Nuclear Chemistry

An atom consists of three subatomic particles:

Proton Neutron Electron

Charge: +1 Charge: 0 Charge: -1

Mass: ~ 1 amu Mass: ~ 1 amu Mass: 1/ 1836
Location: Location: amu
Nucleus Nucleus Location:
Outside the
nucleus in the
electron
cloud.

Atomic Number
 Atoms of each element have an individual atomic number.
 It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass Number
 The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, that contains
both the protons and neutrons.
  The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
Isotopes
Different forms of the same element that have the same atomic
number, but different mass numbers because they have different
number of neutrons in their nuclei.
The Nuclear Symbol

To represent an isotope, write the symbol of the element, the mass

number of the specific isotope is written on the top left side of the
element’s symbol (superscript), and the atomic number (number of
protons) is written on the bottom left side of the element’s symbol
(subscript).
Average atomic mass is the weighted average of the atomic masses
of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
Radioactivity
 A process in which substances emit radiation spontaneously.
 Radiation- rays and particles emitted by a radioactive material.
 Nuclear reactions can change one element into another element.
 Nuclear Reaction- a reaction that involves a change in an atom’s
nucleus.
 Radioactive atoms emit radiation on order to become stable as
their nuclei is not stable.
 Radioactive Decay- is a process in which unstable nuclei lose
energy by emitting radiation spontaneously.
There are three types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma.

An electric field is used to separate the rays from a sample of a heavy

isotope, such as uranium. The alpha particles are deflected towards the
negative plate, the beta particles are deflected towards the positive
plate, and the gamma rays are not deflected.
Characteristic of Radiation
Alpha Beta Gamma
Symbol α , or 42He β -, or e- γ

Mass (amu) 4 1 0
1840
Mass (Kg) 6.65 × 10-27 9.11 × 10-31 0
Charge 2+ 1- 0
Nucleons- Protons and Neutrons.
All nucleons remain inside the nucleus due to the strong nuclear force
which acts on subatomic particles that are extremely close to one
another and overcomes the electrostatic repulsion among the protons.

In the above figure, the strong nuclear force is represented by the

green arrows, and the electrostatic force is represented by the purple
arrows.

Neutrons to protons ratio (n/p)

An atom’s stability is determined by the neutrons to protons ratio.
Atoms containing either too many neutrons or too few neutrons are
unstable. These atoms lose energy through radioactive decay to
become stable.
The atoms with unstable nuclei emit alpha and beta particles. The
emissions of the alpha and beta particles affect the n/p ratio of the
newly formed atoms nuclei.

Radioactive decay involves the change of an element into another

element, except for the emission of gamma radiation.
Transmutation- a reaction in which the atom’s atomic number is
altered.
Atoms with low atomic number less than 20, their most stable nuclei
have n/p ratio which is equal to 1:1.
Helium
Atomic number = 2 (Protons)
Mass Number = 4
Neutrons = 4 -2 = 2
Therefore, n/p ratio = 2:2 = 1:1.

As the atomic number of atoms increases, more neutrons are needed

to produce a strong nuclear force to overcome the repulsive
electrostatic force among the protons.
The n/p ratio for stable atoms increases till it reaches a maximum of
approximately 1.5:1 for the largest atoms.
Lead
Atomic Number = 82 (Protons)
Mass Number = 206
Neutrons = 206 – 82= 124
n/p ratio = 124:82 = 1.5:1.

The slope of the above increases as the number of protons increases.

Band of Stability- the area on the graph in which all stable nuclei lie.
All stable nuclei lie very close to the band of stability, either above or
below, or within the band.
All unstable nuclei lie outside the band of stability.
After decay, the new atom is positioned more closely to, if not within,
the band of stability.
The band ends at Pb-208; all elements with atomic numbers greater
than 82 are radioactive.

Alpha Decay
Nuclei with more that 82 protons are radioactive and decay
spontaneously. Both their protons and neutrons must be reduced. This
achieved by the alpha decay.

Beta Decay
Atoms above the band of stability have too many neutrons.
The beta decay decreases the number of neutrons in the nucleus by
converting one neutron to a proton and emitting a beta particle.

Nuclei with low n/p ratio undergo two common decay processes to
become stable; positron emission, and electron capture.
Positron Emission
A radioactive process that involves the emission of a positron.
Positron ( β + or e+)- a particle with the same mass as an electron but
opposite charge.
A proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron and a positron, and
then the positron is emitted.
P → n + e⁺

Example
Carbon- 11 has a low n/p ratio and lies below the band of stability. It
undergoes positron emission to form boron- 11.
The number of protons decreases from 6 to 5 and t number of neutrons
increases from 5 to 6, increases the n/p ratio which lies within the band
of stability
.

Electron Capture
A radioactive decay that decreases the number of protons in an
unstable nucleus lying below the band of stability.
The nucleus of an atom draws in an electron from a lower energy level
and combine with a proton to form a neutron.
p + e⁻ → n

Example
Rubidium- 81, the atomic number 37 decreases by 1 because of
electron capture forming Krypton- 81 with an atomic number 36.
The formation of a neutron results in an X-ray photon being emitted.

Nuclear Equations
Nuclear reactions are expressed by balanced nuclear equations.
In balanced nuclear equations, mass numbers and charges are
conserved.
Example
A plutonium-238 atom undergoes alpha decay, the balanced equation
for this decay;

Radioactive Decay Series

A series of radioactive reactions that begins with an unstable nucleus
and results in the formation of a stable nucleus.
Half-life- is the time required for one-half of a radioisotope’s to decay
into its products.
Radioactive decay rates are measured in half- lives.

Example
The half- life of the radioisotope strontium- 90 is 29 years, if you had 10
g of strontium- 90 today, 29 years from now you would have 5 g left.
The decay continues until a negligible amount of strontium- 90 remains.

Remaining Amount of a Radioactive Element

N is the remaining amount.

N0 is the initial amount.
n is the number of half-lives that have passed.
t is the elapsed time.
T is the duration of the half-life.
Radiochemical Dating
The process of determining the age of an object by measuring the
amount of certain isotopes.

Carbon-dating is used to measure the age of artifacts that were once

part of a living organism.