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How to Farm Grass Carp

HATCHERIES PRODUCTION SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY & EQUIPMENT BREEDING & GENETICS HUSBANDRY HEALTH

by Lucy Towers
20 January 2010, at 12:00am

This guide from the FAO Cultured Aquatic Species Information

Programme provides information on farming grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idellus Valenciennes).

Identity

Ctenopharyngodon idellus Valenciennes, 1844 [Cyprinidae]

FAO Names: En - Grass carp(=White amur), Fr - Carpe herbivore(=chinoise), Es - Carpa china

View SIDP Species fact sheet

Biological features

Body elongated and cylindrical, round abdomen, compressed at the rear; standard length is 3.6-
4.3 times of body height and 3.8-4.4 times of head length; length of caudal peduncle is larger
than the width; head medium; terminal mouth and arch-shaped; upper jaw extends slightly over
lower jaw, its rear can reach below eye; snout width is 1.8 times of the length, snout length is
about the nasal distance; no palpus; gill rakes short and sparse (15-19); two rows of pharyngeal
teeth on each side, laterally compressed, formula 2.5-4.2, inner row stronger, grooves on the
lateral surface; scales large and cycloid; extreme 39-46 scales in lateral line, lateral line extends
to caudal peduncle. Anus close to anal fin; Dorsal fin ray: 3,7; pectoral fin ray: 1,16; ventral fin
ray: 1,8; anal fin ray: 3,8; caudal fin with around 24 rays; body color: greenish yellow laterally,
dorsal portion dark brown; greyish white in abdomen.

Profile

Historical background

Grass carp culture began in the areas along the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers in the southern part of
China. Compared to common carp, the culture of grass carp started much later. According to
historical records, the culture of grass carp was closely related to the will of the current
governor.

In the Tang Dynasty (618-904 A.D.), the family name of the emperor happened to be
pronounced the same in Chinese as common carp, the only fish cultured then. The royal family
prohibited common carp to be sold and killed by the people. Therefore, grass carp was chosen
by the farmers as a substitute for aquaculture together with silver carp, bighead and black carp;
this was because the seed of these fish were easily available in the areas along the Yangtze
River and the Pearl River.

The culture of grass carp remained relatively small in scale due to the dependence on the
natural supply of seed. Success in induced breeding technology significantly promoted its
culture. The fish has been introduced to more than 40 other countries; sometimes it is referred
to as the white amur.
About 10 000 tonnes/yr in 1950, the global production of farmed grass carp had reached over
100 000 tonnes/yr by 1972, exceeded 1 million tonnes/yr by 1990, and has been above 3 million
tonnes/yr since 1999. China is by far the major producer (3 419 593 tonnes in 2002, 95.7 per
cent of the global total).

Main producer countries

In 2006, many countries reported cultured production of grass carp to FAO but only some of
them (Bangladesh, China, Taiwan Province of China, Islamic Republic of Iran, the Lao People's
Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Russian Federation) reported a production greater than 1
000 tonnes.

Main producer countries of Ctenopharyngodon idellus (FAO Fishery Statistics, 2006)

Habitat and biology

Grass carp is a native Chinese freshwater fish with a broad distribution from the catchment area
of the Pearl River in southern China to that of the Heilongjiang River in northern China. It has
been introduced to about 40 other countries and there have been limited reports about the
natural populations occurring in those areas; for instance, a natural population exists in the Red
River in Vietnam.

It inhabits lakes, rivers and reservoirs. It is a basically herbivorous fish that naturally feeds on
certain aquatic weeds. However, the fry/larvae feed on zooplankton. Under culture conditions,
grass carp can well accept artificial feed such as the by-products from grain processing,
vegetable oil extraction meals, and pelleted feeds, in addition to aquatic weeds and terrestrial
grasses. Grass carp normally dwell in mid-lower layer of the water column. Comparatively, it
prefers clear water and can move swiftly.

It is a semi-migratory fish; the mature broodstock migrate to the upper reaches of major rivers
to propagate. Flowing water and changes in water level are essential environmental stimuli for
natural spawning. The fish can reach sexual maturity under culture conditions, but cannot
spawn naturally. Hormone injection and environmental stimuli, such as flowing water are
necessary for induced spawning in tanks. Gras carp grow rapidly and reach a maximum weight
of 35 kg in the wild.

Production

Production cycle

Production cycle of Ctenopharyngodon idellus

Production systems

Various production systems are currently used for the culture of grass carp the major ones
include semi-intensive and intensive culture ponds, and pens and cages in open waters.

Seed supply

At present artificial propagation is the major supply of seed for the culture of grass carp,
although natural seeds are still available in some rivers of China. Seed collected from the wild is
mainly used for maintaining the genetic quality of the broodstock. Broodstocks used for
artificial propagation are usually raised in captivity from seeds from the wild or from breeding
stations where good natural stocks are maintained.

Hatchery production

Well-matured breeders are released into the spawning tank (round cement tank with diameter
of 6-10 m and water depth of around 2 m) after being injected with inducing hormone (usually
LRH-A). Water circulation is maintained throughout the spawning period.

Eggs are transferred to hatching raceways or jars, either manually or by gravity. Hatching
raceways (which are round or ellipse-shaped structures) are commonly used for large-scale
production. The width of the raceways is normally 0.8 m and the depth is 0.8-1.0 m. The inlets
are mounted on the bottom of the raceways with openings in the same direction and at an
angle of around 15° to the bottom, to promote water circulation. Screens are mounted on the
inner wall for discharging water during the operation. Water can be totally drained out through
the outlet on the bottom. Current flow is maintained during the hatching period to keep the
eggs and larvae suspended in the water column.

In India, dry or wet stripping methods are used for the seed production of grass carp. Pituitary
extract or synthetic agents such as ovaprim are used for induction (John Stephen Kumar, pers.
comm. 2004).

Nursery

Earthen ponds (usually 0.1-0.2 ha and 1.5-2.0 m deep) are used for the nursing of grass carp.
Ponds are chemically cleared, normally with quicklime, to eliminate all harmful organisms after
totally drying. The usual dose is 900-1 125 kg/ha.

Organic fertiliser, animal manure and/or plant wastes (‘green manure‘) is commonly applied to
increase the natural biomass of algae and zooplankton 5-10 days before the stocking, according
to the water temperature. The quantity of organic fertiliser used is usually 3 000 kg/ha for
animal manure or 4500 kg/ha for green manure. Green and animal manures can be used
simultaneously but the quantity of each should be reduced accordingly.

Monoculture is practiced in the nursery stage, with a stocking density normally ranging
between 1.2-1.5 million/ha, depending on the length of rearing and targeted size. The nursery
operation usually takes 2-3 weeks in China.

Organic fertilisation is carried out at frequencies and rates sufficient to maintain high pond
fertility and therefore a good supply of natural food organisms (especially zooplankton) for the
fish. The quantity ranges from 1 500-3 000 kg/ha once every 4-5 days for animal manure or
green manure, depending on existing water fertility.

Soybean milk can also be used as both direct feed and fertiliser to replace organic fertiliser in
the nursery stage. The normal quantity is 3-5 kg (dry soybean)/100 000 fish daily. This usually
means production costs are high. A paste-form of soybean cake or other by-products from
grain processing is applied from the 5th day after stocking, usually at a rate of 1.5-2.5 kg/100
000 fish daily.

A paste of water peanut, water lettuce and water hyacinth can also be used to replace the
above-mentioned feed and fertilisers at the rate of 25-40 kg/100 000 fish daily. 0.5 per cent of
table salt needs to be added to the paste of water peanut to remove its saponin toxicity.
Normal survival rates in nursery ponds are 70-80 per cent, although it may reach over 90 per
cent under good management.

The fish usually reach the size of about 30 mm in length after 2-3 weeks of rearing. These are
called summer-fingerlings in China and are ready for the fingerling rearing stage. Conditioning,
through careful netting and holding the fish at high density for a while (several hours) is
required before the transfer of summer-fingerlings to the fingerling pond. This practice is
designed to fish tolerance to stress before they are transported.

Rearing fingerlings

Summer-fingerlings are not suitable for direct stocking in grow-out ponds; they need to be
reared to the fingerling stage (13-15 cm in length or larger) first. The technique for fingerling
rearing is rather different to the nursery operation, especially when grass carp are stocked as
the major species. The major differences include the following:

Relatively larger (0.2-0.3 ha) and deeper earthen ponds are used for fingerling rearing.
Contrary to the nursery stage, polyculture is usually adopted for the production of grass carp
fingerlings (monoculture at this stage is quite rare). Grass carp can be polycultured with other
carp species except black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus).
The stocking density is 120 000-150 000/ha when it is the major species in the pond or 30
000/ha when it is the secondary species.
Feeding is vitally important throughout the fingerling rearing period. Grass carp are mainly
fed with Wolffia arrhiza when it is between 30-70 mm in length. The initial feeding rate is 10-
15 kg/10 000 fish daily and is gradually increased according to the demand of the fish. The
feed is changed to duckweed (Lemna minor) when the fish is between 70-100 mm in length.
After that, the fish can be fed with tender aquatic weeds and terrestrial grasses. In addition,
commercial feeds (soybean cake, rapeseed cake, wheat bran, rice bran, etc.) are also fed at a
daily rate of 1.5-2.5 kg/10 000 fish.
Fingerling rearing normally takes 4-6 months for above mentioned size and stocking density
in China. The period can be considerably shortened in warmer climates or if lower stocking
densities are used.
 The normal survival rate through the whole fingerling rearing period should be above 95 per
cent.

It is difficult to culture grass carp from the yearling size (13-15 cm) to marketable size (>1 500
g) within one year in most parts of China; it is therefore common practice to rear yearlings to 2
year old fingerlings for grow-out stocking. The stocking density is much reduced, compared to
the rearing of yearlings. The feeding regime is similar but the rate is much higher. By the end of
this period, the fish have usually reached about 250 g. This practice is not necessary in tropical
and subtropical areas, where yearlings of grass carp can reach marketable size within one year,
due to high temperatures.

In Vietnam, the rearing of grass carp before the grow-out stage is divided into two periods. Fry
are first raised to 4-5 cm, with a stocking density in the earthen nursery pond of 200-250
fry/m². The rearing period is normally 1.5-2 months. Then the fish are further raised for about 2
months to a size of 12-15 cm at a much lower density. The fish is mainly fed with soybean
powder, rice bran, maize powder and aquatic plants (Azolla sp.) after reaching 3 cm in body
length.

The nursery rearing of grass carp in India is carried out in intensively fertilised ponds,
adequately enriched with zooplankton and unicellular algae. Generally the survival of fry is
about 70-80 per cent in well-managed nursery ponds. In addition to the natural feeds
developed, supplementary feeding with powdered groundnut oilcake and rice polishings or bran
is also practiced (John Stephen Kumar, pers. comm. 2004).

Ongrowing techniques

The most commonly adopted ongrowing techniques for grass carp include polyculture in ponds
and pen and cage culture in lakes and reservoirs.

Semi-intensive to intensive polyculture in ponds in China

For polyculture in ponds or pens, grass carp can be stocked either as the major species or a
secondary species together with other carp species. The total stocking density is 750-3 000
fish/ha with a stocking size of 125-250 g. Aquatic weeds and terrestrial grasses form the major
feed for grass carp in grow-out culture. Feeding commercial feeds such as pellets and by-
products from vegetable oil extraction and grain processing are becoming more popular as a
means of replacing aquatic weeds and grasses to save labour costs in pond culture. The yield of
grass carp is usually 1 000-3 000 kg/ha, which accounts for 15-40 per cent of the total
production.
Intensive culture in cages in China

In intensive culture systems in cages, grass carp are usually stocked as major species. Cages are
usually about 60 m², with a depth of 2-2.5 m. 250-500 g fish are stocked at 10-20/m³,
depending on the targeted production. In addition, 30-50/m³ Wuchang fish (bluntnose black
bream, Megalobrama amblycephala), are also stocked at a size of 80-125 g. Silver and bighead
carp are also stocked at 1 per cent of the total, as 'cage cleaners'.

The fish are fed with aquatic weeds/terrestrial grasses and pelleted or other commercial feeds.
The culture period is usually 8-10 months and the yield is normally 30-50 kg/m³. Grass carp
usually account for 60-70 per cent of the total production. Cage culture of grass carp through
the use of commercial feeds involves relatively high production costs.

Feeding efficiency is not always as high in cage culture as in pond culture so, where terrestrial
grass and aquatic weeds are locally abundant, collecting them and applying them in cage
culture usually requires less labour input as the transportation is limited.

Grow-out systems in other countries

The grow-out of grass carp is mainly conducted in earthen ponds and cages in Vietnam.
Polyculture with other species (e.g. silver carp, common carp, rohu and mrigal etc.) is common.
Grass carp may be stocked as either major or secondary species. Grass carp usually account for
60 per cent of the total stocking density of 1.5-3 fish/m² (dependent on the level of intensity) in
ponds and the fingerling size is 5-6 cm (mountainous areas) and 12-15 cm (lowlands).

The stocking rate in cage culture is 20-30 fish/m³ but much larger fingerlings are used
(normally 50-100 g). Grass carp are usually fed with terrestrial grasses, cassava leaves, banana
stems and maize leaves in grow-out culture. Grass carp production usually accounts for 60 per
cent of total production (7-10 tonnes/ha) in ponds. The marketing size for grass carp is 1-1.5 kg
and 1.5-2.5 kg in ponds and cages respectively.

In India, grass carp are cultured as an important species in pond-based composite systems
consisting mainly of Indian major carps and Chinese carps. The grass carp stocking density
depends mainly on the availability of aquatic weeds and terrestrial grasses but is usually 5-20
per cent of the total. Aquatic weeds (Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Wolffia) and terrestrial grasses such
as Napier grass and other hybrid grasses are the major feeds in grass carp farming. Normally,
grass carp reach 0.5-1.5 kg in 8-10 months (John Stephen Kumar, pers. comm. 2004). The total
production from such systems can reach 8-10 tonnes/ha/yr.

Feed supply
Grass carp can be reared with commercial feeds or natural food, such as aquatic weeds and
grasses. They prefer relatively low fertility. Production is mainly limited by water quality. The
commercial feeds used for grass carp are relatively low in protein (28-30 per cent) and their raw
materials include soybean cake/dregs, rapeseed cake and wheat bran etc. Aquatic weeds can be
collected from natural water bodies. Terrestrial grasses can be grown on the pond dyke with
organic manure.

Harvesting techniques

Both selective and total harvesting are practiced for grass carp. Selective harvesting is usually
conducted in the early morning (because temperatures are relatively low and for morning sales)
during late summer and autumn. Individuals of marketable size are selected after netting (a
single netting for each harvest). Total harvesting is carried out at the end of the culture period.
Several nettings are usually carried out before total drain-down of the pond. All the fish are
harvested at the end of the year, either for marketing or for restocking (individuals below
marketable size) for the next production cycle.

Handling and processing

Grass carp is normally sold live or fresh. A small quantity of the production is processed by
ready-to-eat food stores; in this case the most commonly used processing method is deep
frying.

Production costs

The production cost of grass carp vary according to the culture practice used but are normally
about USD 0.50/kg of fish produced. Feed costs comprise the largest portion of production
costs.

Diseases and control measures

Farmed grass carp are rather susceptible to various diseases. Major diseases and methods of
control are listed in the table below.

DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES

Haemorrhagic Reovirus (GCRV) Virus Red muscle Vaccination

Disease caused by through
haemorrhage; injection;
red fin; red disinfection of
operculum fish seed and
 and enteritis; culture
high environment
mortality (30- with chlorine-
50 per cent of compounds,
infected fish) quicklime and
potassium
permanganate;
Chinese
Rhubarb
(Rheum
officinale);
sweet gum
leaves
(Liquidambar
taiwaniana);
cork tree bark
(Phellodendron)
and skullcap
root (Scutellaria
baicalensis)

Hyperaemia
at different
positions of
body, such as
jaws, mouth
Disinfect the
cavity,
fish and culture
operculum,
environment
fin-base and
with quicklime
Aeromonas whole body
and potassium
sobria; when serious;
permanganate;
Bacterial Aeromonas protruded
Bacteria "Yu Tai III"
Septicemia hydrophila; eyeball;
(commercial
Yersinia ruckerri; swollen anus;
drug of multi
Vibrio sp. expanded
herb
belly; erected
ingredients)
scales; gill
through
rotten and
medicated feed
reduced
feeding etc;
high
mortality of
fish

Bacterial Enteritis Aeromonas Bacterium Red spot on Disinfection of

punctata f. the belly; culture
intestinalis enteritis; red environment
and swollen with bleaching
anus; powder and
expanded quicklime;
belly and sulphaguanidine
and
 losing furazolidone;
appetite Chinese herbs
(garlic,
Euphorbia
humifusa,
Aclypha
australis,
Polygonum
hydropiper and
Andrographis
paniculata)

Bathing fish in
Rotting of gill
2-2.5 per cent
filament;
saline water;
congestion of
pond
inner
disinfection
membrane of
with quicklime
operculum;
and chlorine
small round
Bacterial gill-rot Myxococcus compounds;
Bacterium transparent
disease piscicola Chinese herbs
portion on
such as Galla
the
chinensis,
operculum
Sapium
and gill
sebiferum and
filament
Chinese
attached with
rhubarb;
mud
furazolidone

Careful handling
during
External
transportation
haemorrhage
and stocking;
and
disinfection of
Erythroderma Pseudomonas inflammation;
Bacterium pond with
(red-skin disease) fluorescens losing scales;
bleaching
congested
powder;
fins and
sulphathiazole;
rotten fin rays
Chinese gall
(Galla chinensis)

Physically
Disinfection of
weak;
pond with
reduced
quicklime and
Bothriocephalus feeding;
Bothriocephalosis Tapeworm dipterex;
sp. opening
pumpkin seed
mouth; very
through
high
medicated feed
mortality

Dactylogyriasis Dactylogyrus sp. Helminth Weak Spraying of

physically; quicklime and
 dark body dipterex in
colour; slow pond; dipping
moving; the fish with
reduced dipterex or
feeding and potassium
difficult in permanganate
breathing solution

Thorough
Attached to disinfection of
skin and gill pond with
filaments; quicklime;
Ichthyophthirius Protozoan
Ichthyophthiriasis form whitish mercury nitrate
multifiliis extoparasite
sac on body (banned);
surface; high Malachite blue
mortality (poorly
effective)

Difficulty in
breathing;
Pond
damaged gill;
disinfection
inflammation
with quicklime;
and rotting of
Sinergasilus spraying of
Sinergasiliasis Copepod gill filament;
(female) dipterex or
madly circle
ferrous sulphate
on the water
or copper
surface and
sulphate
die of
exhaustion

Suppliers of Pathology Expertise

Assistance can be provided from the following sources:

Research Institute of Hydrobiology, CAS, Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China.

Shanghai Fisheries University, Shanghai, China.
Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, CAFS, Guangzhou City, China.
Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre, CAFS, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China.
Zhejiang Provincial Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province,
China.
The Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (ICAR), Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar,
751002, Orissa, India.

Statistics
Production statistics

Global production of cultured grass carp was only 10 527 tonnes in 1950. By 2002 it had
reached 3 572 825 tonnes, an increase of more than 339 times in 52 years, and accounted for
15.6 per cent of global freshwater aquaculture production. During the decade 1993-2002, the
average annual growth rate of cultured grass carp production was 10.1 per cent globally and 9.9
per cent in China. Expansion in the rest of the world during this decade was, from a relatively
tiny baseline, much faster (17.8 per cent/yr).

However, some slow-down seems to be occurring, since farmed grass carp production only grew
by 3.3 per cent between 2001 and 2002, both in China and globally. Production fluctuated quite
wildly in many countries in the decade 1993-2002. Production in India, which was about 13 000
tonnes in 1993, reached a peak of over 137 000 tonnes in 1999 but had fallen to less than 48
000 tonnes by 2002. However, production in one of the other major producers, Egypt,
increased steadily throughout the decade.

The global value of global grass carp aquaculture production was US$ 2.92 billion in 2002, an
annual expansion rate between 1993 and 2002 of 7.5 per cent/yr. The slower growth rate in
terms of value, as compared to volume, was mainly due to changes in the valuation of the
Chinese RMB yuan against the US dollar.

Market and trade

The major producer of this species is China where, traditionally, grass carp are consumed fresh.
Most of the production is marketed fresh, either as whole fish or as pieces. Very little
production is processed. At the present time, grass carp is mainly a locally consumed product
but some of those produced in Guangdong province (southern China) are marketed in Hong
Kong.
There is no specific data on the quantity of exported grass carp in Chinese statistical
information. However, 41 798 tonnes and 4932 tonnes of live fish (species not specified) were
exported to Hong Kong and Macao from the mainland of China in 2002, according to the
national statistic yearbook of imports and exports of aquatic products. Grass carp must have
comprised large proportion of this total.

Grass carp is a low price commodity that is affordable to middle and low income classes in China
and other countries. There has been a slight decline in the price of grass carp in the past few
years in China. Currently, retail prices are usually USD 0.7-1.0/kg. There are no specific
regulations relating to the marketing of the grass carp because the fish is basically for local
consumption.

Status and trends

Grass carp has a long history in aquaculture and is one of the most important species cultured
in inland water bodies in China. There have been great efforts devoted to research on this
species; the most important achievement has been success in the development of induced
breeding technology. This ensures a constant supply of seed for large-scale farming.

Another important aspect of research was the study of nutritional requirements and the
development of cheap pelleted feed. As this species is easily susceptible to disease, there have
also been a lot of studies on disease control under culture conditions. The best-studied disease
of grass carp is Haemorrhagic Disease, which has a viral agent. Effective preventive measures,
especially a vaccine have been successfully developed and applied. Culture techniques and
models for pond, cage and pen culture have also been well developed.

After silver carp, grass carp currently has the largest production in freshwater aquaculture
globally. However, the rate of expansion in China (by far the major producer) has been declining
in the last several years. Due to the introduction of new species and changes in people's
preferences, grass carp is getting less popular now.

Chinese people still prefer to eat whole fish, but whole grass carp are a little too large for the
small Chinese families (3 persons mostly) to consume in one meal. It seems that grass carp
culture has more potential for development in other countries, especially developing countries.
Its fast growth rate, large size, lack of fine inter-muscular bones and, most importantly, feeding
habits make the fish an ideal species for culture in these areas. Rapid expansion of its culture
outside China may imply that this great potential is being realised. However, appropriate
processing technology is required for the fish to enter international markets.

Grass carp not only grow quickly but have a low requirement for dietary protein. They can be
produced at low cost by feeding them with aquatic weeds, terrestrial grasses and by-products
from grain processing and vegetable oil extraction. Seed can be produced through induced
breeding at a large scale and very low cost. The culture of grass carp can be well integrated into
crop farming and animal husbandry, to maximise the utilisation of natural resources.

On the other hand, it is a large fish without fine inter-muscular bones. It is acceptable to
consumers in many countries and it very likely has good potential for development. The market
for grass carp is close to saturation in the eastern part of China, where aquaculture is well
developed now. However, there is still a considerable potential market in central and western
China and many other developing countries.

Main issues

Pond based polyculture of grass carp does not have much negative impact on environment. The
integration of grass carp - grass cultivation - pig rearing is an ecologically sound production
model. However, large-scale intensive culture of grass carp with commercial feeds in cage/pen
in shallow open-water may pollute the environment by discharging various wastes, which might
accelerate the process of eutrophication. Besides, grass carp is more easily susceptible to some
diseases. Poor management in fish health might results in extensive use of different chemicals
and drugs, which may affect the quality of the fish and pollute the water at the same time. For
the convenience and reducing labour input, farmers are using more and more pellet feed in
grass carp culture in pond and cage/pen in open water. Wasted feed and discharge of nutrients
may cause adverse impact on the environment.

Responsible aquaculture practices

Several issues need to be addressed in considering responsible aquaculture practices for grass
carp culture:

The first is the use of antibiotics and other drugs in disease control in the intensive culture of
grass carp, which are more easily susceptible to various kinds of diseases than other carp
species. Due to high stocking densities and poor water quality resulting from various wastes
such as unutilised feed and fish faeces, grass carp are often infected with bacterial, viral and
parasitic diseases. Antibiotics and other chemicals are sometimes used for treatment. This
form of abuse may cause negative impacts, either directly or indirectly, on consumers. Efforts
should be made to ensure that reasonable stocking densities, good feeding practices and
quality feeds (for other fish in the pond), and good water management are used to minimise
the occurrence of these various disease problems. The relevant government regulations must
be strictly observed whenever chemicals and drugs are used.
 The second is the impact on the natural environment of intensive grass carp culture.
Presently, the feed used is usually cheap and the FCR is high (usually >2:1). Thus a rather
small proportion of the feed is utilised by the fish. The unutilised portion and the wastes
discharged by the fish can cause significant environmental impacts and may accelerate
eutrophication. Careful planning of cage and pen culture developments inland water bodies,
especially shallow lakes, is very important. The utilisation of natural feeds such as aquatic
weeds and terrestrial grasses can reduce these adverse impacts. The use of highly digestible
feeds and better feeding practices can also assist. Similar problem exist when grass carp are
intensively farmed in ponds. With the increasing use of artificial feeds, unutilised feed and
other wastes accumulate in the ponds, whose contents are normally totally discharged into
natural water bodies at the end of culture operations. Reasonable stocking densities,
integrated fish farming, and careful feeding management are highly recommended in order
to minimise environmental impact.
A third issue is the genetic quality of the seed used in farming. Artificial breeding of this
species has been practiced for four decades in China. Breeding control was not always
regarded as having high importance by every hatchery operator in the past. Inbreeding
actually happened in quite a few farms in the past. This caused a degradation of the quality
of seed produced for culture. This may result in poor growth performance and less disease
resistance. The latter problem can also bring another dilemma - increased use of antibiotics
and other drugs. Therefore, induced breeding of grass carp should be carried out with
carefully maintained broodstock of genetic quality.

January 2010

Lucy Towers
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Inside New England’s innovative aquaculture incubator
Maine’s Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research, which has helped to launch some of the state’s
most innovative aquaculture businesses, is now the subject of international interest too, helping to
attract Ki…

11 May 2020
Salmon sector halves antibiotic use
The use of antibiotics in the global salmon sector has halved over the course of the last seven years,
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8 May 2020
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7 May 2020
Study suggests salmon benefit from krill meal
Adding krill meal to the finishing diets of farmed Atlantic salmon improves both their welfare and their
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