YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 24:75-100(1981)

Human Kinesiology
BRIAN A. BLANKSBY, GRAEME A. WOOD, AND LEONARD FREEDMAN
Department of Human Movement & Recreation Studies (BA.B., GA.W); Department of
Anatomy and Human Biology ( B A B . , L.F.), Nedlands, Western Australia, 6009,
Australia

KEY WORDS Human movement, Technique analysis, Instrumentation,

Running, Sport, Industry, Medicine

ABSTRACT This paper discusses kinesiological aspects of human locomotion

in terms of the incomplete morphological adaptation of the body to current life-
styles.
Modern instrumentation used for biomechanical analyses is outlined for the
most part in the context of human running. Investigations of spatiotemporal and
segmental measures by electronic walkways, photography, optoelectronics and
angle-angle diagrams are referred to, as is electromyography and direct force
measurement.
Three commonly identifiable areas of applied kinesiological research, namely
sport, industry and medicine, are considered with reference to the prevention,
treatment and after-care of injuries whether received on the sporting field, in the
work place, or in an automobile accident.

The study of human kinesiology can take many forms, depending on one’s major area
of expertise and interest, and also on the connotation which one puts on the term.
Because kinesiology has been derived from the Greek words “kinein” (to move) and
“log~s”(to study), its literal meaning, “the study of motion,’’ may be interpreted in a
very general fashion to mean anything to do with movement. Thus it no longer nec-
essarily assumes its earlier restricted connotation of external and musculoskeletal
forces acting on pulleys and levers within a body to effect movement or maintain
stability. Departments d physical education have been renamed departments of ki-
nesiology and may embrace the sociological, physiological, psychological, historical,
and mechanical bases of movement.
For the more restricted use of the term kinesiology, biomechanics is currently the
term more commonly used throughout the world. A simple but effective definition of
the term is provided by Hay (1978): “Biomechanics is the science that examines the
internal and external forces acting on a human body and the effects produced by these
forces.” Contini (1963) divides biomechanics into two areas:
(a) General Biomechanics, which deals with the basic laws and rules which govern human and
animal bodies in motion and at rest, and is further subdivided into biostatics and biodyn-
amics.

(b) Applied Biomechanics, which is more concerned with practical problems of improving
movement, positions and human well-being in industry, agriculture, medicine, dentistry,
military activities, sports and everyday life.

0 1981 Alan R. Liss, Inc.

0096-848X/81/2401-0075$07.00
76 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

In a recent review, Atwater (1980) traced the history of the discipline and pointed
to its roots stretching back to Aristotle. She discussed extensively the difficulties in
differentiating between the names “kinesiology” and “biomechanics,” and concluded
that much overlap exists. Atwater also said that kinesiological analysis is concerned
with the molecular and microscopic aspects, the gross anatomical and mechanical fea-
tures, and both applied and theoretical computer modelling. For the purposes of the
present paper the terms kinesiology and biomechanics will be used interchangeably
and Atwater’s comprehensive definition accepted.
THE STUDY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT
Humans have always shown great interest in their movement patterns, as is abun-
dantly evident in paintings, sculpture and dance. Apart from the obvious practical
rationale for improving understanding of strengths and weaknesses, areas of fragility
and potential for injury prevention, the impetus for self-examination may simply be
“because the body form and motor patterns are our own’’ (Grand, 1976).
In any biological system there are many biomechanical elements which influence
function a t any one time. Perhaps any comprehensive analysis of a particular movement
should therefore begin with a consideration of the actin-myosin sliding filaments; the
proportions of fast and slow twitch fibers, and the total number, length and orientation
of the muscle fibers present. The passive viscoelastic properties of the muscle and its
active motor unit firing pattern also need to be considered, as do the roles of the various
participating muscles, whether they be prime mover, antagonist, synergist or stabilizer.
Next, the architecture of the skeletal system about which the muscles act and the
external loads which are being overcome must also be considered to fully appreciate
the biomechanical complexity of the movement. Finally, each of these elements is in
turn affected by such physiological variables as temperature, hemodynamics and fa-
tigue. It is very difficult,if not impossible, to distinguish between each of these subunits
under varying conditions of operation. Uncontrolled variables also render meaningful
analysis difficult.
Difficultiesalso arise in developingcontrolled models because the number of variables
and their interactions may make the mathematics too complex. The situation can be
idealized but may reach a point where it becomes difficult to accept that the model
resembles its living counterpart at all (Zweifach, 1972). Further, for the analysis of
many situations, an interdisciplinary team approach over a period of years is necessary
for in-depth, longitudinal data. Thus each member can contribute a speciality to analyze
the complex functional units of the body which coordinate effectively for routine move-
ments. At present, anatomists, biophysicists, bioengineers, orthopedists, physical ther-
apists, physical educators and biomathematicians are among those working in the field
of biomechanics.
Physical anthropologists are also vitally interested in human structural/functional
relationships as they seek to fill in evolutionary gaps for a better understanding of the
hominization process. By studying present day pongid and hominid functional anatomy,
and utilizing the known early hominid fossil material, one can begin t o piece together
the evolutionary adaptations that must have occurred sequentially starting in a gen-
eralized quadrupedal, arboreal, climbing form. Changing ecological conditions probably
led to descent from the trees for increasing periods of time. To cope with this new
environment and its challenges, these incipient hominids were progressively selected
for an erect, bipedal, striding form of locomotion. Closely associated with the necessary
adaptations was the freeing of the hands, which became available for carrying. ma-
nipulating and manufacturing. A final phase of rapid brain evolution completed the
horninization process.
How far these evolutionary trends progressed before cultural aids limited the ne-
cessity for further adaptations is a matter of conjecture. But because of them, much of
the human body has remained in a generalized form that has been able to cope with
a variety of environmental conditions. This feature has been responsible for a significant
portion of the biological success of our species. However, Krogman (1951)has reminded
us that “incomplete adaptation” has left several “scars” with which humans must
Blanksby et al.] HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 77

contend. Several weak areas in the abdominal wall render humans susceptible to her-
nias. To permit erect posture, and twisting and bending, the vertebrae have become
wedge-like and bear increasing amounts of weight as well as pivoting on the edges as
hinges. Incorrect lifting can cause low back pain, which is a very common complaint
in our society. Willee (1980) posed the question when describing traction experienced
by brachiating groups, “Have you ever seen a monkey with back trouble?’ He suggests
that a possible prevention for human low back ailments is to hang suspended for periods
of one minute several times each day. However, orthopedic diagnosis and care is un-
known in the forests, and results of such injuries may have fatal consequences because
of the lack of such medical care. Indeed, a study by Buikstra (1975) revealed that 40%
of an adult population of macaques had healed fractures of the long bones or clavicles.
A similar result was found in gibbons (Schultz, 1969), and as there was almost certainly
those that did not heal after injury and therefore died, adaptation for life in the forest
may not be as idyllic as is sometimes thought.
Human anatomy has changed little during the past 30,000 years, and the body was
not prepared for the Western lifestyle of “Homo sedentarius” now experienced by many
people. In terms of original purpose, there now exists a high degree of artificiality in
work and leisure activities. These challenge the body with stresses for which it is poorly
adapted evolutionarily. For example, a relatively slender neck and decreased muscu-
lature about the head and neck increase the vulnerability to injuries to the opposite
side of the head (contre-coup, as in boxing) and vehicle whiplash injuries, which can
be devastating (Keith, 1923; Krogman, 1951).
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT IN KINESIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
The scientific study of human and animal motion had its modern beginnings with
da Vinci’s studies of anatomical structure and function and Borelli’s mathematical
treatment of the motion of body parts (Rasch and Burke, 1978).Methods for the analysis
of human motion in Renaissance times were naturally crude. Borelli’s studies of the
rectilinearity of human motion were based on the apparent shift in position of two
vertical poles placed in line with his approaching walk. In fact, it was not until the
19th century that instruments for the continuous registration of human movements
were developed, even the classical work on gait by the Weber brothers having been
based on purely observational techniques.
In 1872 Carlet developed a pressure registering shoe for his studies into the timed
sequence of foot fall patterns in gait, and Vierordt (1881) used ink pads and jets affixed
to a shoe to obtain a continuous record of foot movements. But it was the photographic
ingenuity of Marey (1885) and Muybridge in 1887 (Muybridge, 1955), both of whom
developed techniques for time-sequence photography, which paved the way for com-
prehensive studies of human locomotion (Braune and Fischer, 1895; Bernstein, 1930).
Today the kinesiologist has a bewildering array of instrumentation a t his disposal,
rivalled only by the complexity of his subject. The following sections outline the primary
methods of investigation of kinesiological measurement and provide examples of their
use in the study of human running.
Running
A comparison of human running velocities with those of running specialists from the
animal world demonstrates that humans are not in the same class (e.g., 40 kph for 100
m for humans versus 110 kpg capability of the cheetah). A study of animal runners
also reveals the structural-functional morphology exhibited by the running specialists.
It is possible that humans may gain some insight into the technique from observing
such features as the highly developed hyperflexion-hyperextension mechanism of the
cheetah spine (Hildebrand, 1960) and the extra segment provided by the digitigrade
gait of the horse with more tendinous structures placed distally and muscular portions
closer to the center of mass (Hildebrand, 1960). Humans are generalists rather than
specialists and in sprint running attempt to add an extra segment by landing on the
ball of the foot. However, the energy cost is high and therefore the foot plant becomes
flatter as the distance to be run is increased (Blanksby, 1971). Slocum and James (1968)
78 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol 24, 1981

considered the lumbo-sacral joint to be important in human running because of the

otherwise limiting effect of the iliofemoral ligament during striding.
Much human running is not just racing with predictable stride lengths and rates,
but in games where rapid twisting and swerving is required. Frequently “blind side”
collisions with other players are unavoidable or even highly desirable if winning and
spectator fervor are sought. Orthopedists often speak of a “classical medial mceniscus
and ligament tear” and other traumas resulting from impact injuries in contact sports.
The medical and sports medical journals are full of such cases.
Spatiotemporal Measures
Locomotion can be described simply in terms of the rate of progression, essentially
a product of stride length (distance travelled between successive foot falls of the same
extremity) and stride rate (the cyclic frequency of this occurrence). Clearly many com-
binations of stride length and stride rate could result in the same speed of progression,
but at slow speeds the normal pattern is characterised by a combination of stride length
and stride rate which requires a minimum in energy expenditure. When the speed of
progression exceeds 10 km hr-l it is more economical to run (defined as a locomotor
pattern which incorporates an airborne phase) than to walk, and with increasing speed
thereafter the runner typically increases first stride length and then stride rate (Fig.
1).
While photographic techniques provide an adequate means of recording this infor-
mation, provided due care is taken in establishing temporal and spatial scales, some
investigators (e.g., Wall et al., 1978)have found it expedient to develop special electronic
walkways which record foot fall patterns in real-time. Much of the interest in these
measures comes from the clinician concerned with asymmetries or abnormal gait pat-
terns. These may result from congenital abnormalities or accidents, or they may be of
importance in the evaluation of postoperative orthopedic surgery or in the improved
design of a prosthesis.
Segmental Measures
More complete analyses of body movements involving the measurement of body
segment positions and joint angulations are only possible through multi-point record-
ings, typically of landmarks on the surface of the body which define the extent of each
body segment. For this purpose photographic methods, including multiple exposures
and cine, are commonly used, although the tedious data reduction procedure of digitizing
film and reconstructing 3-D movements is quite a challenge, even with the aid of
modern computers (Fig. 2).
Recent attempts to bypass photography have seen the development of video camera
systems with automatic scanning of the television picture (pattern recognition) to ex-
tract position-time information on body markers (Winter et al., 1972).Although limited
to a 50 or 60 Hz framing rate, these systems hold much potential, and there is already
available a digital camera capable ofoperating in the 10-300 Hz range (Brugger and
Milner. 1978).
There are also commercially available systems based on optoelectronics, t:he most
elaborate being the SELSPOT (Selective Light SPOT recognition). This system enables
position-timedeterminations of multiple infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs)attached
to the body (Woltring, 1974). Initial restrictions of an “umbilical cord” between subject
and instrument have now been overcome by means of a battery pack carried on the
subject, and the 3-D real-time capacity of the system offers much promise.
Once gathered, it is customary to present segmental position-time information in
graphic form, either as angle-time plots or as angle-angle diagrams (Grieve, 1969), the
latter a format particularly useful for the analysis of cyclic movements. Angle-angle
diagrams are simply plots of the angular excursions of two adjacent segments, one
against the other, and yield a pattern that is easily interpreted and highly sensitive
to movement changes. For example, changes in the angular displacements of tlhe thigh
and knee joint with increased running speed are quite evident in Figure 3. The salient
features emerging are (a)increased hip extension a t take-oe (b) increased knee flexion
Blanksby et al.1 HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 79

during forward swing to decrease moment of inertia; (c) greater forward rotation of the
thigh in latter stages of forward swing; and (d) decreased support time and increased
flight time as indicated by the number of timing divisions in each phase.
The importance of measures of body movements which depict the coordinated inter-
action of parts is widely recognized, particularly in the gait clinic, and several electrical
and photic goniometers have been developed for real-time determinations of relative
angular motions (Mitchelson, 1973). Inaccuracies due to shifts in joint center location
with respect to the attached device have now been largely overcome. These devices
nevertheless suffer the same disadvantage as the previously mentioned optoelectronic
systems for automatic movement registration, in that any attachment t o the body must
impede to some extent the natural movements of the subject.
With increased sophistication of motion-recording instrumentation has come more
detailed quantification procedures. Analyses commonly proceed to a modelling of the
body as a biokinematic chain whose links, of assumed mass and moment of inertia, are
considered to be connected a t frictionless pinjoints (Dempster, 1955). Equations of
motion can be derived for each segment through the reverse dynamics approach, based
on initial determinations of segmental accelerations. Although a two-dimensional an-
alsysis of leg forces in running only yields six equations of motion, and there are at
least 140 unknown forces acting about the hip joint alone (Seireg and Arvikar, 1973),
estimates of resultant joint forces and muscle torques are possible. Appendix A details
the analytical procedures involved, and Figures 4 and 5 display some of the information
yield.
Results of link system analyses must be treated with some caution, as measures of
acceleration data and inertial properties of human body segments are rather error
prone. Typically, acceleration data are obtained by twice differentiating position-time
information, but small errors in the latter arising from photographic distortion and
digitizing inaccuracies become greatly magnified in the process. Some means of data
smoothing is therefore essential, and while there is no universally accepted method,
digital filtering and splining have been found to be effective (Wood and Jennings, 1979).
Limitations in body segment parameter measures are due in large part to the meager
pool of cadaver-based information (Dempster, 1955) upon which general statements are
based. However, in vivo methods with a gamma scanner (Brooks and Jacobs, 1975) and
mathematical modelling approaches (Herron et al., 1974; Jensen, 1978) should greatly
improve this situation.
Ordinarily resultant muscle torque patterns do not reflect the activity of any one
muscle, but rather the net outcome of agonist and antagonist group involvements.
However, some situations exist where the precise architecture of a joint is known and
there is only one prime mover, such as actual muscle forces in the knee extensors
during various static and dynamic activities, including an Olympic squat lift in which
the subject suffered a patella tendon rupture (Zernicke et al., 1977).
An alternative approach to segmental analyses has involved the determination of
energy and power flow (Quanbury et al., 1975; Winter et al., 1976). Hayes et al. (1976)
outlined the analytical procedures and reported values for the translational kinetic
energy, rotational kinetic energy, and potential energy of a runner. Interestingly,
running efficiency appeared to increase as the speed of treadmill running increased.
However, this may merely reflect the inability of segmental analyses to account for the
storage of elastic strain energy, an important factor in running, a t least a t speeds in
excess of 25 km . hr-' (7 m . sec-'1. At these speeds considerable stretch of the knee and
ankle extensors occurs at foot contact, resulting in a storage of elastic energy in the
extensors, which can enhance muscular power output during the propulsive phase,
provided the leg action is skillfully executed (Cavagna et al., 1971).
It has been suggested that the principal factor limiting running speed is the time
required for the recovery extremity to be brought forward for the next foot strike
without creating a braking action through premature foot plant-a product of both the
inertia of the limbs and available muscular torques (James and Brubaker, 1973). Slater-
Hammel (1941), however, has shown that faster cyclic actions of the lower extremity
are possible than are evident in running, and so it would seem that it is the muscular
80 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol.. 24, 1981

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Stride rate( cycles/rnin.)

Fig. 1. Stride length-stride rate changes with speed of running (1030kph). Adapted from Hogberg (1952).

LABORATORY
REMOTE
I
I
CAMERAS a

( E C 10 SYSTEM) I jE453
GRAPHICS
'M

FILM MOTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM

Fig. 2. Schematization of film motion analysis system, Department of Human Movement and Recreation
Studies, University of Western Australia.
Blanksby et al.] HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 81

Fig. 3. Angle-angle diagram ofrunner’slower extremity during slow and fast running. Time interval between
points is 0.02 seconds.

- hip
---- knee
-1 ! \ ankle

Foot strike Take off

-400 I I
I I I I I
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (sac)

Fig. 4. Resultant joint torques for a slow run (3.3 d s e c ) .

82
YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [vol. 24, 1981

-400 -
Foot strike Take o f f
i
I I

Quadriceps force ( newton.metres X 10))

O M

Quadriceps exercise ( 9 K g boot) 2

Quadriceps exercise (isometric) 3

Stepping down (20cm) 2

Stepping up (20cm) z

Deep knee bend 2

lift(tendon rupture) 5

Fig. 6. Human quadriceps force for various activites. Adapted from: 1-Morrison (1970); 2-Reilly and
Martens (1972); 3-Smidt (1973); &Wood (unpublished data); 5-Zernicke et al., (1977).
Blanksby et al.1 HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 83

actions during the support phase which ultimately determine speed of progression in
humans. Indeed, in a recent study of segmental energies, Chapman (1979) presented
evidence to suggest that maximal running speed may be limited by the amount of
rotational kinetic energy that can be generated in the leg during the stance phase.
Although Slater-Hammel(1941)discounted neuromuscular mechanisms as a limiting
factor, a t least for leg recovery, neural mechanisms by which muscular efforts might
be enhanced during the stance phase have been recently suggested by Dietz and Roth
(19791, based on evidence of involvement of the spinal stretch reflex in facilitating the
eccentric contraction of Triceps surae. Other researchers (Hayes et al., 1976) have
further suggested that supraspinal reflexes could also play a role in ensuring the optimal
pattern of firing of the muscles of the lower limb.
Direct Muscle Activity Measurement
Unfortunately, segmental analyses only yield a net muscle torque acting at each
‘3oint’’ of a biokinematic link system, and even then passive structures spanning the
joint may be making a significant contribution. Recent optimization models (Seireg and
Arvikar, 1973; Hatze, 1977) have shown considerable promise in overcoming the in-
determinancy of musculoskeletal forces, but kinesiologists rely largely on electro-
myography (EMG) for indications of specific muscle activity.
Here, too, considerable technological advancement has been made since Galvani’s
first recordings of the electrical activity associated with contracting muscle, but despite
the development of miniaturized amplifiers encapsulated in pick-up electrodes, biod-
egradable indwelling electrodes, and implantable stimulators, quantitative electro-
myography is still hampered with problems. In essence, an electromyogram simply
indicates the presence of imminence of muscle activity or, to some extent, the relative
force produced by the muscle. Only in specific (quasistatic) circumstances can EMG be
used as a measure of absolute muscle tension, since factors of muscle length, rate of
length change, type of contraction and physiological state of the muscle are all likely
to influence the electrical signal given off (see Bouisset, 1973, for review). Furthermore,
temporal delays between electrical and mechanical events hinder interpretation, in
addition t o the global pickup of many types of electrodes used. Even if selective activity
is recorded from individual muscles in a group, there are difficulties in comparing
signals to establish load sharing. Between-subject comparisons are certainly impossible
without normalization of signals, a problem for which there are no solutions a t present,
although normalization on the basis of maximum voluntary contraction levels has been
attempted.
Notwithstanding the above, some useful EMG information is available (Basmajian,
1978). Typical lower extremity muscle activity patterns for running are presented in
Figure 7.
Direct Force Measurements
Direct measurement of forces, both internal and external to the body, is achieved
through the use of force transducers, devices containing a material whose electrical
characteristics alter under imposed strain. Given the vagaries of indirect internal force
predictions on the basis of segmental or electromyographic analyses mentioned above,
there are some instances in which direct assessments have been necessary. For example,
the load-bearing requirements of anatomic structures must be determined before at-
tempts are made a t reconstructive surgery or prosthetic implant (Paul, 1966).
Similarly, external force patterns and pressure distributions under the feet of a
runner must be determined before appropriate footwear can be designed (Cavanagh,
1978) or running surfaces developed (McMahon and Greene, 1978). For this purpose,
force platforms containing multidirectional force transducers have been used. The elec-
trical outputs are easily processed by modern computers equipped with analogue-to-
digital converters, giving instantaneous access to the essential determinants of any
movement pattern requiring ground contact.
Figure 8 shows the typical force patterns obtained from a runner during ground
contact. The vertical (Fz) component of force most clearly differentiates a running
84 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

Vastus
lateralis

Rectus
femoris

Biceps
femoris
1
Tibialis
anterior

Triceps
surae
i
Semi-
tendinosus
Foot strike Take o f f
I
I I I I I I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time ( secs)

Fig, 7. Diagrammatic representation of EMG actiodinaction of lower extremity muscles during running.
Adapted from Elliott (1977).

2000

-500 !
0 .05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Fig. 8. Vertical and fore-aft ground reaction force components recorded on a force platform during running
at moderate speed.
Blanksby et al.1 HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 85

pattern from that of a walk in that there is only a single major peak during the stance
phase, although subsidiary peaks a t foot contact are often observed and appear to be
dependent on the type of footwear worn (Cavanagh, 1978). These transient peaks are
often missed by the limited frequency response of some force platforms, but they may
play an important part in the development of osteoarthritic changes (Radin et al., 1980)
and in soft tissue distress at all skeletal levels.
A very common musculoskeletal malady of humans-low back pain-has been ex-
tensivley investigated by all the methods outlined above, yet its precise etiology is still
unknown. One of the more innovative techniques used to monitor back stress has been
the use of radio pressure within the gastrointestinal tract (Davis et al., 1977). Similar
telemetry procedures have been used for unrestrained recordings of many parameters
of interest t o the kinesiologist, one of the most sophisticated systems being that of
Neukomm (1974). This is a multichannel system designed for field study of both phys-
iological and biomechanical measures (Schnider et al., 1978).
The above techniques of data collection, reduction and analysis are becoming even
more sophisticated and precise. In such a n era there can be a tendency to concentrate
on the instrumentation rather than on the problems it is intended to solve. Hence
greater understanding of basic patterns of normal and abnormal human movement
should not be relegated to the background while more esoteric aspects receive premature
attention.
SOME AREAS OF APPLICATION IN KINESIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Three easily identifiable areas of human kinesiological research are sport, industry
and medicine.
Sport
Russell (1948) stated that “if men must compete for superiority, it is best that they
do so in contests which yield absolutely useless results.”
While games have always played an important role in human groups, our media-
oriented society instantly advertises sport, its personalities and their nationalities to
the world. Hence “the poor man’s space program” propaganda to demonstrate a superior
way of life, and the large playing and advertising fees involved in professional sports
have created a demand for increasingly precise and all-encompassing analyses of per-
formers in their quest for “the winning edge.”
Research programs in sport biomechanics have considered the people who participate,
the equipment used and the playing surfaces. Investigations into injury prevalence and
cause, effective rehabilitation, technique and rule changes that may prevent injury,
and development of protective clothing and better equipment have also been carried
out. Sports injuries have been a particular focus of research, and expressions such as
“tennis elbow,” “swimmers shoulder,” “breaststrokers knee” abound, since overuse syn-
dromes of tenosynovitis, stress fractures and other insults occur around key joints in
particular sports.
While normal bipedal walking has been largely replaced by vehicular transport in
Western society, with a consequent decline in cardiovascular fitness, the competition
form of walking over distances between five km and 50 km has created other problems.
Excessive rotation of the pelvis and spine, and hyperextension of the leg at the knee
to gain extra speed has resulted in “grinding the prostate” (Bruce, 19711, causing
hematurea. This effect is also found in cyclists, rodeo riders and marathon runners.
Race walking also demands an uneven footplant with larger forces in a decreased time
period (Payne, 1978), and the rule that requires the position of the support leg to pass
through the vertical with a straight knee also demands that a difficult posture be
attained with each step (Payne, 1978).
Jumping for both height and distance is also a common human activity (Gombac,
1971; Hay, 1973). Interesting features of high jumping are the modern developments
and techniques that have been devised, such as the legal Fosbury Flop (Kuhlow, 1973;
Hay, 1975)and the illegal Double-foot Dive over the bar (Hay, 1973). With the Fosbury
Flop and the Double-foot Dive methods it is calculated that the performer may have
the center of gravity remain below the bar but still clear it successfully (Fig. 9b,e).
86 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

Heights achieved by these techniques are less than those cleared for many years by
the Watusi tribe in Africa using a less efficient technique, with a direct frontal approach
to the bar and tucking the legs up, thereby requiring the centre of gravity to pass well
above the height of the bar. However, one feature of the Watusi is that they do not
conform to athletic competitive rules because they take off from an angled ant-hill,
which is not of great magnitude but places the propulsive muscles on stretch and
perhaps enables them to develop more eccentric thrust for improved performance. The
limited use of stored elastic energy by human muscle has been demonstrated by Cav-
agna (1969) and Asmussen and Bonde-Peterson (1974). Dawson and Taylor (1973) have
claimed that kangaroos actually decrease energy expenditure as their speed increases,
such is the efficiency of this elastic energy utilization in some animals. Drop jumping
experiments where vertical impulse (force x time = impulse) increases, despite a
decreased takeoff time, seek more precise explanations of the elastic energy plienom-
enon (Hunebelle and Damoiseau, 1973; Komi and BOSCO, 1978).
The animal world has several jumping specialists when body height and the height
that the center of gravity is raised are considered. Hildebrand (1974) reported a vertical
leap by a 0.25 kg galago from a crouch to a height of 2.26 m. The excellence of this
performance where the center of gravity was raised more than 2 m can be seen when
compared with a human high jumper who, with a running take-off, would raise the
center of gravity just greater than 1 m in a world record effort. Morphological features
of animal specialist jumpers include long, lightly muscled limbs with lengthened seg-
ments (e.g., calcaneus and metatarsals) for improved leverage, and sometimes an el-
evated center of gravity. The high-power output in some species, such as the flea and
locust, are achieved by storing energy with a slow, muscular contraction in an elastic
structure before the jump is made and then rapidly releasing by a recoil mechtanism
for take-off (Bennet-Clarke, 1975).
Studies of human long jumping have examined standing jumps (Roy et al., 19731,
long jumps (Ramey, 1973), including the currently banned somersault long-jump
(Ecker, 1974; Mann et al., 1976; Ramey, 1976, Mann and Sorenson, 1979), and the
mechanical aspects of the take-off (Bosco et al., 1976). An excellent review on jumping
has been provided by Hay (1975).
Some human groups have retained skill in tree-climbing activities (e.g., Pacific Is-
landers seeking coconuts),but most interest is generated in performances on artificially
designed beams, horizontal and parallel bars or ropes used in gymnastic competitions.

B E
Fig. 9. Path of body center of gravity (XIwith respect to the bar for various high jumping techniques. (a)
Front on jump; (b) Fosbury Flop; (el modified scissors; (d) straddle; (e) double foot dive.
Blanksby et al.1 HUMAN KINESIOLOGY a7

Anyone who has observed gibbons executing one-handed giant swings with a banana
in the free hand, marvels a t their gymnastic potential. Biomechanical analyses of the
forces and movement pathways required in giant swings on the horizontal bar (Borms
et al., 1976),take-off forces in the back handspring and somersaults (Payne and Barker,
19761, and the side horse vaulting (Kreighbaum, 1974)have been carried out to improve
performance and aid in equipment design.
Human skill in throwing was, and in some populations still is, important for pro-
pelling the spear, bolas and boomerang. The adopting of a woomera (atlatl) by Aus-
tralian Aborigines to add another segment for increased leverage in spear throwing
was an important innovation, as were the aerodynamic principles incorporated in the
design of returning boomerangs. There are no animal parallels for throwing skill com-
parisons, except perhaps for the dolphins in marine parks who can use their snouts to
throw balls with amazing accuracy during contrived baseball games. Again, one can
only speculate at the potential of a gorilla in the discus throw and shotput!
Close biomechanical scrutiny has occurred in the athletic world for any throwing
advantages that may enhance victory in shotputting (Marhold, 1974; Dessureault,
19781, throwing the discus (Ratov et al., 19781, hammer (Payne, 1979) and javelin
(Terauds, 1974). The throwing of small balls, such as is done in baseball (Petersen,
1973),cricket (Davis and Blanksby, 1976a,b;Penrose et al., 1976)and softball (Atwater,
1970);and of large balls, as in basketball jumpshooting (Penrose and Blanksby, 1976)
and water-polo overhand throwing (Davis, 1976; Davis and Blanksby, 1977) have also
been examined.
Hitting and kicking objects with limbs, or using implements, is involved in many
human sporting activities. The pressures of modern, professional sport have resulted
in research into the techniques for more efficient performance when hitting objects
(Dor6 and Roy, 1976; Asami et al., 1976; Wood and Dawson, 19771, and the character-
istics of the ball to be struck. Entire books, such as The Search for the Perfect Swing
(Cochran and Stobbs, 1968) and The Physics of Ball Games (Daish, 1972), are examples
of biomechanical considerations for golf and, to a lesser extent, cricket. These studies
have usually analyzed features present in skilled and unskilled exponents when ac-
curacy or velocity are demanded. In this way teaching and coaching for improved
performance is enhanced.
Swimming skills have also been important to human groups, whether for survival
in fishing communities, for military personnel floating across streams using inflated
animal bladders, or for recreational purposes, even though the human shape is not
ideally designed to move through water. The hydrodynamics of propulsion in water by
swimming specialists has been closely examined (Gray, 1957a,b; Hildebrand, 1974;
Alexander, 1977;Wardle, 1977; Wu, 1977).The two-gear muscular system for low speed
(red fibers) and high speed (white fibers), a blunt, smooth, cigar shape and the alter-
nating contraction of muscle pairs pushing obliquely against the water are features of
fish that are considerably different from the propulsive and recovery action of appen-
dages as used by humans to move through water (Alexander, 1968). The eight kph
speed of a human freestyle sprinter over 100 m pales in comparison with the 40 kph
recorded for the dolphin and barracuda.
Recent biomechanical studies of human swimming have centered on the use of limbs
as foils rather than paddles (Counsilman, 1971; Barthels, 1979; Persyne et al., 1979;
Schleihauf, 1979); the resistances encountered by a passive body being towed and the
active human shape when swimming (Clarys and Jiskoot, 1975); electromyographic
determination of muscle involvement in skilled swimmers (Lewillie, 1976; Yoshizawa
et al., 1978)and infants (Tokuyama et al., 1976);technique analysis by cinematography
(Welch, 1974; Kent and Atha, 1975; Belokovsky and Kuznetzov, 1976; McElroy and
Blanksby, 1976); and profile anlaysis with training modification of swimming by hu-
mans has been prepared by Miller (1975), who has also investigated the take-off phase
in diving (Miller, 1974). Twisting and turning movements in general (Nigg, 1974) and
a computer-simulated model of the airborne phases of diving (Miller, 1971; Miller,
1980) have also been carried out.
88 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

The scientific investigation of sports has been questioned by some who regard spon-
taneity and fun as the purpose of games to be disappearing. While most studies have
been directed toward elite sports performance, perhaps making such criticism more
valid, there have been important spinoffs for all sports participants. For example,
certain implements (e.g., the jumbo tennis racquet rather than the regular size) are
easier to handle and therefore help beginners to learn more successfully and rapidly
(Ellis et al., 1978; Blanksby et al., 1979).
Safety has been another valuable emphasis when protective equipment, such as the
design of track shoes (Nigg et al., 1978) and ice hockey helmets (Bishop, 19761, is
considered. The mechancial aspects of release pressures of ski bindings (Dore and Riedl,
1978) and the forces exerted in tennis strokes, so as to understand better the stresses
causing “tennis elbow,” have also been studied (Kane et al., 1974).
The improvement of playing surfaces, mainly to offset the vagaries of the weather
and to prevent tournament wear and tear resulting in earlier competitors gaining an
advantage, has been investigated. Synthetic surfaces on tennis courts, artificial turf
for baseball, football and field-hockey stadia, non-turbulent swimming pools and com-
pliant running tracks are all aids to performance, especially when athletes are at-
tempting to break records. Improved measurement of golf course distances to aid players
in selecting the best golf club can be achieved by aerial photogrammetry (Bergemann,
1978), and running tracks are being constructed to optimize running speed by tuning
the spring in the track to the mechanical properties of the human runner (McMahon
and Green, 1978).
The morphological features of atheletes competing in various sporting events have
been considered and grouped on scales such as somatotype (Tanner, 1964; Carter, 1970)
and body proportionality (Hebbelinck and Ross, 1974; Carter, 1980). Features of elite
swimmers (Bloomfield and Sigerseth, 1965; Bloomfield and Blanksby, 19711, runners
(Tanner, 1964)and ice skaters (Ross et al., 1976)have demonstrated that certain groups
have advantages in various sporting events. While it may be fairly obvious that a 1.5
m cubed individual is not particularly suited to distance running because of heat
dissipation problems, other groups often reveal quite exceptional structures from what
is regarded as the norm. Weight lifters tend to have short mesomorphic proportions,
which are advantageous when third-class levers are used to generate force (Spiynarova
and Parizkova, 1971).
Examination of body size, shape, proportions, composition, maturation and gross
function, since each is related to concerns such as growth, exercise, performance and
nutrition, is known as kinanthropometry (Hebbelinck and Ross, 1974). The concern
here is with the mean human morphological parameters and their normal range of
variation in particular human samples. The features include basic body dirnensions
such as weight, segmental lengths, center of gravity and body composition (including
somatotype).These provide the primary data for observing and analyzing human move-
ment.
An illustration of the use of these parameters in movement studies can be seen in
body segment and somatotype differences revealed in a major analysis of male atheletes
by Tanner (1964). In this study 14 anthropometric measurements, photographs and
radiographs were used to examine 137 track and field athletes from 23 countries, most
of whom were competing in the 1960 Olympic Games. A group of 62 weight lifters and
wrestlers from the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were also included.
In summarizing the results of the study, Tanner (1964) found that there were rather
obvious stereotypes, such as the high jumpers, of which the shortest was 1841 cm and
with perhaps the longest limbs relative to the trunk; and the throwers (discus, shot,
etc.), who were generally heavier, larger-muscled, broad-shouldered and with long arms
relative to their lower limbs. However, more subtle differences occurred in the soma-
totypes and limb segmental proportions of Olympic runners. Relatively shorter, more
muscular limbs in sprinters were revealed, which enabled them to generate increased
force and a rapid oscillation rate where third class lever action is predominant. Middle
distance runners were found to be generally large with broad shoulders relativle to hips,
Blanksby et al.1 HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 89

fairly well muscled and with relatively longer limbs which cover more ground per stride
at a moderate rate where distance must be covered efficiently. Long distance runners
tended to be small, with short legs, narrow shoulders and poor muscularity. The distance
athletes were often more linear in build, which aided heat dissipation, when the length-
volume ratio is considered-namely, mass linear dimensions3 (Prange, 1977). Some
somatotype differences between participants in different athletic events are illustrated
in Figure 10.
The interrelationships during the course of evolution between physique and the
predominant type of locomotion used (open country, bush or forest) and the variety of
weapon utilized (bludgeon, spear or bow) have been well explored by Brues (1959).
Thus functionally adaptive anatomical differences may account for some of the differ-
ences between various modern human populations. However, there are mean value
differences between populations, but there is considerable individual variation within
each of them for all measurable morphological features.
Also to be noted are male-female differences, some of which could be functionally
related and which range from the hiplshoulder ratio dichotomy to the difference in fat
content (young American males 15%,females 30%). Similar differencesfor physiological
features could also be documented between sexes, individuals and populations. All of
these differences are important determinants of the type of activity of which an indi-
vidual is capable and the degree of mechanical effectiveness he or she can attain.

MESO
Body builders-. 0 Males
0 Females

\Gymnasts

I S p r i n t Runners \

ENDO

Fig. 10. Mean somatotype values in selected athletic events for outstanding male and female athletes
(adapted from Carter, (1980).
 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981
90

Zndustry
The individual in the work force was once considered expendable, and occupational
disease was usually rewarded by dismissal. Working in industries such as asbestos
mining frequently resulted in long-term disease (e.g., asbestosis, mesothelioma) for
which workers received no compensation. This situation was the norm until the out-
break of World War I, when labor became scarce and concern for industrial productivity
increased. Although some improvements in working conditions were then introduced,
it was not until 1949 that the Ergonomics Research Society was founded as a result
of concern with working conditions and the difficulties of making accurate assessments
of problems in the workplace and thereby developing improvements. The research
methods that had been adopted to solve urgent World War I1 problems were to be
efffectively directed in peacetime to solving some of the numerous human problems in
industry. The workplace was no longer to be considered in isolation from those working
in it. While people were required to produce work at economically viable rates, high
levels of emotional and physiological well-being were desirable (Tichauer, 1976). Thus
suiting the job to the person, suiting the person to the job, as well as improving the
person's performance, were now considered.
Difficulties were initially encountered by scientists whose work was being assessed
in terms of how much money could be saved or made on the basis of their findings.
Tichauer (1976) outlined the need to profile work tasks biomechanically in order to
isolate program deficiencies and to make remedial improvements possible. Tichauer
(1973) proposed a checklist of the fifteen most important perquisites of biomechanical
work tolerance in order to avoid accidents and occupational disease. The following are
some examples:
1. Minimize moments acting on the spine-Back stress is a function of both the bulk
and weight of objects to be lifted.
2. Consider sex differences-When women lift weights there is a 15% greater amount
of force increase than in males, because the hip joint is forward of the lumbar spine in
females but directly beneath the lumbar spine in males.
3. Chairs should not constrain body movement-The difference between a well, rather
than poorly, designed working chair is approximately 40 productive working minutes
per day in addition to avoidance of physical trauma such as bruising of the back or
thorax.
4. Avoid ulnar deviation-In combination with supination, ulnar deviation commonly
causes tenosynovitis when using such items as pliers and screwdrivers (Hunter, 1969).
5. Avoid muscular insufficiency-Active insufficiency exists when multijoint muscles
are so shortened that they cannot produce further movement, and passive insufficiency
occurs when muscles are excessively stretched so that holding or manipulation may be
impossible or mutually exclusive.
6. Consider effects of working gloves-If gloves are too thick between the fingers, in-
terdigital pressures are generated before the hand is firmly closed and may diminish
grip strength. This causes heavy objects to slip out of the hands, resulting in accidents.
7. Avoid antagonist fatigue-When driving screws by supination, biceps brachii does
not easily fatigue, but pronator teres, the antagonist, soon suffers from over-exertion.
By applying these principles where applicable, a harmonious interaction of the ex-
ternal environment of tools and equipment controls and the internal biomechanical
environment of the neuromusculoskeletal system can be better achieved (Tichauer,
1973).
One of the early studies in the workplace used EMG signals to achieve the most
efficient postural position and use of the hands when typing (Lundervold, 1951). Seated
positions have come under scrutiny from several veiwpoints (Slechla et al., 1957). The
movement patterns of the forearms were found to be more efficient and comfortable,
and to induce less injury, cervical tension and compression forces when the work-bench
was sloped upward away from the worker at 18" rather than horizontal (Less and
Eickelberg, 1976). The importance of the line of sight when considering seated spinal
Blanksby et al.] HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 91

posture in trains, cars, theaters, at work and watching TV has been outlined by Williams
(1978). Lordosis support was rejected except for perpendicular backed seats, and seats
inclined backwards should always permit supported flexion throughout the whole of
the spine (Williams, 1978). Educational desks have been ergonomically appraised for
comfort and functional ability for facilitating learning in the classroom (Hira, 1980).
Gaertner and Rau (1978) examined the operating range of hand controls with regard
to their size and shape, and the myoelectric responses of workers during use. They
found that the pitch angle should be manageable by workers a t the fifth percentile of
the population, and only low levels of EMG should occur for most of the control operating
time. Moderate EMG activity should occur only very briefly and high EMG levels not
at all. Changes in the EMG signals have also been used as indicators of impending
fatigue (Gaertner and Rau, 1978).
Floor surfaces for standing work were found to be more comfortable when softer
surfaces were used for short standing periods (Kuorinka et al., 19781, but a firmer floor
(e.g., wooden grating) was preferred for longer standing periods. As the hardness of the
floor increased so did the myoelectric activity (Schjodt, 1960), but when loads are to be
carried and the risk of accident considered, the softest surface is not the most suitable.
Various modes of lifting have been studied carfully to try to identify potentially
dangerous features, to recommend safe loads in terms of both weight, bulk and height
through which lifted and lowered, and to recognize dangerous working conditions
(Grieve, 1974; Ueya et al., 1979). An extensive bibliography on loading of the lumbar
spine and implications for the scientist and clinician has been provided by Nachemson
(1978).
Lifting with the back straight and knees bent (Roozbazar, 1974) is generally consid-
ered to generate less mechanical stresses than lifting with the back bent and lower
limbs remaining straight, even though more EMG activity was found in the posterior
back muscles by using the straight back method of lifting (Anderson et al., 1976).
However, intra-disc (Nachemson, 1971) and intra-abdominal pressures (Davis, 1959a,b)
were found to be less, and greater force was available (Clarke, 1945) for lifting when
using the bent leg method. A comprehensive review of lifting has been carried out by
Grieve (1977).
Driver injury, seating requirements, vehicle mass, and other passenger and driver
requirements in bus designs have all been investigated, as have the road surfacing and
banking, and pedestrian bridge gradients. With more emphasis being placed upon the
human operator rather than just the machine being operated, one can expect even more
ergonomic research to be undertaken by companies as a matter of course.
Medicine
There are many areas of concern and interest in biomechanics for the clinician. For
example, the sports of football, lacrosse and ice hockey have an increasing number of
cervical spine injuries which occur when players collide heavily with each other, the
ground, a fence, a moving ball or a bat. Stress fractures may also result from many
repetitions of submaximal loads such as jogging on a concrete surface, each one of which
is well within the safety margins that the joints and other musculoskeletal tissues can
tolerate (Radin et al., 1980).
Accidents in the building trade in the Liverpool region of England are the most
frequent cause of acute spinal cord trauma (Damanski, 1964); in the Congo, the most
usual cause is falls from palm trees (Wilson, 1969); in the Ruhr region in Germany,
coal mining accidents are the most common (Meinecke, 1957); and in Australia 52%
of all acute spinal injuries are the result of road traffic accidents (Cheshire and Burke,
1970).
Low back pain has been the subject of many studies (Chaffin and Moulis, 1969; Wolf
and Basmajian, 1978). One institution reported that 34 out of 36 bus drivers who had
to manually handle severely disabled persons in and out of buses, had lost work-time
due to back injury resulting from excessive forces incurred during lifting (Ferguson,
1973). In response to a questionnaire, 95% of train engine drivers in New South Wales,
Australia, also reported discomfort or pain in some part of the body, and 66%complained
92 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

of low backache due to mechanics of seating posture (Oxford, 1973). The incidence of
low back pain in our society has reached major proportions and it has been said that
more than 50% of people will at some time seek medical care for this problem (Na-
chemson, 1969).
Physicians, orthopedists and therapists have much to gain from biomechanics to
better rehabilitate and retrain physically disabled persons on the basis of a sound
background knowledge of human movements under normal and abnormal conditions.
Current preventive measures, surgical procedures, and orthotic, physical and occupa-
tional therapy practices can then frequently be reevaluated in the light of new knowl-
edge (Glancy, 1971).While the major functions of the medical team in sport and industry
are prevention, treatment and aftercare, kinesiological research can provide advice
that may result in rule changes (e.g. elimination of the spear tackle in rugby) or
protective clothing (e.g. design of helmets for gridiron football) and equipment to di-
minish the injury rate and severity.
In the quest for better prostheses and orthoses many studies have considered bone
stresses at joints where the replacement occurs (Mazur et al., 1979). These studies
include tibia1 component loosening of condylar replacements in knee prostheses (Moch-
izuki and Schurman, 1979; Butler et al., 19801, pelvic stress and bone pattern changes
after acetabular impact (Johnston et al., 1979; Crowninshield et al., 1980; Holm, 19801,
and rotational strength and flexibility of the knee following Pes anserinus surgery
(Blanke, 1978). Electromyographic feedback treatment on footdrop and shoulder sub-
luxation in hemiplegia (Hurd et al., 19801, biofeedback in teachiyg prosthetic limb
control (Fernie et al., 19781, and types of traction pins and bone screws (Cordey et al.,
1978; Saha et al., 1980; Steen-Jensen, 1980) have all been under investigation. The
demands of accuracy, skillful technical performance and economic benefit, while at the
same time avoiding psychological problems of embarrassment because of awkward
motions, and other cosmetic and functional aspects need consideration (Sheridan and
Mann, 1978). The current technology, criteria for successful design and tradeoffs that
the designer must consider for prostheses and orthoses have also been outlined by
Sheridan and Mann (1978).
With regard to traffic accidents, two basic approaches have been taken (Hoffman,
1973). Vehicles can be designed (a) to reduce the accident rate, or (b) to reduce the
severity of the consequences after an accident has taken place. Automobile features
such as windscreen demisters, washers and wipers, and reversing lamps are examples
of the former, while padding of dashboads, collapsible steering wheels, impact-absorbing
bumpers and seat belts are examples of the latter. McLean (1972) proposed that the
annual pedestrian fatality rate could be decreased by a quarter to one third, simply by
redesigning the front of motor cars.
The continuing increase in serious automobile and motorcycle accidents reinforces
the need for more inquiries into the tolerance of various human tissues (Evans, 1971,
1976). Free fall and guided fall tests with human cadaver heads were carried out to
note the relationship of energy, velocity and acceleration to skull deformation and
fraction by impacting the forehead against car instruments (Evans et al., 1958).Linear
or comminuted skull fractures were produced with impact velocities of 46-72 kph, and
most of the available kinetic energy of the tests was expended in denting the instrument
panel instead of deforming or fracturing the head (Evans, 1971).
Additional studies on the mechanical properties of pliability and stiffness of the
human body in relation to its size have been carried out to ascertian morphological
changes as a result of growth, ageing, disease and supramaximal stress (Currey, 1977;
Orava and Saarela, 1978).
In the area of dentistry and also anthropology, recent analyses ofjaw mechanics have
resulted in significant revisions to understanding the mechanisms involved. Studies
have proceeded both on humans and on other animals, and have complemented each
other.
The earliest studies simply regarded the mandible as functioning as a class I11 lever
with the mandibular condyle acting as the fulcrum and only the working side of the
jaw being considered (Smith and Savage, 1959). Because of doubts about the stress-
Blanksby et al.] HUMAN KINESIOLOGY 93

bearing capability of the glenoid fossa and its articular disc, it also has been proposed
that the lines of action of the masticatory muscles passed through the region of the
molar teeth and that no true lever action was involved (Robinson, 1946). Later, Gin-
gerich (1971) suggested that, because of the alignment of the fan-shaped Temporalis
muscle fibers, the mandible merely acted as a mobile non-stress-bearing link.
More recently, EMG analyses have demonstrated that the muscles on both sides of
the jaws are active during unilateral chewing (Moller, 1966), and strain gauge studies
indicate stress a t both condyles (Hulander, 1976). Hence, totally new concepts have
been developed, and Hulander (1975) proposed that, although a simple lateral jaw
projection might suffice for non-chewing jaw closure, or for incisor or symmetrical
bilateral molar biting, unilateral molar biting required a front projection model. Thus
Smith (1978) proposed a quantitative model of unilateral molar biting in which the
action is visualised in frontal projection as a beam system. Forces are transmitted
through both condyles at the ends of the beam, and the muscular pull and the bite-
force are located between them. This model appears to most satisfactorily explain the
major observed facts of unilateral molar biting. The muscles of both sides appear to
produce similar forces, and the model confirms that, at least in humans, the balancing
side condyle appears to carry the greatest force reaction.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Human kinesiology has evolved over the past 20 years into a significant new disci-
pline. It budded off human anatomical studies and was nurtured by the increasing
demands on its approach and expertise from medical, industrial and sporting interests.
It is now characterised by a large body of knowledge about all aspects of human move-
ment, and it has developed a sophisticated armory of instrumentation and techniques
for the investigation of basic and applied problems in human movements. It has con-
tributed significantly to the areas from which it took root and has made a n important
contribution by fostering multidisciplinary studies in the solution of kinesiological
problems. With the accelerating increase in interest and concern with health, industry
and sport, human kinesiology is destined to play a progressively larger part in future
research in these areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Joy Walker, Jenny Porter and Gloria Backshall for their
assistance in typing the manuscript: Zel Lewis for artwork and Sally McConnell for
her help with photography.
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APPENDIX A

Mathematical basis for kinetic analysis of n-link system model

The quantitative basis for determining resultant forces and moments of force of a
system of linked rigid bodies is founded in Newtonian mechanics. In the simplest case'
Equations of motion for the coplanar (two-dimensional)motion of a rigid body about its center of mass (or a point b e d
with respect to the centre of mass) in an inertial reference frame R are presented. With some types of motion, e.g. airborne
movements or locomotion on a treadmill, another reference point may be more appropriate. Furthermore, many human motions
are clearly not coplanar.
 EQUIVALENT FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS NOMENCLATURE

P Proximal j o i n t c e n t e r s
G
u
ZFx = m.A D Distal j o i n t center
e
G G Segment mass c e n t e r
IFy = m.A
D Y
G W Segment weight
ZTz = Iz.a
A FtJYD Fm Resultant muscle f o r c e

Tz Resultant muscle torque

Jx JY Coaponents of j o i n t r e a c t i o n
force

Conponents of r e s u l t a n t j o i n t -
muscle f o r c e

0 Segment angular displacement

m Segment ma88
D r Distance from j o i n t c e n t e r t o
Rx mass c e n t e r

a Segment angular a c c e l e r a t i o n
G
Segment mment of i n e r t i a about
IZ
lV 1 mass center
R W G G
Ax "y
Components of l i n e a r a c c e l e r a t i o n
Direction of p o s i t i v e P / of mass c e n t e r
m t i o n , forcm and R
Y
m u e n t s of force

I n e r t i a l Reference Frame
Fig. A-1
100 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 24, 1981

the motion of a rigid body is governed by two equations defining the translation of the
body’s mass center, namely:

and one equation defining the rotation of the body:

That is, the sum of all the externally applied force effects acting along a principal axis
is equal to the product of the body’s mass (m) and its linear acceleration (AG)along
that axis, while the sum of all turning effects (torques) about an axis through the mass
center is equal to the product of the body’s moment of inertia (1;) about that axis and
the body’s angular acceleration (a).
The application of these questions to an analysis of the internal and external forces
governing the motion of a human body segment is demonstrated in the free-body dia-
grams of a typical body segment shown in Figure A-l. A free-body diagram is a graphic
means of showing a system isolated from its environs, with force vectors (indicated by
arrows) representing all external forces acting on that system. It is assumed that the
inertial properties (W, IF, and location of mass center) of each body segment, and its
instantaneous linear and angular motion (8,a and AG),are known.
The equations of motion presented above are not, however, immediately useful for
the solution of the unknown quantities (the muscle and joint forces) indicated in free-
body diagram A (Fig. A-1). Such a system is indeterminate in that there are more
unknowns (eight) than there are equations (three) defining them, despite that the
actions of all individual muscle forces about each joint have been resolved into single
resultant muscle forces (F,) acting a t some (unknown) distance from the joint axes of
rotation. It is therefore necessary to replace each F, with a force of equal magnitude
acting through the joint center and a moment of force (torque) with an equivalent
rotary effect, as shown in free-body diagram B (Fig. A-1). The transposed F, can then
be resolved into x and y components and algebraically added to the appropriate com-
ponents of the joint reaction forces (as in Fig. A-1 C), thereby effectively reducing the
number of unknowns to six. If the analysis of a rigid body link system than proceeds
from the “open” end, the three quantities RF, R;, and T,” are, in the first instance,
negated and a solution to the remaining unknown quantities is possible. Alternatively,
if values for these quantities are known, as would be the case if external forces were
instrumentally recorded, analysis can proceed from a “closed” end. In subsequent anal-
ysis of contiguous segments the quantities R,” R,” and T,”will have values equal but
opposite to R,‘ R,’ and T,‘ from the preceding segment.
The computational equations for the determination of intersegmental forces and
moments of force, based on the established equality between Figure 6, C and B are as
follows:
[EF, = m . A:]:

Kp + ED= m . A,G

IEF, = m . A;]:

Qp + RDY - W = m . AG

TF + Tf + R,P rp . Sin 8 - R,‘ . rp Cos 8 -

RD. rd . Cos + R,” . rd . Sin 8 = 12 . a

where R;, R t and TF are simply the reversed effects (reactions) of the more distal body
segment.