Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Experimental assessment of the state of the lining materials

used in the rehabilitation of sewers in residential buildings
Parastou Kharazmi
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Brinellvägen 23, 114 28, Stockholm, Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The global needs associated with aging sewers in infrastructures are immense; moreover,
Received 4 March 2019 traditional renewal by replacement is very costly and not fast enough to meet the renewal
Received in revised form 23 June 2019 needs. To keep up with the rate of deterioration, different rehabilitation technologies, such
Accepted 8 October 2019
as the use of polymeric lining, have seen increasing use worldwide. Pipe lining is a solution
to stabilize the deterioration of the host pipes in order to extend the service life of the
Keywords: piping system. However, the properties of polymeric materials may degrade over time;
Rehabilitation
therefore, the long-term performance of these lined pipes is a frequently raised concern in
Pipe lining
Sewer
the field. The aim of this study was to investigate the state of sewers that had been
Cured in place pipe previously renewed, in order to gather information that facilitates an understanding of the
Coating changes in properties of the lining materials after installation. Moreover, to identify the
Pipe renewal general issues related to pipeline rehabilitation with polymeric systems. The samples
investigated in this work had three different types of linings, service times ranging from
one week to ten years, were installed by five separate installation companies and had been
removed from residential buildings located in different parts of Sweden. The state of the
polymeric lining and the relined samples were studied by means of tests including
microscopy and visual inspection, as well as thermal analysis such as dynamic mechanical
analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), mechanical testing, such as
tensile and flexural testing, and thickness measurements.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The aging of water and wastewater pipes and sewers is an ongoing problem. Replacing pipes using traditional methods is
costly, time-consuming, and disturbs the local environment. These challenges have led to the development of other types of
renovation solutions. One of these alternative rehabilitation techniques is pipe lining using polymers, referred to as pipe
lining or relining in Sweden. Pipe lining can be conducted by the application of coatings or the installation of resin-saturated
liners. Moreover, if no major structural renovation is necessary and the pipeline has no major defects, renewal of pipeline
with polymeric coatings can be employed; this is considered a non-structural method, as it usually does not increase the
strength properties of the line [1]. If the pipeline is relatively strong, the strength limitation of the lining is not an issue.
Coatings can act as a protective barrier that stops or slows down the corrosion rate; consequently, there will be less risk of
leakage, which will extend the lives of the pipelines. Polyester resin reinforced with glass-flake particles and epoxy resin
modified with rubber particles are two common matrix resins used for the renewal of wastewater and run-off rainwater
systems in buildings in Sweden.

E-mail address: kharazmi@kth.se (P. Kharazmi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00291
2214-5095/© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

It is possible to apply the reinforced polyester and the hardener after mixing, once the matrix is in a liquid state, using an
airless spray application that operates by pumping resin at a high pressure through a spray gun tip [2]. In the brush-on
technique, a two-component epoxy material is applied. In this method, the lining material is conveyed through a nozzle to
the brush, while liquid epoxy resins are converted through these reactive epoxy sites into insoluble and infusible solids.
Often, there is no heating source used for curing, meaning that the materials are cured at ambient temperature.
Another commonly used technique, namely the use of impregnated fiber, is implemented by placing a prefabricated
polyester textile impregnated by a resin (usually a two-component epoxy) inside the old pipe; this textile then forms a rigid
pipe inside the old pipe after curing. The method is commonly known as flexible sleeve or cured-in-place pipe lining (CIPP).
Although polymer linings have been used in Sweden for more than 30 years and have proven to be a viable alternative to
pipe replacement [3,4], very few quantitative analyses have been conducted to evaluate the performance of the technology
and materials previously installed. Hence, this experimental investigation was conducted primarily to identify common
issues and to investigate the state of the rehabilitated sewers using polymeric systems, with a primary focus on the epoxy
and polyester materials used to coat the inner surface of the deteriorated pipes.
Some of the common steps carried out during rehabilitation work include closed-circuit television inspection (CCTV) of
the line to be renewed, as well as preparation and cleaning of the interior surface of the old pipe (by air or water jetting, or
using a steel rod) to remove corrosion and standing water prior to the application [5]. According to manufacturer
recommendations, all surfaces should be clean, dry and free from contamination [2,6]. After application, adequate drying
time should be considered with reference to the substrate temperature, air circulation, and the temperature and humidity of
the installation site in order to enable the adequate curing of the polymer lining. A follow-up CCTV check should also be
conducted to assess the quality of the applied lining [7,8].

2. Materials and methods

To study the performance of pipe lining after installation, 12 rehabilitated pipe samples were examined, and different
analyses were conducted to evaluate the quality of the previously installed lined pipes and the longevity of the materials
used during installation in operational conditions. Unexposed samples used for comparison were mixed and cured in the
laboratory from commercial materials [9,2].

2.1. Limitations in materials and methods

None of the relined samples that were available for this work came with a detailed technical history, and a proportion of
the important information was found to be missing. However, exposure time in service was available for all samples, making
it possible to study the materials’ properties as a function of the exposure time. Other limitations included the limited
number of field samples available, as well as that only one sample using the flexible sleeve (CIPP) method (with limited
technical history) was available to study. Moreover, preparation of the test specimens was not possible for all field samples
for reasons such as the high adhesion of the lining to the substrate.

2.2. Pipe samples from operation

Table 1 provides a brief description of each relined pipe sample based on the available information. Rehabilitation work
contractors are not mentioned by name but distinguished by the numbers I-VI. Samples 1-6 had epoxy lining, while samples
7-11 had polyester lining. Sample 12 was lined with a polyester flexible sleeve that was impregnated with epoxy. To prepare
the samples for tests, pieces of relined pipe were cut, after which the lining material was separated from the pipe and
prepared based on the size and amount required for each test where possible.

2.3. Methods

Inspection and investigation were conducted by means of different tests: these included optical microscopy visual
inspection, thermal analysis (including dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)),
mechanical testing (tensile and flexural testing), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thickness
measurements. Because of the poor condition of the material in sample 12, it was studied using only microscopy and
visual inspection.

2.3.1. Microscopy
Microscopy examinations via light microscopy were carried out to investigate the conditions of the lined pipe and to
identify other issues, particularly at the interface of the cut pieces.

2.3.2. Thermal analysis

Thermal analysis was mainly used to study the glass transition temperature (Tg). Tg analyses can assist in the
characterization of previously installed liner. Studying Tg can assist in identifying changes in materials’ chemistry. Moreover,
Tg can provide information about the amount of curing undergone by the resin [10]. Sufficient curing during and after
 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291 3

Table 1
Description of the available field samples.

Pipe Sample Installation Company Lining material Liner application Time in operation after Pipe function Host pipe
method rehabilitation specification

1 I Modified epoxy Brush-on 6 years Wastewater collection from Cast iron

kitchen and bathroom DN 100
Vertical installation
2 I Modified epoxy Brush-on 6 years T-Joint in wastewater line in the Cast iron
kitchen DN 70
Vertical installation
3 I Modified epoxy Brush-on 10 years Wastewater sewer installed Cast iron
vertically (no more info available) DN 100
4 I Modified epoxy Brush-on 14 days Wastewater sewer (no more info PVC plastic pipe
available) DN 100
5 II Modified epoxy Brush-on 3 years Wastewater collection from Cast iron
kitchen and bathroom DN 70
Vertical installation
6 III Modified epoxy Brush-on 4 years Wastewater Cast iron
Collection for six kitchens and DN 100
bathrooms
Vertical installation
7 IV Reinforced polyester Spray-on 3 years Wastewater collection Cast iron
Installed vertically DN 100
8 V Reinforced polyester Spray-on 7 days Wastewater collection Cast iron
Vertical installation DN 100
9 V Reinforced polyester Spray-on 3 years Wastewater sewer in building Cast iron
DN 100
10 V Reinforced polyester Spray-on 2 years Wastewater collection Cast iron
Vertical installation DN 100
11 V Reinforced polyester Spray-on 3 years Wastewater collection Cast iron
Vertical installation DN 100
12 V Flexible sleeve Flexible sleeve 2 years Wastewater drain Cast iron
impregnated with epoxy (CIPP) Installed vertically in a two- DN 100
resin floored house

rehabilitation is of crucial importance if the lining is to form a stable protective film that adheres to the inner surface of the
host pipe. Two of the main techniques used to measure the Tg of polymer composites are dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), which have previously been used to characterize materials with
similarities to the polymeric systems in this study [11–13].

2.3.2.1. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In this study, DSC was used both to measure the Tg and to determine whether
changes in the material occurred during exposure in the field. Measurements were conducted using a Mettler Instrument.
Samples of each material (approximately 10 mg) in 40 ml aluminum pans were first heated from 20  C to 180  C. In the
second step, the samples were cooled down from 180  C to 20  C; in the last scan, the samples were heated again to 180  C.
The heating and cooling rate was 10  C/min. In all scans, the samples were held for five minutes at 20  C and at 180  C. Glass
transition temperatures Tg₁ and Tg₂ were determined by measuring the midpoint at the first and second heating phase
respectively [14].

2.3.2.2. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). DMA was used to track changes in the Tg of the materials, to learn whether
these changes were a function of the time in operation and an indication of materials’ degradation, and to learn about the
amount of curing that occurred. DMA were performed using a Perkin-Elmer instrument with a single cantilever beam. The
temperature was scanned at a constant heating rate of 5  C/min and at a constant frequency of 1 Hz from 20  C to 180  C in a
liquid nitrogen atmosphere. The glass transition temperatures (Tg) can be determined from the peaks in the curve of tan
delta and the peak or onset of the drop in the loss modulus or storage/young’s modulus according to ASTM D7028 [15].

2.3.3. Mechanical testing

Mechanical testing was primarily used to study the strength of the lining materials and determine whether this was
affected after installation. The mechanical properties of the rigid lining samples based on reinforced polyester were tested
using flexural testing (three-point bending), while the less rigid lining samples based on the modified epoxy were tested via
tensile testing. The specimens were cut from the liner in a dumbbell shape for tensile testing and a beam shape for flexural
testing, after which the exact dimensions of each sample were manually entered into the testing program. However, because
it was not possible to separate the liner from the pipe for all of the samples, not all samples could be tested. For each data
point, including the modulus, peak load and peak stress, five specimens (if available) were used for the measurements, after
4 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

which the average of these five measurements was calculated and recorded. It is expected for both tensile and flexural testing
to show a diminish in mechanical properties of the lining materials.

2.3.3.1. Tensile testing. In tensile testing, a material is pulled and reacts to the forces applied. The point of failure or
maximum strength are among the important data that can be obtained through these measurements [16]. An Instron 5050
tensile testing machine was used to measure the modulus, stress and strain at break in tensile and three-point bending tests.
The load cell was 0.5 kN alternatively 10 kN, and the specimens were tested at room temperature (22  C).

2.3.3.2. Flexural testing. Flexural testing is used to characterize the strength of the specimens and the flexural modulus of a
sample cut in the shape of a beam. The tests were performed according to ISO 178, which describes the method used to
determine flexural properties including flexural modulus and flexural strength [17]. Tests were performed at room
temperature using an Intron machine equipped with a three-point bending fixture.

2.3.4. Thickness measurement

Measurements were conducted to monitor the thickness of the lining, as well as to investigate whether a uniform and
adequate lining film had been applied in previous installations. Thickness measurements were carried out using a digital
caliper. The measurements were performed at five points of each edge of the pieces of the pipe sample, with a total of ten
measurements being performed for each sample. Three measurements for each reading were conducted and the mean value
recorded. The chosen points of the measurements were (almost) equally spread around the pipe.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Microscopy and visual inspection

Table 2 includes optical microscopy images of samples 1–12, including the interface of the lining and the pipe in samples
1–11 and the condition of a resin-impregnated liner in sample 12. Moreover, a brief analysis of commonly observed defects is
presented.
Uneven layers of liner (as seen in sample 1, as well as some other samples) can be caused by operational problems, such as
the incorrect mixture of different components of resin in a liquid state, an issue with the application tool or poor
workmanship. Moreover, an uneven liner film can lead to other issues, such as cracks, which can also be seen in Image 1.
Sample 2 had inadequate and inconsistent film formation and uncovered areas. Sample 3 also had problems with uneven
liner film formation, as well as generally poor installation and corrosion at some areas. Sample 4 was taken out only two
weeks after application due to the poor quality of the rehabilitation work. The layer of the applied film was very thin; as can
be seen, it was less than half of the recommended thickness (2 mm), while a discontinued layer of lining was also observed
during visual inspection of this sample. No major defects were observed for samples 5-6. Sample 7 had a problem with
uneven film application, as well as separation of the lining from the pipe. Observed defects from sample 8 included uneven
film application, thickness variation, corrosion and separation of the liner from the pipe’s inner surface. Delamination and
separation of the lining from the pipe was most likely caused by a failure to adequately prepare and clean the pipe in the pre-
lining phase. For sample 9, corrosion was the major defect, while thickness variation of the applied liner film was also
observed in some parts. Samples 10 and 11 had uniform film formation and good adhesion; minor defects observed included
small cracks on the surfaces, which may have arisen due to minor errors in the amount of curing agent mixed with the resin.
Sample 12 (with the flexible sleeve) was removed two years after installation due to leakage. The impregnation of the epoxy
resin into the polyester liner was discontinued and did not exist in large areas. Separation of the liner from the pipe was also
observed during visual inspection, which was again due to poor resin impregnation.
Microscopy and visual inspection showed that cleaning and preparation of the host pipe before the application of
materials was poor for some of the samples, leading to defects. The poor adhesion between epoxy and polyester lining and
the host pipe due to inadequate cleaning is a matter of concern, as the primary function of the lining is to act as an adhesive
layer that sticks to the inner surface of the pipe to stop deterioration (mainly caused by corrosion) and consequently stabilize
the condition of the pipe. Moreover, failure in adequate film formation caused by (for example) discontinuation of the resin
in the liner for the flexible sleeve, or too-thick/too-thin lining film formation for the coatings, were other major repeated
defects; these affected the final quality of the rehabilitation work, as well as the function of the lining and liner, and caused
further defects such as cracks, corrosion and leakage.

3.2. Thermal analysis

3.2.1. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)

3.2.1.1. DMA for epoxy lining. The Tg values for epoxy could be measured from tan delta peaks. The measured values are
shown in Table 3 and are plotted as a function of the exposure time in Fig. 1.
It was not possible to measure Tg for sample 4 in DMA because the test specimen was broken during the test. Sample 4
was taken out two weeks after installation due to its poor quality. Tg for the epoxy material with 10 years exposure time was
 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291 5

Table 2
Optical microscopy images of samples 1-12.

Image 1 shows the interface of sample 1 with epoxy lining.

Uneven application of the lining, crack inside polymeric layer, and corrosion were some of the observed defects.
Image 2 shows the interface of sample 2 with epoxy lining.

Some of the observed problems during visual inspection included inadequate film at some parts, areas that were
not covered, and corrosion between liner and the pipe in some areas.
Image 3 shows the interface of sample 3 with epoxy lining.

Uneven application of lining and loose lining (which can be due to corrosion) were observed.
Image 4 shows the interface of sample 4 with epoxy lining.

Thin application of the epoxy lining, areas without any lining coverage, and poor adhesion were observed during
visual inspection.
Image 5 shows the interface of sample 5 with epoxy lining.

Some of the observed defects were inconsistent application and corrosion in some parts.
Image 6 shows the interface of a cut from sample 6 with epoxy lining.
6 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

Sample had uniform film application and no major defect was observed.
Image 7 shows the interface of a piece from sample 7 with polyester lining.

Corrosion, loose lining from the host pipe and non-uniform thickness were among the observed issues.
Image 8 shows the interface of a piece of sample 8 with polyester lining.

Observed defects included uneven film application, corrosion and separation of the liner from the pipe’s
inner surface.
Image 9 shows the interface of a piece from sample 9 with polyester lining.

Corrosion was the major defect; moreover, delamination and thickness variation were observed.
Image 10 shows the interface of a piece from sample 10 with polyester lining.

No major defect was observed during visual inspection except for small cracks on the surface.
Image 11 shows the interface of sample 11 with polyester lining.

No major defect was observed during visual inspection except for small cracks on the surface.
Image 12 shows a piece of sample 12, which was rehabilitated by using a flexible sleeve impregnated
with epoxy resin.

Discontinued impregnated resin in the liner can be seen, which was the major problem. Poor adhesion of
the liner to the pipe was also observed during visual inspection.
 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291 7

Table 3
DMA Tg values measured for epoxy lining samples.

Sample Service life after rehabilitation (years) Tg by tan delta peak ( C)

1 6 49
2 6 48
3 10 57
4 0.04 –
5 3 40
6 4 49

highest compared to other samples, an indication of a higher amount of curing having taken place compared to the samples
with shorter exposure time. This is an indication that some of the installed materials were not fully cured in shorter exposure
times.

3.2.1.2. DMA for polyester lining. Tg values for polyester lining in DMA, measured from the peaks in the tan delta and young’s
modulus curves, are shown in Table 4 and plotted as a function of exposure time in Fig. 2.
As seen in Table 4, Tg₁ and Tg₂ are reasonably consistent for the polyester samples, indicating a similar amount of curing.
Tg values did not show a significant change related to the exposure time in terms of DMA measurements, an indication of
insignificant deterioration of the material in exposure time up to three years. Tg₂, which was measured from the tan delta
peak, shows higher values than the DSC measurements (Section 3.2.2.2) for the same samples, which is due to the different
measurement mechanisms used by these two instruments.

3.2.1.3. DSC for epoxy lining. Tg values measured using a DSC instrument for the epoxy linings in samples 1–6 are shown in
Table 5 and plotted as a function of exposure time in operation in Fig. 3. Tg₁ and Tg₂ were measured from the first and second
heating phases in the DSC instrument respectively.
Tg values for the samples of epoxy lining measured in DSC demonstrated an increase with increased exposure time, an
indication of a higher amount of curing for samples with longer exposure time.

3.2.1.4. DSC for polyester lining. Tg values measured using a DSC instrument for polyester material in samples 1–6 are shown
in Table 6 and plotted as a function of exposure time in operation in Fig. 4.

Fig. 1. Tg ( C) from DMA as a function of service time (year) for epoxy lining samples.

Table 4
Tg measured in DMA for polyester lining samples.

Sample Service life after rehabilitation (year) Tg₁ by modulus ( C) Tg₂ by tan delta peak ( C)
7 3 60 114
8 0.02 53 100
9 3 53 100
10 2 56 106
11 3 60 104
8 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

Fig. 2. Tg( C) from DMA as a function of service time (Year) for polyester lining samples.

Table 5
Tg₁ and Tg₂ from DSC for the epoxy lining samples.

Sample Service time after rehabilitation (year) Tg₁ Tg₂

1 6 46 49
2 6 46 56
3 10 48 55
4 0.04 34 36
5 3 40 46
6 4 40 50

Fig. 3. Tg₁ ( C) and Tg₂ ( C) from DSC plotted as a function of service time (year) for the epoxy lining samples.

Table 6
Tg₁ ( C) and Tg₂ ( C) from DSC for the polyester lining samples.

Sample Service time after rehabilitation (year) Tg₁ Tg₂

7 3 59 82
8 0.02 57 67
9 3 61 74
10 2 63 81
11 3 62 76

The results of thermal analysis showed that, in the DSC measurements, the Tg₁ and Tg₂ for the polyester-based samples
were reasonably consistent, which is a sign of a similar amount of curing for the liner samples. Comparison between the
results shows that epoxy samples exhibited a less significant shift in the second glass transition temperature from the first Tg
values than did the polyester-based samples, possibly due to higher amount of curing for the samples before conducting the
thermal test. Moreover, samples exposed to operational conditions for a longer time showed higher Tg, which is a sign of a
higher amount of curing. Samples number 4 and 8, which had been in the field for a short time, showed lower Tg₁ and Tg₂; this
can be an indication that softening occurred earlier at a lower temperature because the material was not properly cured.
 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291 9

Fig. 4. Tg₁ ( C) and Tg₂ ( C) from DSC plotted as a function of service time (year) for polyester lining samples.

A significant difference between Tg₂ and Tg₁ in terms of DSC measurement is an indication that samples were not completely
cured before the test, and that the curing process continued during the first heating phase. Furthermore, operational
problems may affect the ratio of the components and the amount of curing agent, resulting in incomplete or poor curing. A
failure to achieve adequate curing can affect the lining’s functionality as a protective layer against environmental and
corrosive factors; this can also result in chemicals leaching into and entering the system and environment.

3.3. Mechanical testing

3.3.1. Tensile testing for epoxy lining

Table 7 and Fig. 5 includes tensile testing results for samples 4, 5 and 6 compared to a sample unexposed to service-like
conditions in order to evaluate the changes in mechanical properties.
Table 7 shows that the tensile modulus and strength of the samples with installation times of three and four years are
lower than for the unexposed epoxy sample. A lower modulus is an indication of the deterioration of the mechanical
properties following exposure of the material to various degradation factors in the field. This finding can be confirmed by the
comparison with sample 4, which had the shortest exposure time, in which it is found that this sample has a modulus closer

Table 7
Tensile testing results for the epoxy lining samples.

Sample Service time after rehabilitation (year) Elongation (%) Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile modulus (MPa)
Unexposed 0 124.9 3.1 8
4 0.04 116.5 2.2 8.1
5 3 134.5 3.2 7.4
6 4 120.3 2.9 5.1

8.1
7.4

8 5.1

Fig. 5. Tensile modulus (MPa) as a function of service time (year) for the epoxy lining samples.
10 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291

Table 8
Flexural properties for the polyester lining samples.

Sample Service time after rehabilitation (year) Elongation (%) Flexural strength (MPa) Flexural modulus (MPa)
Unexposed material 0 1.4 44.6 3946
7 3 1.1 28.6 3071
8 0.02 1.6 58.7 5257
9 3 0.8 21.3 3347

Fig. 6. Flexural modulus (MPa) as a function of service time (year) for the polyester lining samples.

Fig. 7. Results of the thickness measurements for samples.1–6.

to that of the unexposed lining material. Elongation measurements showed that the material’s ability to expand did not
change significantly after installation. Further studies comparing unexposed samples with materials removed from exposed
samples showed no evidence that elongation is affected by exposure [18]. This could be related to the fact that material
removed from field samples had a higher degree of curing, and consequently stronger inner-polymer bonds, than the new
samples, and could consequently withstand the external force applied during tensile testing for longer.

3.3.2. Flexural testing for polyester lining

Table 8 and Fig. 6 present the flexural testing results for samples 7, 8 and 9 compared to cured polyester lining unexposed
to service-like conditions in order to evaluate the changes in the mechanical properties.
Samples 7 and 9, both with a service time of three years, showed decreased flexural modulus and strength compared with
the unexposed polyester material, an indication that the materials had degraded. A diminish in mechanical strength of
polymer materials after exposure to deteriorative factors was expected. Sample 8 had been in the field for only two weeks
and was removed owing to the poor quality of rehabilitation work, which could be the reason why the mechanical properties
were not diminished. It must be noted that, for the samples with installation defects such as non-uniform liner thickness or
deterioration, the mechanical properties could differ in different parts of one sample.

3.4. Thickness measurement

According to the information provided by the rehabilitation contractors, the epoxy lining in the brush-on technique and
the polyester lining in the spray-on technique are applied with a nominal thickness of 2 and 3 mm respectively in two- and
 P. Kharazmi / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00291 11

Fig. 8. Results of the thickness measurements for samples 7-11.

three-layer applications. However, the results of thickness measurement showed variations from the recommended
thickness, as can be seen in Figs. 7 and 8.
As can be seen in the above figures, samples 3, 4 and 8 exhibited some of the main issues in thickness measurements.
Major defects for these samples could also be observed during microscopy evaluation (Section 3.1). More details of thickness
measurement are available in the dataset [18].

4. Conclusions and recommendations

Experimental investigation was conducted to identify common issues related to previously installed renewed pipe with
polymer lining, as well as to gather information that provides a better understanding of the changes in properties of the
lining materials after installation. The state of lining material and lined pipes was studied by means of tests including
microscopy and visual inspection, as well as thermal analysis such as dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC), mechanical testing, such as tensile and flexural testing, and thickness measurements.
Observed common defects included inconsistent application of the material, incomplete lining or lining with
discontinuations, film formation that was too thin or too thick, insufficient cleaning prior to lining application, poor
adhesion, delamination or separation of the lining from the host pipe, and poor curing. These defects can lead to a number of
issues, such as cracks, excess material and runs, uncovered or unprotected areas and corrosion; this can lead to leakage or
leaching of the material into the line system, etc., and have an overall effect on the lining functionality and performance.
Except a diminish in mechanical strength of the lining material due to degradation in the field, the majority of other observed
issues in this study were related to operational problems and poor quality of installation rather than material deterioration.
It should be noted that the observations of this study should not be taken as an indication of relining performance in
general, as it was not possible to collect samples randomly between different sites and we were instead required to work
with samples sent to the lab by utility owners or rehabilitation contractors. A larger number of the randomly taken field
samples and an experimental plan including broader range of testing in future studies could help with gathering more data
about longevity and performance of the materials and techniques. However, based on this study’s results, it can be concluded
with certainty that the existing technology can be improved, particularly by paying more attention to the quality of the
installation during the rehabilitation process. Moreover, extensive and detailed documentation that provides information
about the pipelines to be rehabilitated, as well as any rehabilitation works, could be of great assistance in analyzing the issues
in order to prevent them from occurring in future rehabilitations and to facilitate progress in the field.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Branschföreningen Relining i Fastigheter and RISE Research Institutes of Sweden for their
collaborations and acknowledge financial support from the Swedish Research Council FORMAS.

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