?
Does your practice follow a regular routine?
Do you have a warm up procedure?
Do you practise studies, scales or exercises?
How do you practise to overcome difficulties ?

The research focusses on the ways professional musicians go about their practice.
The particular issues addressed are outlined in Table 1.
The structured questions which acted as the starting point for exploring each area
of interest are listed in Table 2.
The responses from the musicians to these questions then indicated the direction for
further investigation and relevant questions were generated accordingly.
Each interview was transcribed in full. The data was then analysed considering the
similarities and differences between the activities of the musicians.
Objectivity was established by insisting on agreement between three independent
judges on the categorisation of statements. The judges were:
1. a local authority music adviser, who also had 20 years experience as a
professional musician.
2. a professor of educational psychology.
3. the researcher, who had 15 years experience as a professional musician and
qualifications in educational psychology.
Each judge examined the statements independently. Where there was disagreement
about the categorisation of statements they were discussed. Only where complete
consensus was reached that a statement supported a particular categorisation was it
included in the analysis.
Despite the fact that all the musicians interviewed exhibited great sensitivity in
performance and had considerable technical skills, it became evident that there were
indeed clear differences in the way that practising was undertaken.

Regularity and extent of practice

The findings revealed considerable diversity in the regularity, extent and perceived
need for practice. Only 9 of the 22 musicians practised on a daily basis. Typical
responses from this group were:
' I practise on most days if I have time... I miss it if I don't do it.'
'I find that if I don't blow the thing every day I just can't play anything at all.'

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

In contrast the remaining 13 practised only when they were working towards a
particular concert. For example:
'I only practise if I've got something to practise for.'
'I'm very lazy. I only practise if I've got to.'
'In fact right at the moment I haven't got anything, the next thing I've got to
work for is a recital in October which is some months away and the summer
holidays are coming up. So I'm not practising.'
It was clear that for some of the musicians daily practice was perceived as necessary
to maintain their standards of playing. For example:
' I have to practise even to stay still, not to mention to go on and advance.'
' I'm one of those unfortunate people who has got to practise. I know marvellous
players, who can go away for 6 months and do something else and start back again,
but I can't do that. I have to practise. In fact I regret it if I don't practise every
day'.
There was also considerable variation in the amount of time spent in practice when
it was undertaken, but this depended on factors unrelated to practice itself. Pressure
of work often meant that those who felt it essential to practise regularly might only
complete 10 minutes. There was a general consensus that the optimum length of time
for serious practice was sessions of 40 minutes to an hour followed by a break. Most
of the musicians felt that after this time concentration waned. There was also general
consensus that three hours a day was the maximum that would be beneficial. One
explained:
'I've heard some big names say that they practise for 8 hours a day. This fills me
with horror because I don't think any good could come out of it... I just think the
latter part of each day... the mind, it's not only the physique, but the mind... so
I'm inclined to think that a little and often is the thing.'
' I practised most days then, three or four hours, one day even six hours. I'd never
do that again.'
One musician felt strongly:
' I think if you've got to do 7 hours you ought not to be doing it. It ought to come
easily to you.'
These observations are interesting given the earlier research findings, e.g. Ericsson
et al. (1990), which indicate the importance of time spent practising in determining the
level of expertise attained. The musicians seem to be suggesting that practice beyond
a certain time span within one day is not productive because concentration cannot be
maintained at a sufficiently high level. The implication is that practice would
degenerate into 'playing' for the sake of it. Of course the musicians interviewed in the
study often play for 6 or 7 hours daily in the course of their professional lives but
rehearsal with others is less intensive. This suggests that future research needs to take
account not only of the quantity of practice undertaken but its quality.

Motivation
Within the sample, as we have seen, there are clear differences in the regularity with
which musicians practise. Some of this may be due to the perceived need for practice
but motivational factors may also be implicated. This section explores issues relating
to motivation.

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

How can we characterise the motivation of musicians ? In the psychological and

educational literature a distinction is often made between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is evidenced when the task undertaken is valued for
itself, i.e. the individual is interested in the task or activity. In the case of practice this
would mean it being undertaken for the pleasure of exercising the skill, or mastering
the music, not because the external outcome, e.g. playing well at a concert, is
important. Extrinsic motivation occurs when a person is motivated because of the
value or importance they attach to the reward from the activity, e.g. playing well and
receiving praise, promoting one's career.
Examination of the data from the whole sample revealed that of the 22 musicians
interviewed 12 were extrinsically motivated needing the incentive of imminent
concerts to sustain practice. Comments included:
'I practise when I've got a carrot.'
'I use to loathe it but now... I think I practise when I've got something to do. I
regard it like getting a meal, it's something you do to get a final result, and I think
I enjoy it when I'm doing it but I don't like the idea of it'.
Only 5 were totally intrinsically motivated, expressing their enjoyment of practice
with comments such as:
' I've always loved blowing the trombone. I mean, I don't think there is anything
I'd rather be doing than playing.
If you don't feel like that then I don't think there is much point in doing it.'
'Do you like practising?' 'I love it'.
The remaining 5 exhibited a combination of motives.
' Sometimes it's a chore but not usually.'
'I like practising once I've started.'
'Do you like practising?' 'Yes, after the first 45 minutes... but a rest is really
quite nice'.
Clearly the motivation to undertake physical practice for some musicians is not
intrinsic. They do not enjoy it, but feel it is necessary for them to maintain high
professional standards. Many adopt strategies to either, reduce the amount of time
spent practising, or to alleviate the tedium. One used improvisation:
'I improvise. You can just sit down and create a composition that gives you
spontaneous pleasure, so you don't actually have the mind bending experience of
trying to perfect a piece'.
Others adopted a cognitive approach. For instance one described:
'You spend most of your time delving into the reasons of it. And more and more
I find, I spend myself, far more time in dealing with, with construction and
analysis... and I spend more time and I learn a lot of my works without actually
playing them.'
Another strategy was to combine routine technical practice with another activity.
For instance one musician described:
' I would actually switch the television on and then I'm concentrating on playing
but I've got something visual like the programme lasts half an hour so then I have
to sit down for half an hour just blowing.'

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

Daily practice. Motivation

Intrinsic
5

Extrinsic
2
Sample
22
Intrinsic
0

Extrinsic
10

Fig 1. Relationship between motivation and daily practice.

Summarising the relationships it seems that daily practice is found
predominantly with intrinsic or mixed motivation (78%), while irregular
practice occurs mostly amongst musicians with extrinsic motivation (77%).

For this musician and others practice is seen as essential to maintain standards
because of physical factors, e.g. maintaining stamina, finger flexibility, etc. If musicians
do not feel the necessity for this physical practice and they do not enjoy practice then
we would expect them to be task focussed and only practise when it was necessary
to prepare for performance. However, mastery of a task can, in itself, generate
enthusiasm for practice:
'If I have something that needs practising, yes, then it feels much more
constructive. If there is nothing particular which has to be done, then it's not so
interesting. I think it is the challenge of actually learning something, mastering
something that needs to be mastered.'
This abhorrence of practice is not new. Kreisler, a great virtuosi of the past said of
excessive practising:
'It benumbs the brain, renders the imagination less acute, and deadens the
alertness. For that reason I never practise before a concert.' (Schwarz, 1983:304).
He also described Kubelik, who practised for 12 hours on the day of a concert as
giving a technically perfect performance which was 'a blank'.
Nigel Kennedy, a present day virtuosi, also described his panacea for routine
practice:
'Time has to be spent doing it, so I do it. You don't have to use a lot of grey cells
to do most of that work, so I usually put a quiz show or hockey game on the TV
and just hack my violin. Finger exercises mostly, physical co-ordination stuff.
Everyone has their own weaknesses and strengths, so I've made up my own
exercises to deal with my problems.' (Pfaff, 1989).

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

The evidence indicates that musicians exhibit considerable variability in their

motivation to practise. Some enjoy the process and practise regularly. Others need to
practise regularly but find the routine tedious. They develop strategies to reduce the
required level of practice or to alleviate boredom. A third group do not feel the
necessity to practise on a daily basis and demonstrate task oriented practice. Figure 1
shows the relationships between daily practice and motivation for this group of
musicians.

Content of practice
Practice sessions began for all of the musicians, except one, with some form of' warm
up'. However there was considerable variation in the activities undertaken and the
length of time spent in the process. As one described:
'A friend, who led the Philharmonic for years, soloist, and he said to me one day,
"for the first 20 or 25 minutes of picking the violin up in the morning it's sheer
agony for me. I can't get my fingers round the notes, my bow arm is off and I need
at least 20 to 25 minutes, 30 minutes sometimes to warm up " and yet we all know
of people who just pick the violin up and play, all they need is two or three
minutes.'
Twelve of the 22 musicians interviewed needed very little time to warm up:
'I take very little time to warm up'.
' I do little fiddly patterns, most wind players do. All players have a little warm
up thing they do, they either do a scale or a little tune or whatever it is and I have
my little thing that I do. I do a run up, a couple of low notes and then I start.'
However the length of time could vary depending on other factors even in the same
musician:
' Well certainly the responsiveness of the embouchure is limited at the beginning
and it depends on all sorts of factors like perhaps, how tired you are, how cold it
is, and to get it to its optimum... it's like warming a car engine up... you known,
there is a point at which you function normally.'
This variability was also reflected in the materials used for warming up. Some
musicians used a simple study, a few scales or the piece that they were currently
working on:
'Well, I'll warm up on something like the first page of Schradiek or something.'
' I often either do a few scales or even unaccompanied Bach... seems to be good
to warm myfingersup.'
Nine of the musicians began each practice session with a set routine which not only
acted as a warming up procedure but also ensured that technical standards were
maintained. Such a routine might taken them 20 minutes or more. This approach was
identified in string, wind, and brass players. For example:
' I start off with scales. I then go on to technical exercises. I do one finger exercise,
one bowing exercise, then one in thumb position... It's all pretty mechanical.'
Another described:
'I do tend to have a set routine. I try and cover a bit of everything, every bit of
technique when I practise because I find that if I don't, for instance, practise a bit

10

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

of double tonguing for a few weeks and then suddenly I've got to use it I find it's
a bit rusty so I try and do a bit of everything, long notes, lip slurs, extreme high
notes, extreme low notes, even if I only manage up to half an hour.'
In stark contrast, one musician never warmed up. Each practice session was started
with a performance from cold. Her rationale for this was that it simulated public
performance where adequate ' warming up' is not always possible.
The interviews also revealed conflicting opinions about the importance of scales and
technical work. One group of musicians for instance denigrated the practice of
technique for its own sake:
'I could never see the point of scales, because I've never met one in a piece of
music, ever.'
'Any scales I do are with pupils. I never practise scales. I basically don't believe
in scales. I don't believe in studies.'
Some felt that one could teach technique through the repertoire:
' I think that you could teach the violin, and any other instrument presumably, on
repertoire alone if you wanted to. You would have to be very selective about what
you used as study material but there are from the great works of art, sections that
are long enough to be useful for practice material... which will help you
enormously with certain technical points. And at the end of it you've learnt a work
of art.'
In contrast others felt that technical practice was of central importance:
' I always have an absolute routine, an absolute routine of basic arpeggios and
scales... and if I don't start with that then I feel absolutely, you know, that there
is something wrong.'
For those musicians who did not have a regular routine, practice centred around
preparing works to be performed. Two kinds of tasks were identified, learning an
unfamiliar piece and ensuring that a piece which was already well known was prepared
for performance.

Learning new music

When learning new music all but one of the musicians initially acquired an overview
of it, either by playing it through or by careful examination.
' I would have a look at it to see what sort of demands it makes.'
' I think, on the whole, I would tend to play through to get the idea of the piece
as a whole. To identify bits which are technically difficult for me and which I
would then, at a later date, single out for intensive practice straight away.'
Getting an overview of the work served both musical and technical purposes. Here
we will concentrate on the technical aspects, the musical and interpretive aspects have
been described elsewhere (Hallam, 1992).
After the identification of technical difficulties, practice was undertaken to overcome
problems. The musicians had a repertoire of strategies which they were able to utilise
as necessary to master differing technical passages. To some extent these depended on
the nature of the instrument itself. However some general trends emerged.

11

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

All of the musicians emphasised the importance of either cognitive analysis or slow
meticulous playing in the early stages of learning a new work.
'A passage will be broken down to a very small problem, taking in bits as one
would learn a line of poetry at a time. The brain is then given a small problem to
solve and can go into it in depth'.
' The main thing is to pinpoint the problem and then go over it slowly enough so
that one can sort it out and then not practise the mistake and make it worse.'
After this initial stage one of two main strategies was adopted, repetitious or
analytic. Some musicians preferred the use of repetitive strategies to gradually
increase speed, often using a metronome to assist in this process:
' I set about it methodically with the help of a metronome.'
' Mostly working with a metronome. Starting slowly and gradually increasing the
speed over all the technically difficult passages. I find that is invaluable.'
Others in contrast tended to adopt a more analytic approach, changing rhythms,
varying slurs, inventing relevant exercises, etc. For instance one described:
' I break it right down, not just from bar to bar but from group of notes to group
of notes and go through various ways, obviously slowly and even if the passage is
slurred or tongued I'll do it both ways. So I do different articulations, slur two,
tongue two, in pairs, all tongued and dotted rhythm... and then eventually speed
it up, build up the tempo, then practise it quietly, loudly... I find that changing
rhythm is very helpful.'
Musicians adopting this approach often actively rejected repetitive methods:
' If you can't play this passage, what do you do about it. You don't play it 60 times
and people outside the door think "My God, that chap is really practising hard
isn't he", because he's probably wasting his time. It's really like somebody hitting
a nut 60 times when in fact you do not need a hammer.'
The goal oriented behaviour described by Miklaszewski (1989) was also evident in
one musician's description of his work:
' I like to practise things up to speed even if they're a mess and then having made
a mess of it go back and work at it very slowly but always repeating the attempt
to play it at full speed in order to get the flow...I think it, it's a fallacy to think
that if you can play something slowly correctly then you can play it fast. It
obviously helps but I think that you find when you play something quickly a
whole load of different technical factors, physical factors come into operation
which don't apply when you play it slowly.'
Three of the brass players and the percussionist tended not to work on specific
pieces but rather ensured that their technique was of a sufficiently high standard to
deal with difficulties as they arose. This may reflect the nature of the repertoire of these
instruments which tends to be limited in scope. One for instance described:
' If it is a piece of music that requires a lot of stamina and high notes then I will
resort to technical exercises for want of a better phrase, I won't necessarily
practise the piece itself.'
Within this limited sample it was clear that there were a number of individual ways
of approaching practice which were not related to particular instrumentation. The use

12

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

of a larger sample would enable exploration of differences in procedures between

instruments or groups of instruments, while also taking account of individual
diversity.

Technical/musical orientation
The interview data also enabled the categorisation of the musicians in relation to their
orientation to practice, technical or musical. Criteria for establishing categorisation
were derived from Sloboda's (1985) model. A technical approach was identified on the
basis of regular practice, emphasis on the importance of scales, exercises and studies
and an overall stress on the technical aspects of playing. A musical orientation was
identified on the basis of an emphasis on both analysis and the musical as opposed
to the technical aspects of playing and also the acquisition of a store of musical
knowledge.
The definition of approach to practice was made on the basis of either, the
musicians' own description as evidenced from direct statements made in the
interviews, or oh the relative attention focused on each aspect in the description of
practice.
Despite the fact that all the musicians interviewed exhibited great sensitivity in
performance and had considerable technical skills there were musicians who satisfied
the criteria for categorisation as technically oriented. For example, one musician had
a daily routine which preceded all specific preparation for performance. Certain tried
and tested studies were used because 'they do me good. I need them'. Technique was
'put under a microscope'. No information was volunteered about the musical aspects
of performance by this musician until it was specifically requested. All the points
raised in the interview were regarding technique. She also stated a preference for
practising technically in the morning and 'playing' musically in the afternoon. This
terminology indicating a view of practice as work, a means of improving and
consolidating technical expertise. Practice was also a daily occurrence even when no
concerts were imminent. This musician clearly demonstrated a technical orientation
to practice.
A number of musicians categorised themselves in terms of a technical orientation to
practice:
'I think that the time when one is practising is the time to sort out the
technicalities of it and that if you have that behind you then when you get together
with everyone else and have the combined effect, a performance will emerge.'
12 of the 22 musicians were categorised as technical in their orientation to practice.
Even within this group there was considerable individual diversity, some musicians
adopting an approach very similar to that outlined by Sloboda (1985), while others
reported a technical approach which was essentially task oriented. This latter group
did emphasise technique in their practice but they did not practise regularly nor did
they practise scales or exercises. Technical work was related directly to works which
were to be performed.
Only one musician could be categorised as approaching practice from a musical
orientation as outlined by Sloboda (1985). For this musician practising centred on
performance. Interpretations were developed from extensive listening over many
years and the importance of sound was stressed.
'I'm a great listener... I've always been very keen to hear performance. I heard
pieces played and heard the same piece played more than once and started to form

13

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

opinions about interpretation and my own preferences, through hearing a, b and

c'
'All practice is geared to performance and performance is essentially about sound.
If one does not like the sound someone makes then you will not wish to listen any
more. Everything should be geared towards that, fingerings, bowings and so on.'
This musician stressed the importance of mental analysis rather than physical
activity. In teaching, exams and technique were opposed for their own sake with the
emphasis on performance.
'I'm anti exams and I'm anti technique for want of a better word...in terms of
studies and technical material... for the sake of it.'
This musician himself supported Sloboda's distinction between 'technicians' and
'musicians' although 'occasionally one gets both'. For him musicianship was
paramount and 'small errors can be tolerated if they do not spoil the music'
He demonstrated concern for playing the correct notes but indifference in relation
to technical issues for their own sake:
' I think fingering is very unimportant... you've got to play the right notes but it
doesn't matter a damn what fingering you use, if you can play all the right notes.
If you can play the Moto Perpetuo of Paganini without making a mistake by using
only two fingers, well then go ahead.'
This musician demonstrated a clear musical orientation towards practice.
Nine musicians, while they exhibited a preference for one orientation gave due
consideration to both. For instance, one described:
' I believe that you have to mix things you like doing with things that you do not
like doing. I cannot pretend that scale practice is the most exciting thing in the
world but we have to do it... There are certain kinds of practice where one must
pretend that one is a machine. I known the benefits of that. There is a great deal
to be gained from the absolute rigid sort of either scale practice, finger studies or
bowing studies. But too much of that is bad for you, a little bit if necessary.'
A similarly balanced approach was demonstrated in his teaching:
'I tell my pupils how different they are. Some are incapable of playing with any
kind of freedom. They are so rigid. Their fingers go down like machines, so I
encourage them to get away from that. Others are incapable of playing a simple
melody with the right note values. They distort everything. These are the two
extremes.'
Initially, for him, learning was technical to master the notes which then enabled him
to 'do justice to the music'. Musical ideas were developed through playing as analytic
evaluation only uncovered the structure of the work whereas:
' to breathe life into the music which the performer has to do, then one has to play
it.'
Interpretation was derived from playing not listening, concerts were frequently
attended, although recordings were criticised for their artificiality. For technical
problems an ' analytic approach which encouraged slow practice' was adopted whilst
agility was also encouraged by 'playing at speed with less concern for accuracy.'
This musician epitomized what Sloboda (1985) describes as the 'master musician'.

14

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

Musical/technical Daily practice Scale Analytic/serial

Mixed orientation practice Mixed approach

No
1— -Analytic 1

-Serial
-Mixed
-Analytic
Sometimes
- Mixed

Sometimes
Sample
22 No _ ^ Serial 2
Analytic 1

-Serial 2
-Analytic 1
Sometimes
1 Serial 1

-Serial 2
•Mixed 1

Sometimes^ Serial 1
Mixed 1
Analytic 1

-Serial 1
-Mixed 1

Fig 2. Professional musicians approaches to detailed practice.

On the basis of these criteria all of the musicians were categorised as adopting a
technical, musical or balanced approach to practice. Figure 2 illustrates the
relationship between the approach to practice, regularity of practice, scale practice,
and detailed analytic or serial practice. As can be seen there is considerable individual
variation.

Relationship between orientation to practice and approach to

interpretation
Earlier research considering the ways in which musicians developed interpretation
(Hallam, 1992) revealed considerable individual diversity. Differences emerged in the
ways in which interpretation was approached and in the degree of spontaneity
considered acceptable in performance. The findings, based on the work of Pask (1976),
indicated three clear approaches. One group of musicians, described as analytic/

15

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

Practice orientation Interpretation approach

Musical ,1 Analytic/holist 1

Analytic/holist
Sample
22 Versatile
Intuitive/serialist

Versatile
Technical 12 Intuitive/serialist
No interpretation

Fig 3. Relationship of orientation to practice and approach to interpretation,

The relationships can be summarised as follows:

(1) No analytic/holist adopted a technical approach to practice;

(2) No intuitive/serialist adopted a musical approach to practice; and

(3) Versatile learners tended to adopt a mixed approach to practice.

The approach to interpretation of the learner seems to be reflected in
the orientation to practice.

holists, adopted holist strategies and approached the task using conscious cognitive
analysis. They based their interpretations on knowledge acquired from listening to a
wide range of music, were concerned with discovering the underlying meaning of the
music, and made connections between disparate musical ideas. They had pre-planned
musical representations, established before they embarked on physical practice, which
they wished to achieve. For them the process of interpretation was 'top down'. In
contrast those described as intuitive/serialists adopted serial strategies and derived
interpretation through intuitive processes. They actively rejected cognitive analysis as
a means of developing interpretation and resisted listening to recordings of works to
be learned, wishing to avoid external influences. For them interpretation 'evolved'
through unconscious, intuitive processes. It was essentially 'bottom up'. A number of
the musicians, described as versatile learners, adopted both strategies interchangeably,
although they also tended to exhibit preferences for either holist or serialist strategies.
There was also evidence of task oriented strategy use. For instance, in the initial
examination of a new work 77 % of the musicians consistently adopted a holist strategy
to establish a complete overview of the work, while a further 18% adopted this
strategy intermittently depending on the nature of the task.
How did the categorisations of the musicians on the basis of their approach to
interpretation relate to their orientation to practice? Figure 3 illustrates the
relationships. As can be seen the approach to interpretation of the learner seems to be
reflected in the orientation to practice.

16

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

Implications for teaching

What then are the implications of this research for instrumental teachers ? Probably
the single most important rinding is the level of individual diversity which exists in
musicians' approaches to practice. Similar diversity will be exhibited in students.
Teaching and practice demands therefore need to be tailored to meet individual needs.
The research indicates that not all professional musicians enjoy practice, although
they may enjoy related activities, for instance analysing and listening to music,
improvisation, group rehearsals, performing. Pupils who exhibit reluctance to practise
can therefore be encouraged to undertake musical activities which they do find
enjoyable. These will increase their musical knowledge and expertise, aspects of
learning which are equally as important as the development of technique. Where
students enjoy playing in orchestras and groups, these can provide opportunities for
practising technical and physical skills in a social situation which they may find more
palatable. This may not of course apply to all pupils, as there is evidence (Sloboda and
Howe, 1991) that some students find playing in groups demotivating.
Some of the professionals, as we saw, were task oriented, in that they practised only
in preparation for specific engagements. Students can also be motivated in this way.
The teacher therefore needs to provide opportunities for this group to perform to
stimulative motivation. The challenge of mastering a work was also motivating for
some professionals. Similarly, where pupils find the music interesting and of an
appropriately stimulating level, motivation is likely to increase. Some pupils may
appreciate the challenge of working on a piece unaided, providing that it is carefully
selected to be within their capabilities. Further research might explore the extent to
which this can act as a positive motivator.
The professionals also exhibited clear differences in the amount and regularity of
practice undertaken. This, to some extent, depended on their physical facility. Some
felt the need to practise on a daily basis, while others were content to allow long
periods to elapse without practising. There was, however, consensus that more regular
and systematic work needed to be undertaken at the training stage. At the professional
level practice was seen as more a question of maintenance than improvement. There
is however a growing body of research which highlights the problems experienced by
musicians in relation to tension and muscular problems. Whether long hours of
practice in childhood precipitate these problems is not known but in athletics and
other sports extensive training can lead to debilitating injuries. There may therefore
be a danger in encouraging young musicians to practise excessively as it may result in
physical difficulties later. This is clearly an area which requires research in the future.
The research also highlights the issue of concentration and how much practice, as
opposed to playing, can realistically be carried out in any one day. Teachers need to
distinguish between these activities and consider the level of concentration which
might be sustained by any individual pupil as there may be wide differences here.
The professionals acknowledged considerable diversity in the perceived weaknesses
in their playing and also what was found to be difficult. Pupils will also exhibit such
variation. In order to overcome technical problems and attain mastery of a work the
professionals adopted a range of strategies. Initially, slow detailed analysis provided
possible solutions to the problem. This was followed by procedures for ' speeding up'.
The professionals demonstrated preferences for particular approaches at this stage,
either a repetitive, serial approach or an analytic, variable approach. Teachers need to
be aware of these alternative strategies and provide opportunities for students to
explore and develop their preferred approach. Students can be presented with a range

17

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

of strategies, e.g. using a metronome, changing rhythms, changing articulation, and

their preferences can be discussed with them.
The content of practice will also need to be adapted to fit the individual needs of the
child in terms of both technique and musicianship. The student's weaknesses need to
be identified and discussed and appropriate strategies developed for dealing with
them. If a child does not enjoy practice and is extrinsically motivated then scales,
exercises and studies are likely to be seen in a negative light. In this case motivation
to practise scales might be increased by examination entry where they constitute an
element of the requirements. Teachers do need to exercise caution, however, in the
case of pupils where anxiety is increased as a result of performance pressures. Perhaps
for some pupils alternative means of developing technique might be found, e.g.
through selective use of the repertoire.
What of the development of interpretation and orientation to practice? The
musicians in this study were all rated by peers as consistently performing at a high
level, both musically and technically. However, only a small proportion listened
extensively to recorded music and actively analysed the structure of works that they
were learning. Many approached their practice from a technical point of view,
developing interpretation through an intuitive/serialist approach. Given that this is
the case, how do musicians adopting this approach learn to play musically ? It is likely
as Sloboda (1985) suggests that automated sensitive playing is derived initially from
imitation of other musicians. There would therefore appear to be a clear role for the
teacher in modelling expressive playing. Further, if we wish students to become the
'master musicians' of which Sloboda speaks we should provide opportunities for
listening to a wide variety of musical performances, and for discussing and analysing
music. Historically there has been a tendency for instrumental teachers to feel that
such learning is the responsibility of the classroom teacher. This has led students to
disassociate the two approaches and tend not to apply musical analysis to works to be
learned on their instrument. If we wish to enhance the performance of students this
clearly needs to be rectified. Perhaps teachers might consider the possibility of group
work in this respect, which would also be beneficial in terms of facilitating discussion
and highlighting individual preferences for particular performances. Students can be
encouraged to think in terms of the musical aspects of the works they are learning and
performing, rather than concentrating exclusively on technical perfection. This may
also have beneficial effects on performance in those students who experience
debilitating nerves. Concentrating on the perceived wishes of the composer,
interpretation and its communication to the audience rather than the possibility of
making errors and nervousness is likely to improve performance.
In conclusion, teachers need to tailor their teaching and the messages they
communicate in relation to practice to the individual needs of the child, taking account
of physical, musical and motivational diversity.

References
APPELBAUM, S. & APPELBAUM, S. (1972) The way they play. New Jersey: Paganiniana
Publications.
BLOOM, B. S. (1985) Developing talent in young people. New York: Balletine.
ERICSSON, K. A., TESCH-ROMER, C. & KRAMPE, R. (1990) The role of practice and motivation
in the acquisition of expert-level performance in real life. In M. J. A. Howe (Ed.),
Ecouraging the development of exceptional skills and talents. Leicester: BPS Books.
GRUSON, L. M. (1981) Investigating competence: a study of piano practising. Paper presented at
the 89th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.

18

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30

Professional Musicians' Orientations to Practice: Implications for Teaching

HALLAM, S. (1983) Carroll's (1963) model of learning: Its application to the tuition of stringed
instruments. Unpublished MSc. dissertation. University of London.
HALLAM, S. (1992) Approaches to learning and performance of expert and novice musicians.
Unpublished PhD thesis. University of London.
MIKLASZEWSKI, K. (1989) A case study of a pianist preparing a musical performance. Psychology
of Music, 17,95-109.
PASK, G. (1976) Style and strategies of learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46,
128-148.
PFAFF, T. (1989) Monster music: Violinist Nigel Kennedy is ready for anything. Strings,
Spring, 36-39.
SCHWARTZ, B. (1983) Great masters of the violin. London: Robert Hale.
SLOBODA, J. A. (1985) The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
SLOBODA, J. A. & HOWE, M. J. A. (1991) Biographical precursors of musical excellence: An
interview study. Psychology of Music, 19, 3-21.
WICINSKI, A. A. (1950) Psichologiceskii analiz processa raboty pianista-ispolnitiela nad
muzykalnym proizviedieniem (Psychological analysis of piano performer's process of work
on musical composition). Izviestia Akademii Piedagogiceskich Anuk Vyp., 24, 171-215.

19

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 May 2015 IP address: 61.129.42.30