Indian Journal of History of Science, 22(1) : 71-79 (1987) PERFUMERY IN ANCIENT INDIA (Mrs.) Rapua Krisaxamurriy ‘Shubhodaya’ 38, XI Main Road, Malleswaram West Bangalore 560 055 (Received 21 October 1986) Man invented many rdgas and raginis by vlending the seven notes to please his ears. He invented varieties of tasty dishes from grains and vegetables to gratify his tongue. A large number of beautiful specimens of sculpture from stones and wood and lovely paintings from colours were created to delight his eyes. Nose, the seat of olfactory sense was also not neglected and to enliven it he invented varie- ties of perfumes by blending natural and synthetic substances. This was not an easy task because while the other sense organs could be delighted with something concrete and easily perceptible things, he had to put effort to invent many methods to extract the subtle odoriferous elements from natural sources like roots, flowers, etc., and present them through a conerete medium or vehicle so that the enchanting odour could be retained and enjoyed longer. This necessitated the practice of perfumery as an art as well as a science because the work of a perfume-maker con- sists of proper blending of odoriferous substances which requires artistic sensitivity as woll as scientific knowledge. From time immemorial India is well known for its scents and fragrant substan- ces. Fragrant unguents were considered as accessories of beauty and we get several references in ancient Sanskrit texts about their use by men and women. Kalpa- siitras refer to the use of perfumed substances, It is stated that friends and rela- tives of brakmacari usod to bring fragrant substances or sandalwood paste at the samévartana ceremony which he applied to his body and he washed himself with scented water boiled with herbs of all kinds It is mentioned in the grhya sitras that a fragrant substance known as sthagara was offered to snakes and that special unguents were offered to snakes at the éravana ceremony.* Epics and other literary works are also replete with references to the practice of anointing the body with anulepana and aigaraga prepared generally from the grass udira (Andropogon muri- catus) or of candana (sandal)? Several other substances are also mentioned from which perfumed oils, unguents, ete., are produced. Kaleyaka (a plant producing essential oil), agaru (Aquilaria agallocha), ingudi (Terminalia catappa), candana, kastiéri (musk), kwikuma (saffron), etc., are the popular substances from which per-2 RADHA KRISHNAMURTHY fumes were prepared‘. Even substances like mana,sila (realgar), haritdla (orpi- ment), maitjigtha (madder) are referred as sources of fragrant essences.’ Concrete illustration of the art of toilet is found in Vatsyayana’s description of ndgaraka which makes it clear that use of perfumes and scents had become the daily routine of fashionable citizens of ancient India. The mention of phenaka in the text tells us that ancient Indians knew the manufacture of fragrant soaps also. Kautilya mentions the trade of high-priced fragrant wood like candana and its varioties, and agaru (resin of aloe) and its varieties, smelling like navamallikd, etc. He also men- tions tailaparnika trees whose wood yield essential oils for preparing porfumes such as asoka-grimika, jongaka, grameruka, etc, Kautilya has further described taila. parniké substances as having lasting smell, no matter whether they are made into 2 paste, or boiled, or burnt.? From all these references it is clear that people were manufacturing scents and perfumes in a scientific mannor and that perfumery was flourishing and was also encouraged as an important trade and industry. Perfumed articles of India formed an important item of export also, The term perfume in English gains its name from the fact that in its original form it was incense in the Egyptian temples (perfumare = to fill with smoke). But a perfume may be defined as any mixture of pleasantly odorous substances incor- porated in a suitable vehicle. The earliest Sanskrit text which offers rich material related to the scientific manufacture of perfumed articles is Brhat Samhita (BS) of Varahamihira. Different types of perfumed articles, their natural sources, methods of preparations, efc., have been treated in this text under the heading Gandhayukti, a term which stands for the art and science of cosmetics and. perfu- mery. The words gandhayuktijia and gandhayuktivida’ were also prevalent in those days which proves that a specialised class of artisans had taken to the manu- facture of and trade in cosmetics for their occupation. The word gandhayukti literally means a combination of perfumes. The chemical art of perfumery, viz.. gandhayukti is mentioned in Samaniya siitra also.® Vatsyfyana rofers to this as one of the 64 auxiliary arts connected with kamaédstra. The scientific art is dealt with in other texts also like Saragadhara paddhati, Agnipurdna, Manasolldsa of King Someévara, and Gandhastra of Gangidhara. Keladi Basavaraja of 17th century A.D. has included an elaborate treatmont of ‘this scientific subject in his voluminous treatise Sioa Tattva Raindkara (STR) which is a veritable source of information relating to the knowledge of sciences like chemiistry, metallurgy, ete. Different kinds of perfumed products and the methods of preparation thereof as given in toxts like BS and STR would now be discussed briefly based on which it, will be estoblished that perfumery had developed as a science in ancient India and that our country has contributed nothing loss to this branch of science which now hos reached a very advanced stage.PERYUMERY IN ANCIENT INDIA 3 Perfumed Oils : BS gives the method of preparing perfumed hair oil which emits the scent of campaka flower. Equal quantities of the powders of mafijigtha (maddex), vydghra- nakha (Euphorbia antiquorum), Sukti (Unguis odoratus), cassia bark, costus, and resin should be mixed in sesame oil and then the oil should be beated in the sun.!° Basavardja!! has suggested that oils meant for bath, massage, etc. should be rendered fragrant by mixing aromatic ingredients and medicinal herbs. His sugges- tion is that sesame grains should first be perfumed with fragrant flowers like campaka, punniiga, ketaki, jatt, ote., and crushed into the grinding stone to obtain fragrant oil which should be used for anointing. This method is somewhat different from the one recommended in BS. According to Agnipurdna’® also, sesame grains were first perfumed with flowers and then crushed to yield scented oils, Thus it becomes clear that two different methods were in vogue in those days to prepare scented oils. It is interesting to note that the author of STR has also given the general method of extracting oil from sesame seeds and also various methods of treating and processing the grains and perfuming the same He has recommended sesame oil as the oil base for preparing other types of perfumes also. So, it is advised that the oil seeds should be thoroughly dried in hot sunlight. ‘Two modes of processing sesame grains depending on the weather are given, viz., application of heat by exposing to the rays of sun in summer, autumn and spring, and heating the grains on fire in rainy season and in hemanta season.2? It is also noteworthy that Basavaraja has described the five methods which were in vogue in ancient India for the treatment (perfuming) of sesame grains. Mardana or rubbing by making use of the juice of pafteapallava (leaves of the five trees Ficus racemora, Ficus indica, Ficus lacor, Manjifera indica, Ficus religiosa) ; avedana, applying vapours of the juice of sarvagandhd ; lepana, besmearing with trijafa (bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, cardamom, Cinnamomum tamala), and triphala (three myrobalans) ; dhtipanam, fumigation with agar, kuikuma (saffron), and candana (Santalam album) ; and vdsanam, consisting of perfuming by mixing sesamo with tho powders of other aromatic substances. Recipe for preparing two kinds of oils emitting the smell of flowers is also provided. Equal measures of brigandha, agaru, kunkuma, abja (lotus), toak (bark of cimnamom), kugta (costus), tagara (Tabernaemontana coronaraia), ghanasara (camphor), arkola (Alangium sala- rifolium) and lakea (lac) should be mixed with thrice the measure of réla and the oil should be extracted from them as per the method of somayantra. Another scented oil blended with the perfumes of jaté, campaka, ketakt, maruvaka, and kastiiri is also mentioned.?° The mention of somayanira suggests that an apparatus some- what similar to the apparatus meant for distillation was in vogue even in thoso days and people know the technical art of distilling essence from natural sources. 104 RADHA KRISHNAMUBTHY Rasaratnasamuccaya, an ancient treatise dealing with meroury, minerals, etc., describes the method of extracting the fragrant essence from haritala (orpiment) and manapéila (realgar) by making use of kogfti apparatus and other means. Unguents : The author of STR has described the method of preparing a special type of ointment or paste which should bo applied to the body while taking bath. This in- volves the mixing the roots of musta (Cyperus rotundus), eld (cardamom), patra (cin- namon), éfc, ; leaves of noem, arjuna, etc., seeds of cardamom, sesame, sargapa (Brassica campestris), etc., twigs of suradaru (Cedrus deodara), lodhra (Symplocos racemosa), etc., and flowers of punndga (Rottleria tinctoria), picumanda (Azadirachta indica), karkandhu (Zizuphus jujuba), ec. All these substances should be ground well with rocksalt, Kola, sarjarasa (extract of Vateria indica) and guggulu (Commi- fora mukul) and then mixed with water to form a soft paste.!® ‘The same author has given recipes for the preparation of special unguents meant to be used in different seasons. The main ingredients in all these preparations are candana, karpiira, kastars, and kuikuma, For a special unguent meant for the hemanta season civet (of gandha-marjara) is prescribed as the main ingredient. Hanasollasa also gives the methods of preparing these unguents. Compound Perfumes : In tho above mentioned texts we find formulae for the preparation of a number of compound perfumes also which when mixed with oil and applied will kindle passion, The perfume obtained by mixing and blending together equal proportions of patra, turugka, vala, and tagara (Tabernae montana coronaria) is called smaroddi. pana, The same with dyamaka (Punicum italicum) and fumigated with katuka (Hi- biseus abelmoschus) and hifigu (Ferula asafoetida) emits the aroma of vakula flower. ‘That with kugfa gives the fragrance of utpala flower and with sandal powder gives the scent of campaka, Tho addition of jatiphala (nutmeg), tuak (cassia bark), and kustumburu (special coriander) yields a perfume smelling like atimukta.2 ‘The above method which is given in S7'R* also proves that perfume-makers in ancient India judiciously blended the synthetic and natural essences in order to enhance the natural perfume and to introduce new notes of fragrance. ‘They suecee- ded in creating floral essences of such flowers which yielded no natural essence.or extraction of whose essence was too expensive or too difficult to make it profitable. We find some more methods of producing synthetic perfumes (as in modern times) emitting the smell of kastiri, campaka, ketaki, and sakakira.™ Our ancients had formulated some methods of ascertaining and selecting diffe- ‘rent proportions of various aromatic substances to get various notes of perfumes.PERFUMERY IN ANCIENT INDIA 75 Basavardja has given a list of nine aromatic ingredients from which many varieties of perfumes (incenses) could be obtained by combining them in proportions indicated by multiples of 1/9 part of each of them and thus 72 perfumes could be formed to make incenses. In a similar manner we get a formula for obtaining eighty four kinds of per- fumes. A diagram is drawn of nine squares in which are to be entered nine aroma- tie substances—lodhra, udira, nala, agaru, musté (Cyperus rotundus), patra, pri- yargu (Panicum italicwm), vana, and pathya (Terminalia chebula)—in order, Any three substances taken in any order should be mixed with one part each of sandal and turugka (olibanum), half of dukti, quarter of batapugpa (Anethum sowa) and then fumigated with kafuka, hiigu and treacle. In this way, 84 scents are obtained by different combinations. Similarly, we got the method of preparing some all-purpose perfumes known as sarvatobhadra from 16 ingredients. This is also explained by means of a diagram, Four of these substances are blended at a time so that 18 proportions are combined to form a compound perfume. Each of these should be combined with nakha, turugka, tagara, nutmeg, camphor, and musk and fumigated with treacle and nakha. From the ingredients, rodhra (Symplocos racemosa), udira, nala, agaru, musta, patra, priyakgu, vana, and pathya, any three taken at will and enriched with nutmeg, musk, camphor and sprinkled with juice of mango fruits and honey yield several mouth perfumes which ean be made into vatis or tablets with the scent of parijata.® In a similar manner we find the mode of preparing differont types of unguents, incenses in the form of lump, powder and sticks, mouth perfumes, talcum powder, dte.,in BS, STR and Manasollésa, An interesting method of obtaining a large num- ber of incenses is given. A list of sixteen substances is given like ghana, valaka, Saileyaka (benjoin), usira, agaru, and so on. All imaginable combinations and permutations in 1, 2, 8, 4 parts are said to give 1,820, 43,680 or 174,720 varicties of incenses. It is also advised that all the substances should be severally fumigated with sarja, Srivdsaka, treacle and nakka and then mixed with musk and camphor. Numerous types of mouth perfumes are also mentioned in these texts. Mouth perfumes formed by combining small cardamoms, cloves, kankola, nutmeg, nidakara and jatipatra are also mentioned.” White Camphor : STR gives the process of obtaining white camphor. Bulbous root of sigru (Moringa pterygosperma) should be washed well and made into fine powder, and then mixed with wet black pepper, arikola (Alangium salvifolium) and phala (myto- balan) each weighing half a karga, This mixture should be placed in a vessel which should be clean, soft, and devoid of any smell and then heated. This will yield gamphor pieces as precipitates resembling pieces of moon,**76 RADHA KRISHNAMURTHY The same text gives the mothod of softening flower petals like that of ketakt and mallika. Ketaki petals besmeared with devadali, phala, agasti, madhuyagti, sufatkana, and pure honey and placed in a vessel heated or held in the scorching sunlight will get softened and liquificd.2” Flavours : Flavours are used for cooking, for sweets, beverages, syrups, toothsticks, and medic’ Of course, the basic flavours which the sense of smell can detect are only six. But the conception of flavour involves combination of these basic stimuli with the concurrent odour sensations. Hence the principles of perfume-blending hold good for flavour manufacturing also. Basavaréja has devoted an interesting chapter in STR in which many flavoured drinks, eatables, milk, and yoghurts are described. They aro not discussed here for want of space. ConcLUSION A study of these chapters dealing with perfumery in the above texts and parti- cularly in STR and BS gives us a picture of the gradual development in the process and techniques of manufacturing perfumes, The early incenses were merely mix- tures of finely ground aromatic ingredients held together by myrrh, storax, or jaggery (aromatic resinous substances). ‘The next advance is also clearly seen, viz., the discovery that if spices and flowers were steeped. in oil or fat, the oil or fat would retain a portion of the odoriferous principle. Tt is clearly seen from the above dis- cussion that this method was adopted in tho proparation of fragrant ointments, unguents, and oils, From the recipes given for artificial imitation of natural flower scents such as the essence of vakula, utpala, campaka, etc. in BS and STR, itis clear that manufacture of synthetic scents was popular even in the past. The methods given for making a large number of compound sconts by arranging them in a sort of scale according to the proportions of certain basic scents reveal the fact that per- fume makers were clever and judicious in introducing a large number of notes of fragrance. Practically all the products used in ancient Indian perfumery were of natural origin. The aromatic ingredients wero in the form of leaves, flowers, fruits, barks, woods, roots, exudations from plants, and organic products like musk, lac, and civet. If wo carefully go through the lines of the above texts which describe the pre- paration of various perfumed substances we come across the following terms which imply the various chemical procosses employed in perfume manufacture. BS men- tions pakva (decoction), tapta (heating), samyuta (mixing), pradhiipa or dhiipya (fumigation), Sikta (sprinkling), bodka (combination of powders), vedka (blending ofPERFUMERY IN ANCIENT INDIA 7 one liquid with other), dranya samskdra (purification of ingredients), and bhdvana (saturation of a powder with a liquid). Gangidhara in Gandhasdra mentions six processes of treatment of ingredients, viz., bhdvanam, picanam, bodhanam, vedhanam, dhiipana, and vésana (perfuming)2 A fow other works also mention eight processes whereas STR mentions five methods of treatment of oil seeds, mardana, svedana, lepana, dhitpana, and visana5* It may be noted that even though these texts have not said anything about the scientific apparatus with which those processes were carried out, it is obvious that thoy were used in these days because works like Rasaratnasamuccaya give dotails of apparatus like kog{hi apparatus, svedani yantram, and so on According to the modern science of perfumery the constituents of perfume are threefold, viz., the vehicle or solvent, the fixative, and the odoriferous elements.* Vehicle or solvent : In the modern days the solvent for blending and holding perfumed materials is refined ethyl alcohol because it has a volatile nature which helps to project the seent it carries. In ancient texts we do not come across the mention of aleohol as the vehicle but in most perfumes sesame oil is used as the vehicle which, though not very volatile, spreads when applied on tho skin or cloth and retains the perfume longer and leaves a cooling effect on the body unlike aleohol. Fivatives : Ancient Indians know the importance of fixatives also, though they have not specifically mentioned their purpose. Fixatives are substances which are of lower volatility than the perfumed oils and which retard and even-up the rate of evapora- tion of the various odorous constituents. They make the scent last longer. Gene- rally animal secretions, resinous products, essential oils, and synthetic chemicals are used as fixatives. They may or may not contribute to the odour of the finished product but if they do they must blend with and compliment the main fragrance, In many of the unguents, incenses, efc., mentioned in the above texts we find the use of animal secretions like musk, civet, lac, efc. Resinous products like agarw, hitigu, ete., were also used to act as fixatives. Many essential oils such as oils of ubira, candana, tagara, etc., were used perhaps as fixatives. Though the use of synthotic chemicals are not mentioned, the use of samudraphena, etc., suggests that chemicals also were used but from natural sources, From the above discussion it becomes clear that our ancients were judicious in selecting and combining proper fixatives with the solvents or vehicles in perfume manufacture,78 RADHA KBISENAMUBTHY Odoriferous elements : The odorous substances used in perfumery are generally the essential oils, An essential oil is a volatile, odoriferous oil of vegetable origin. They are found in buds, flowers, leaves, barks, stems, fruits, seeds, wood, roots and exudates of trees. Though any definite method of recovering essontial oils is not mentioned in the texts, the methods given of softening and liquifying flower petals like those of Retakt and jasmine indicate that our ancients had adopted some scientific method of reco- vering essential oils from plants. For example, the mention of candana suggests the use of its essential oil from its wood. Mention of tuak suggests the use of the essential oil of cinnamon from its bark. Thus it is proved beyond doubt that our poople had given thought to all the three constituents of perfume, viz., vehicle, fixa- tive, and odoriferous clement. From the aforesaid discussion it is clear that perfumery was practised on soicn- tific basis in ancient India, REFERENCES 2 Hiragyokedi Orhya Sutra, T. 10.4. Govnita riya Sutra, IV. 15.8. 9 Sakkhayana Grhya Sutra, TV. 15.8, Paraéara Ophya Siira, If, 14.17. Apastamba Grhya Satra, VII. 18.11. * Riusamhara of Kalidasa, V. 5. Kumérasambhava of Kalidasa, V. 68, ete. ‘ Rtusamhara, IV. 5. Kumarasambhava, VU. 9. Raghwandam of Kaliddsa, XIV. 2. ete. © Kumarazambhava, VII. 28. * Kamasutra, 16. 7 Arthadastra, TL. 1, © Brhat Samhita of Varahamibire, XV. 12; KVI. 17. ® Mookerii, R. K., Ancient Indian Education, p. 585, 19 BS, LXXVI, 6. % Siva Pattoa Ratnakara, VI. 14.93. 44 Agnipurdna, COXXIV. 88. "STR, VI. 15.3.5. 4 Tbid., VI. 15.69, 8 [bid., VI. 15, VL 15.59, ¥ Rasarainasamuccaya TIL. 81.95. 3 STR, VI. 14.37.48. 18 Thid., VI. 14.60.87. 2 BS, LKXVI. 7. * STR, VI. 16.14,PERFUMERY IN ANCIENT INDIA % Ibid., VI. 16.52-58. ® [bid., VL 15. 24 BS, LXXVI. 29, 30. % [bid., LXXVI, 27. % Ibid., LXXVI. 13-22 and STR, V. 15. 1 Agnipuraya, COXXIV. 34, ™ STR, VI. 15.41, 49. % Ibid. VI. 15.61-62. 9 BS, LXXVI. 2, 6, 12, 16, 27, 16, ete. Ray, P, (Ed.) History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, p. 287. 3 Agnipurays, OCXXIV. 20-21. Vignudharmottarapurdya, II. 64. 178. % STR, VI. 15. % Rasaratnasamuccaya, Chapter IX. 8 Shreve, Norris, The Chemical Process Industries, p. 570. 19