Doğu Afrikalı Koşucularda Antropometri Ve Vücut Kompozisyonu

“Anthropometrics and Body Composition in East African Runners: Potential Impact on Performance”
by Mooses M, Hackney AC
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Note. This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of the

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. The
article appears here in its accepted, peer-reviewed form, as it was
provided by the submitting author. It has not been copyedited,
proofread, or formatted by the publisher.
Section: Invited Brief Review
Article Title: Anthropometrics and Body Composition in East African Runners: Potential
Impact on Performance
Authors: Martin Mooses1 and Anthony C. Hackney2
Affiliations: 1Institude of Sports Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University

of Tartu, Estonia. 2Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Department of Nutrition, School
of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
Acceptance Date: August 31, 2016
©2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0408
Title of the Article: Anthropometrics and Body Composition in East African

Runners: Potential Impact on Performance
Submission Type: Brief Review
Authors: Martin Mooses1,

Anthony C. Hackney2
1
Institutions: Institude of Sports Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of
Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia
Downloaded by The University of Calgary on 09/16/16, Volume 0, Article Number 0
2
Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Department of
Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
Corresponding author: Martin Mooses1
Institude of Sports Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of
Medicine, University of Tartu.
Jakobi 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
Pho. +372 53463066
E-mail: Martin.Mooses@ut.ee
Running head: East African runners
Abstract Word Count: 202
Text-Only Word Count: 3781
Number of Figures: 2
Number of Tables: 4
Abstract
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), fractional utilization of VO2max during running and running
economy (RE) are crucial factors for running success for all endurance athletes. Although
evidence is limited, investigations of these key factors indicate that the East Africans
superiority in distance running is to a large exent due to a unique combination of these factors.
East African runners appear to have a very high level of RE most likely associated, at least
partly, with anthropometric characteristics rather than with any specific metabolic property of
the working muscle. That is, evidence suggest that anthropometrics and body composition
might have important parameters as determinants of superior performance of East African
distance runners. Regrettably, this role is often overlooked and mentioned as a descriptive
parameter rather than explanatory one in many research studies. This brief review article
provides an overview of the evidence to support the critical role anthropometrics and body
composition has on the distance running success of East African athletes. The structural form
and shape of these athletes also has a downside, as having very low BMI or body fat increases
the risk for Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) conditions in both, male and female
runners which can have serious health consequences.
Keywords: East African runners, body composition, anthropometrics, running performance,
running economy
Introduction
East African running phenomenon has been of considerable interest of sport scientists
1-3
for many years. They have been dominating in distance running for more than 4 decades
and this success story is continuing. The majority of Ethiopian 4 and Kenyan runners originate
from the same geographical location, namely the Great Rift Valley region, and belong to the
same ethnic groups, Oromo and Kalenjin, respectively 2. However it has been shown that
certain subtribes are more represented in track distance running events, while others are more
likely to succeed in marathon 5. The unanswered question surrounding the success of East
African distance runners has generated a plethora of studies attempting to elucidate putative
contributory mechanisms 4. As early as 1995 Saltin and colleagues 6,7 pointed out that genetic
endowment, upbrining, training and the fact that many of these runners live and train at altitude
of around 2000 m above sea level may play important role in their superior performance.
Previous studies have reported high but similar maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) values in
6,8
East African and European distance runners and therefore recent research attention has
shifted to other possible determinants of the superior performances of African runners
including running economy (RE) that is believed to be largely affected by anthropometric

3,9,10 11
parameters or intrinsic morphological and physiological properties . More recent
explanation for their success also includes smaller body mass and slender body type, specially
small lower legs 3, which may contribute to the factors noted by Saltin et al. 6. Furthermore,
maintainence of cerebral oxygenation has even been suggested as a new contributing factor to
the current multifactorial explanation of the East African running phenomenon 12.
Sports scientists has been interested in the assessment of athletes body composition
which could be used to monitor training efficiacy and thus predict performance. Recent
scientific debate 13,14,15 confirms that this topic is of high relevance and in considerable interest
among sport scientists as well as running coaches today. Yet, to date there has been no attempt
to consolidate existing information in a comphrensive review focusing on African runners.
The aim of the present article is to fill that void and give an overview of the potential
role of anthropometric and body composition parameters in the success of East African
distance runners.
Body mass, height, body mass index and composition
Billat et al. 16 performed study with truly elite level male (finished in top 30 in Kenyan
Cross Country Championships at 2002) and female Kenyan (finished in top 15 in the same
competition) runners and revealed the average mass and BMI 53.8±4.7 kg, 18.6 kg∙m-2 for male
and 47.8±3.5 kg, 16.9 kg∙m-2 for female runners. They reported that in opposite to men, Kenyan
women had a mass comparable with previously published data about Caucasian elite middle-
and long-distance runners 16. A few years later, 2006, Lucia and colleagues 17 compared elite
level Eritrean distance runners with Spaniards and found that Eritreans were of lower body
mass (57.2±3.3 vs 60.5±7.8 kg), height (1.74±0.08 vs 1.72±0.06 m), and BMI (18.9±1.5 vs
20.5±1.7 kg∙m-2). It was also reported 2007 Cross-Country World Champion (Eritrean; case
study) had body mass (54 kg), height (1.63 m) and BMI (20.3 kg∙m-2) values at the time of the
race 18, which seemed to be more similar to the Caucasian (Spanish) elite level athletes than
for Kenyans 18. From the study of six high level Kenya runners 19 authors reported body mass
63.0±7.3 kg, height 1.77±0.06 m and BMI 20.1±1.8 kg∙m-2 which is not different to those of
Ethiopian young male runners with body mass of 62.7±5.0 kg, height 1.78±0.05 m and BMI
19.7±0.9 kg∙m-2 20. However both of these studies yielded relatively higher body mass and BMI
values compared to published literature about East African athletes (Table 1). On the other
hand, Ethiopian female runners body mass 49.3±4.7 kg, height 1.67±0.05 m, BMI 17.8±1.4
kg∙m-2 20 were not different to those of other studies with East African female athletes (Table
2).
21
Joyner et al. examined the height and body mass of the 30 runners (29 of them
Africans) who have broken 27 min for 10 000 m (1.70±0.06 m and 56±5 kg), and found only
one runner greater than 1.78 m and 70 kg. The superior running performance of African runners
has been attributed in part to their low BMI, specifically leading to a better economy in warm
conditions due to improved ability to release heat than heavier Caucasian runners 21,22. In recent
years discussion about who will break the 2 h barrier in marathon running has been emerged.
Joyner et al. 21 has predicted that whoever breaks 2 h in marathon will have outstanding RE, a
small body size as well as exposure to high altitude and significant physical activity early in
life.
It is interesting to note that Kenyan and Ethiopian differ in general somatotype despite
the fact that athletes from both of these countries are the best in the world. Kenyans have an
ectomorphic somatotype charecterized by long, slender legs that are typical of central and
southern African tribes, however Ethiopians are generally more mesomorphic somatotype and
exhibit physical characteristics that are more reflective of northern Africa and include some
European and Middle Easter physical traits 23. However, Peters et al. 24 investigated Ethiopian
adults (n=156) who had average BMI 18.7 kg∙m-2 which is similar to Kenyan elite runners 16
and indicates that Ethiopians are essentially as slender as Kenyans.
As early as 1995 Saltin and colleagues 6 indicated that the best Kenyan runners had a
body mass index of 19.2 as compared with 20.6 for the best Scandinavian runners (Table 1).
They emphasized the importance of body mass to RE by normalizing submaximal oxygen
consumption for different body size and expressing RE as ml·kg-0.75·min-1 rather than ml·kg-
1
·min-1. Their important conclusion was that Kenyan runners were more economical compared
to Scandinavian counterparts and difference became more pronounced when RE was expressed
as a function of the 0.75 power. This was confirmed later by Weston et al. 25 where well-tained
black and white South African runners with similar mean 10 km race times, the former had the
lowest oxygen cost when running, regardless of whether this was expressed per kg or using the
exponent 0.66 kg of body mass. There is debate in the scientific community whether the
exponent should be the theoretical one of 0.67 or the empirically found one of 0.70-0.75 3.
These exponent factors are based upon the allometric scaling principle; that is, the linear
proportions that relate the length, volume, and surface area of the same geometric shapes of
differing sizes 26. It has been suggested that body mass-modified approach to RE and VO2max
is of greater importance specially when comparing groups of individuals with differing body
weights or in longitudinal studies of subjects with changing body mass because there is
considerable interindividual variation in RE 27.

28
It is interesting to note that Marc et al. analyzed data from the top 100 world best
marathon runners each year from January 1990 to December 2011 for men and from January
1996 to December 2011 for women and showed that mean body mass for men decreased
significantly from 59.6±2.30 kg in 1990 to 56.2±1.10 kg in 2011 with concomitant significant
decrease in BMI from 19.8±1.7 kg∙m-2 to 19.4±1.3 kg∙m-2 during the same time frame. An
important finding from this study was that optimal BMI for men (Figure 1) was 19.8 and 18.2
kg∙m-2 for women for a maximal speed of 5.7 m∙s-1 (20.5 km∙h-1) and 5.19 m∙s-1 (18.7 km∙h-1)
respectively 28.
The downside of the low body mass and BMI is the risk of Relative Energy Deficiency
in Sport (RED-S) development 29. Along these lines, Hulley et al. 30 demonstrate very low body
mass and BMI in Kenyan elite level female distance runners hence they were least at risk in
probable cases (questionnaire EDE-Q) of eating disorder psychopathology compared to UK
counterparts (age 22.3±0.5; body mass 51.9±0.6 kg; body height 167.4±0.7; BMI 18.5±0.2).
They also found more menstrual irregularities among runners and linked it to low energy
availability and suggested that Kenyan and UK athletes are both at increased risk of irreversible
skeletal deficits 31.
Body composition in East African distance runners has been calculated based on
different prediction equations evaluated via skinfold thicknesses. With recent development in
equipment, it has become easy and cost effective to more accurately measure body composition
by using Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) method, however to date it has been
used primarily studies with Caucasian high level distance runners 32 but not yet employed with
elite level East African athletes.

16
However Billat et al. revealed that the avarage fat% (calculated using the skinfold-
based formula of Durning & Womersley 33) was 6.6±1.1 % for male and 16.0±6.6 % for female
Kenyan runners. They concluded that total body fat% was not significantly different to those
reported in the literature for Caucasian elite long-distance male and female runners. Ethiopian
male athletes body fat % has been measured 9.2±1.3% and female athletes 18.2±1.6% (also
calculated using the formula of Durning & Womersley 33). From the study of six high level
Kenya runners 19 body fat % 5.3±1.6 (calculated using the skinfold-based formula of Jackson
& Pollock 34) was in similar range compared to Billat et al. 16. More recent studies have shown
20
slightly higher body fat % for male East African athletes. For instance Legas-Arreze et al.
and Prommer et al. 8 also used Durning and Womersley 33 equation and showed 9.2±1.3 and
9.9±2.1% of body fat, respectively. Marathon runners with similar performance, but using body
density measurements and the Siri equation 35 presented body fat % of 8.9±0.1% 1.
It can be concluded that lower sum of skinfolds, which are the base to calculate body
fat% in different equations facilitates running performance and thus minimal body fat is
desirable because an exess of adipose tissue usually requires a greater muscular effort to
accelerate the legs, and, consequently, the energy expenditure at the same velocity would be
higher 1.
Based on the evidence presented above low body mass and BMI within a certain range
is beneficial for runnig performance, however when achieved through severe energy
restrictions, a negative impact in performance as well as in overall health condition is likely to
occur.
Lower limb circumferences
It has been proposed by some researcher to use body mass distribution (upper body -
legs) and lever arms to explain East African runners economy. Saltin et al. 6 noted that Kenyan
runners with relatively long and slender legs have longer lever arms due to a different
arrangement of tendon insertion around knee joint as well as size and shape differences of the
femur and the tibia 6. In addition Larsen 3

found Kenyans to be low BMI and slender body
shape compared to Caucasian elite runners. Interestingly, these findings point back to some of
the classical studies of human locomotion and energy cost of ambulation 36. This work showed
the aerobic demand is increased by 1% for every extra kilogram carried on the trunk, however,
when the mass is carried in the shoes, aerobic demand increases by 10% for every additional
kilogram 36. Larsen 3 proposed hypothesis that superior RE of Kenyan runners is primarly due
to the slender limbs with low masses allowing them to run with a minimal energy used for
37
swinging the limbs. A study with untrained adolescent Kenyan boys from Nandi tribe
concluded that the body dimension corresponds well with findings in Kenyan elite runners as
they are very slender with relatively long legs. Considering that leg swing requires 20% of the
net energy consumed in running 38

, added load to the limbs would increase both – the total
mass to be carried and mechanical energy expended in raising and accelerating the center of
mass and in oscillations in kinetic energy of the limbs relative to the center of mass. Thus leg
mass and the distribution of mass in the legs might be important characteristics in the
performance of runners 3,19,32. Therefore it can be expected that thin and light lower legs lead
to better RE because of reduced kinetic energy required to accelerate and decelerate the limbs
39
. Foster and Lucia 40 also pointed out that there is a tendency for runners from East Africa to
be not only small generally but to have very thin lower legs may be expected to contribute to
their excellent RE and thus superior performance compared with Caucasian runners (Table 3).
Despite body shape appearing to be critical factor on the Kenyans RE, it was questioned
why some Ethiopian, black South Africans and Indians who have similar body shape have far
from the same level in distance runners as Kenyans 3.

Today the sporting community has seen the greate success of Ethiopian as well as
Eritrean athletes similar to Kenyans, but not black South Africans and Indians which might
add further evidence that body shape is only one of many factors influencing racing success in
distance running. Lucia et al. 17 showed that elite level Eritrean runners had maximal thigh and
calf circumferences 48.1±2.3 cm and 30.9±1.5 cm, including the 2007 Cross-Country World
Champion, whose calf circumference was 31.5 cm (which is extremely slight, compared to the
typical person). Furthermore significant association was found between submaximal VO2 at
the speed of 21 km∙h-1 and calf cirfcumference, indicating the potential influence of leg mass
in the energetic cost of running. The review article by Foster and Lucia 40 and commented on
the earlier study of Lucia et al., 17 and said that since previously described trend was obvious
even with the group of Spanish runners, it may be argued that running economy is related to
body dimensions generally and does not have a unique "African" element 40. In addition they
surmised that the primary reason for East African runners superior economy is due to their
small size.
A recent study with high level Kenyan distance runners by Mooses et al. 13 found that
mid-thigh and ankle circumferences were related to RE. Maximal thigh and calf
13
circumferences from this study were 49.2±2.6 cm and 33.6±2.7 cm respectively . They
concluded that superior RE in Kenyan distance runners would seem to be due to the interaction
of efficient storage and release of elastic strain energy (i.e., shorter Achilles moment arm – see
later discussion), low BMI and low energy cost for leg swing (i.e., smaller mid-thigh and calf
circumference) during running.
While more recently distance runners proportion of leg segment masses have been
related to RE and performance in recreational and national level European athletes, there are a
lack of data about high level Kenyan as well as East-African runners in overall 13.
Anthropometrics - proportion of leg segments

Despite a number of studies describing different anthropometric parameters 17-19 in top
level East African runners, there is only one study examining the different leg proportions in
relation with running performance and RE in competitive Kenyan distance runners 13 and a few
more that has been described proportional leg length (leg length (m)/body height (m), in %)
17,18 37
of East African runners (Table 4). Larsen et al. explains that the proportion of the leg
length to total body height changes only marginally beyond the age of 16 years and therefore
it is appropriate to compare the percentages of leg length to stature in Kenyan athletes and
37
youth. At that time Larsen et al. indicating to unpublished observation concludes that
proportional leg length of Kenyan boys (55.5%) from Nandi tribe is very consistent with
findings of Kenyan elite runners. He further explains that tibial length of East Africans has
shown to be longer in absolute terms compared the Caucasians despite the fact that their stature
has been smaller 37. Lucia et al. 17 showed that Eritrean elite level runners had upper leg (thigh)
length 48.2±4.0 cm and lower leg (shank) length 44.1±3.0 cm. Proportional leg length
calculated from their data was 53.0%. Interestingly Spanish elite level runners proportional leg
length was a comparable 53.8%. Similarly, a case study of the 2007 Cross-Country World
Champion found his porportional leg length to be 54.0% 18. Proportion of leg lengths has also
been studied in high level Kenyan runners, and it was found that relatively longer legs (total
leg length, upper leg length and total leg to body height ratio) are advantageous for running
13
performance (Figure 2) . Precice underlying mechanism explaining this relationship is not
13,17
clear , however increasing stride length during running is more efficient than increasing
frequency by devoting less energy to leg acceleration. Longer legs favour longer stride length
and therefore would allow a better RE 13,41. Enomoto and Ae 42 reported kinematic differences
between elite Kenyan and Japanese runners and concluded that the Kenyan runners were able
to swing their leg forward faster and through a greater angle. Small calf circumference might
produce a low moment of inertia of the leg about the hip, therefore less muscular effort will be
required in leg swing 19. In most individuals there is increase in stride frequency and in relative
stride length with increasing the speed since these gait parameters usually increase linearly for
speeds up to 7 m∙s-1 43
. Furthermore, shorter ground contact time has been associated with
better RE because there are less time for the braking force to decelerate forward motion and
thus lead to better performance 19.
Achilles tendon moment arm
Interestingly, Saltin and associates found Kenyan runners had a high degree of
flexibility in hip joint and small range of movement in ankle joint 6. Despite the fact that
information originated from personal communication from Rolf and was not directly measured
in their study, it was indicated that the smaller range of movement in ankle joint might be
related enlarged storage of elastic energy in the Achilles tendon and therefore have an effect to
improve RE. More recently it has been proposed that RE is a function of anatomical differences
in the Achilles tendon moment arm 11,13,44, which means the shorter the moment arm, the greater
the storage and release of elastic strain energy, and therefore reducing the energy cost 13,44 for
running. In high level Kenyan distance runners Achilles tendon moment arm has been shown
to be related to RE at the speed of 16 km·h-1 and explained 30% of the variation in RE 13. Other
researchers reported for non-elite distance runners that Achilles moment arm could explain 58-
64% of the variance in RE 11,44. Nevertheless the role of Achilles tendon in storage and release
of elastic strain energy during running can not be overlooked. A possible explanation for these
findings is that runners with a short Achilles moment arm stretch their Achilles tendons to a
greater extent than runners with long Achilles moment arm and therefore convert a higher
percentage of kinetic energy into elastic energy, which is then returned, leading to a lower
energy cost of running 13,44. This proposed mechanism is very similar to that of proposed by
Saltin and colleagues 6 who indicated that enlarged storage of elastic energy in the Achilles
tendon could have a secondary effect on the energy cost of the contracting muscle fibres and
more energy storaged in the tendon during stretch-shortening cycle the less is the demand on
the contracting muscle fibres 6. Along the same lines, Sano et al. 45 investigated muscle-tendon
interaction of elite Kenyan runners during hopping and concluded that Kenyan endurance
runners have very long gastro Achilles tendons as compared to young healthy Caucasian
controls. Kenyans reached higher hopping performance despite an overall smaller range of
fascicle and tendinous length changes during the contact phase. This phenomenon was
accompanied by shorter stretching and total contact times as well as higher stretching to
preactivation EMG ratio. Furthermore the Kenyans showed greater tendon recoil ratio
compared to controls. In overall this specific muscle-tendon characteristic in the Kenyans is
likely to have contributed to the effective stretch shortening cycle performance and it may
imply that there can be a specific fascicle-tendon behavior to utilize elastic energy effectively
45 46
. Recently Tam and associates shown that in Elite level Kenyan runners an increase in
agonist (rectus femoris) activity increases joint stiffness and energy cost of transport as well
thus possibly exerting a negative influence on performance, at faster running speeds. This
finding supports previous research suggesting that neuromuscular activity during swing is
equally important and necessary to execute and maintain performance, rather than during
ground contact only 46.
It is speculated that elite Kenyan runners possess greater Achilles tendon moment arm
and shorter forefoot length (smaller foot lever ratio), and consequently may have the potential
47
to increase the ankle joint stiffness and reduce the energy consumption in the ankle joint .
The afforementioned study showed the significantly longer Achilles tendon moment arm of
elite level Kenyan runners may contribute positively to the endurance performance compared
11,13,44
with Japanese runners, which is opposite to the results of previous studies that implied
shorter Achilles tendon moment arm would contribute to better RE. These studies just
mentioned proposed that runners with shorter Achilles moment arm are more effectively in
converting a higher percentage of kinetic energy into elastic energy during running. Sano et al.
45
and Kunimasa et al. 47, however, explain that a longer Achilles tendon moment arm could
contribute to runners higher RE by reducing the required Achilles tendon force and muscle
activity during running. Obviously more research is needed to rectify this issue.
Conclusion
Maximal oxygen uptake, fractional utilization of VO2max during running and RE are
crucial factors for running success for all endurance athletes. Investigations of these key factors
indicate that the East Africans superiority in distance running is to a large exent due to a unique
3,13 17
combination of these factors . Importantly Lucia et al., summarised that elite level East
African runners have a very high level economy most likely associated, at least partly, with
anthropometric characteristics rather than with any specific metabolic property of the working
muscle. Therefore, the limited available evidence does suggest that anthropometrics and body
composition might have important parameters as a determinants of superior performance of
East African distance runners. This role is often overlooked and pointed out as a descriptive
parameter rather than explanatory one in many research studies. Low body mass as well as
BMI might have a further positive effect on RE and thermoregulation, however the downside
of having very low BMI is an increased risk of RED-S conditions developing in both, male and
female runners which can have serious health consequences (see Mountjoy et al. 29). Therefore
it is crucially important to further investigate the energy balance and related parameters,
especially in top level East African athletes.

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Figure 1. Race speed record of the Top 100 men runners by BMI. Modelling function: y =
−1.4387 + 0.7208x − 0.0182x2 and R2 = 0.89 (used by permission of Marc et al. 28).
Figure 2. Relationship between IAAF performance scores and leg anthropometrics. Black and
white circles represent relationship between IAAF performance scores and total leg length (r
= 0.40; P = 0.030) and upper leg length (r = 0.42; P = 0.025) respectively (A). Relationship
between IAAF performance score and total leg to body height ratio (r = 0.38; P = 0.043) (B)
(used by permission of Mooses et al. 13).
Table 1. Characteristics of East African male runners from different studies
Study N Level of athletes Age (y) Body mass (kg) Body height (m) BMI (kg∙m-2) Body fat (%)
Saltin et al. 6 4 VO2max 72.9±1.21 (ml·kg-1·min-1; middle-distance) 22.8±2.4 61.5±1.9 1.74±0.00 20.8
Saltin et al. 6 6 VO2max 79.9±1.39 (ml·kg-1·min-1; long-distance) 23.0±2.1 56.1±1.2 1.71±0.00 19.2
Saltin et al. 7 4 VO2max 60-71 (ml·kg-1·min-1; 2000 m a.s.l) 24-32 59-73 1.71-1.79
Saltin et al. 7 9 VO2max 63-73 (ml·kg-1·min-1; 2000 m a.s.l) 15-17 49-65 1.65-1.87
16 -1 -1
Billat et al. 13 VO2max 78.4±2.1 (ml·kg ·min ) 26.5±3.6 53.8±4.7 1.70±0.04 18.6 6.6±1.1a
10 km 00:28:15±00:00:15 (hh:min:s)
Larsen et al. 37 19 VO2max 55.1±5.3 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 16.6±0.8 53.3±5.3 1.70±0.08 18.4±1.6
Larsen et al. 48 14 VO2max 56.0±2.9 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 16.6 53.2±5.2 1.71±7.7
Lucia et al. 17 7 VO2max 73.8±5.6 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 22±3 57.2±3.3 1.74±0.08 18.9±1.5
7 best Eritrean runners according to their 2004 cross-
coutnry performance
Fudge et al. 39 9 Highly trained (inc. world, Olympic and junior 21±2 55.7±3.4 1.74±0.03 18.3±1.3 7.1±2.5b
champions)
Lucia et al. 18 1 2007 Cross-Country World Champion 12 km race 25 54 1.63 20.3 9.2 and 5.9e
VO2max 83 (ml·kg-1·min-1)
Kong & de Heer 19 6 800 m: 1:46-1:47 (min:s) 22.0±1.8 63.0±7.3 1.77±0.06 20.1±1.8 5.3±1.6c
1500 m: 3:44-3:46 (min:s)
5000 m: 13:48-14:05 (min:s)
10 km Cross Country: 28:07-29:36 (min:s)
Legaz-Arrese et al. 20 12 800 m: 1:49 (min:s) 20.4±2.6 62.7±5.0 1.78±0.05 19.7±0.9 9.2±1.3a
1500 m: 3:44 (min:s)
Prommer et al. 8 10 VO2max 71.5±5.0 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 25.5±4.0 57.2±7.0 1.76±0.10 18.5±0.9 9.9±2.1a
10 km: 28:29±00:27 (min:s)
Tam et al. 10 10 VO2max 64.9±5.8 (2300 a.s.l) 26±4 59.4±5.8 1.72±0.07 20.1
VO2max 69.1±6.0 (ml·kg-1·min-1; sea level. predicted)
Marathon 2:07:17±00:01:27 (hh:min:s)
Half-marathon 1:00:40±00:00:31 (hh:min:s)
Vernillo et al., 1 14 Marathon 2:07:16±00:01:55 (hh:min:s) 27.7±3.8 57.7±4.0 1.71±0.06 19.7 8.9±0.1d
Sano et al. 45 10 Participated in major national and/or international 21±4 57.9±5.1 1.75±0.06 18.9±1.5
running competitions
Foster et al. 49 10 Elite level. Two of the participants marathon faster 26.9±1.3 54.8±1.4 1.73±0.02 18.4±0.5
than 2:09:00 (hh:min:s)
Kunimasa et al. 47 22 IAAF performance score 1130±91.3 p 21.9±4.5 57.2±4.8 1.74±0.06 18.9±1.5
Mooses et al. 13 32 IAAF performance score 993±77 p 25.3±5.0 56.5±5.7 1.72±0.07 19.0±1.3
VO2max 68.8±3.8 (ml·kg-1·min-1; 2300 m a.s.l)
Santos-Concejero et al. 50 9 10 km 27.7±0.8 (min) 23.3±4.8 57.8±3.3 1.72±0.05 19.5±0.7
VO2max 73.5±6.0 (ml·kg-1·min-1)
Santos-Concejero et al. 51 15 VO2max 71.9±5.1 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 23.7±4.2 54.8±6.3 1.71±0.06 18.8±1.3 8.7±0.5d
Half-marathon 1:02:20±00:01:00 (hh:min:s)
10 km 28:42±00:24 (min:s)
a) Durnin & Womersley 33 equation; b) Tanita TBF 521 device; c) Jackson & Pollock 34 equation; d) Siri 35 equation; d) Yuhasz 52 equation; e) based on 4 and 6 skinfolds
(personal communication with Lucia et al. 18).
Table 2. Characteristics of East African female runners from different studies
Billat et al. 16 7 VO2max 68.6±1.1 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 26.3±3.4 47.8±3.5 1.68±0.02 16.9 16.0±6.6a
10 km 00:32:22±00:00:35
(hh:min:s)
Hulley et al. 30 75 75 elite runners from the majore 29.3±0.4 47.5±0.7 1.59±0.01 18.8±0.2
race meetings
Legaz-Arrese et 12 800 m: 2.08 (min:s) 19.7±2.9 49.3±4.7 1.67±0.05 17.8±1.4 18.2±1.6a
al. 20 1500 m: 4.26 (min:s)
Foster et al. 49 10 Competed national and 21.0±1.8 47.3±0.4 1.62±0.03 18.0±0.1
international events
Muia et al. 53 56 Middle- and long-distance (>1500 16 48.5±6.1 1.59±0.06 19.9±2.0
m) athletes.
a) Durnin & Womersley 33 equation
Table 3. Characteristics of East African male runners leg circumferences
Study N Level of athletes Thigh (cm) Mid-thigh Calf (cm) Ankle (cm)
(cm)
Larsen et al. 19 VO2max 55.1±5.3 (ml·kg- 31.9±1.7
37 1
·min-1)
Lucia et al. 17 7 VO2max 73.8±5.6 (ml·kg- 48.1±2.3 30.9±1.5
1
·min-1)
7 best Eritrean runners
according to their 2004
cross-coutnry performance
Lucia et al. 18 1 2007 Cross-Country World 49.5 31.5
Champion 12 km race.
VO2max 83 (ml·kg-1·min-1)
Kong & de 6 800 m: 1:46-1:47 (min:s) 34.5±2.3 20.5±1.5
Heer 19 1500 m: 3:44-3:46 (min:s)
5000 m: 13:48-14:05
(min:s)
10 km Cross Country:
28:07-29:36 (min:s)
Vernillo et al. 14 Marathon 2:07:16±00:01:55 50.98±1.98 46.74±2.44 33.91±1.90 21.46±0.83
1
(hh:min:s)
Mooses et al. 32 IAAF performance score 49.2±2.6 47.1±2.3 33.6±2.7 20.3±1.4
13
993±77 p
VO2max 68.8±3.8 (ml·kg-
1
·min-1; 2300 a.s.l)
Santos- 9 10 km 27.7±0.8 (min) 43.3±1.4 32.3±1.0
Concejero et VO2max 73.5±6.0 (ml·kg-
al. 50 1
·min-1)
Table 4. Characteristics of East African male runners lengths
Study N Level of athletes Upper leg Lower leg (cm) Total leg (cm) Leg to body height
(cm) (%)
Larsen et al. 37 19 VO2max 55.1±5.3 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 56.5* 45.4±3.0 101.9±4.9 55.5 Total leg: ground to the anterior superior
iliac spine
Lower leg: ground to the middle of the

fibula
Lucia et al. 17 7 VO2max 73.8±5.6 (ml·kg-1·min-1) 48.2±4.0 44.1±3.0 92.3±6.5 53.0* Upper leg: trochanterion to tibiale laterale
7 best Eritrean runners according Lower leg: tibiale mediale to sphyrion
to their 2004 cross-coutnry tibiale.
performance
Lucia et al. 18 1 2007 Cross-Country World 47 41 88 54.0 Upper leg: trochanterion to tibiale laterale
Champion 12 km race. Lower leg: tibiale mediale to sphyrion
VO2max 83 (ml·kg-1·min-1) tibiale.
Kong & de Heer 19 6 800 m: 1:46-1:47 (min:s) 92±6 52.0* Leg length: Greater trochanter to lateral
1500 m: 3:44-3:46 (min:s) malleolus.
5000 m: 13:48-14:05 (min:s)
10 km Cross Country: 28:07-29:36
(min:s)
Vernillo et al. 1 14 Marathon 2:07:16±00:01:55 43.07±2.89 40.20±2.75 83.27* 48.6* Upper leg: trochanterion tibiale laterale
(hh:min:s) Lower leg: tibiale mediale-sphyrion tibiale
Sano et al. 45 10 Participated in major national 40±2 Lower leg: proximal head of fibula to the
and/or international running tip of the lateral malleolus.
competitions
Kunimasa et al. 47 22 IAAF performance score 42.65±3.42 39.74±3.03 82.39* 47.4* Upper leg: tips of greater trochanter to
1130±91.3 p lateral condyle.
Lower leg: proximal head of fibula to the
tip of the lateral malleolus.
Mooses et al. 13 32 IAAF performance score 993±77 p 50.7±2.9 39.4±2.4 90.1±4.9 52.1±1.7 Upper leg: tibiale laterale to iliospinale.
VO2max 68.8±3.8 (ml·kg-1·min-1; Lower leg: tibiale mediale to sphyrion
2300 a.s.l) tibiale.
Mooses et al. 13 32 IAAF performance score 993±77 p 42.4±2.6 39.4±2.4 81.8±4.6 47.3±1.6 Upper leg: trochanterion tibiale laterale
VO2max 68.8±3.8 (ml·kg-1·min-1; Lower leg: tibiale mediale-sphyrion tibiale
2300 a.s.l)
Study N Level of athletes Upper leg Lower leg (cm) Total leg (cm) Leg to body height
(cm) (%)
Santos-Concejero 9 10 km 27.7±0.8 (min) 42.4±1.7 39.1±1.6 81.5* 48±1 Upper leg: trochanterion to tibiale laterale
et al. 50 VO2max 73.5±6.0 (ml·kg-1·min-1) Lower leg: tibiale mediale to sphyrion
tibiale.
* calculated by authors of the present study

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“Anthropometrics and Body Composition in East African Runners: Potential Impact on Performance”

Note. This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of the

Section: Invited Brief Review

Authors: Martin Mooses1 and Anthony C. Hackney2

Affiliations: 1Institude of Sports Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University

Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Acceptance Date: August 31, 2016

©2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Title of the Article: Anthropometrics and Body Composition in East African

Submission Type: Brief Review

Authors: Martin Mooses1,

Running head: East African runners

Abstract Word Count: 202

Text-Only Word Count: 3781

might have important parameters as determinants of superior performance of East African

runners which can have serious health consequences.

Keywords: East African runners, body composition, anthropometrics, running performance,

shifted to other possible determinants of the superior performances of African runners

including running economy (RE) that is believed to be largely affected by anthropometric

to consolidate existing information in a comphrensive review focusing on African runners.

Body mass, height, body mass index and composition

and indicates that Ethiopians are essentially as slender as Kenyans.

They emphasized the importance of body mass to RE by normalizing submaximal oxygen

considerable interindividual variation in RE 27.

significantly from 59.6±2.30 kg in 1990 to 56.2±1.10 kg in 2011 with concomitant significant

probable cases (questionnaire EDE-Q) of eating disorder psychopathology compared to UK

skeletal deficits 31.

elite level East African athletes.

restrictions, a negative impact in performance as well as in overall health condition is likely to

Lower limb circumferences

femur and the tibia 6. In addition Larsen 3

net energy consumed in running 38

from the same level in distance runners as Kenyans 3.

circumference) during running.

Anthropometrics - proportion of leg segments

Despite a number of studies describing different anthropometric parameters 17-19 in top

thus lead to better performance 19.

Achilles tendon moment arm

compared to controls. In overall this specific muscle-tendon characteristic in the Kenyans is

ground contact only 46.

composition might have important parameters as a determinants of superior performance of

especially in top level East African athletes.

1. Vernillo G, Schena F, Berardelli C, Rosa G, Galvani C, Maggioni M, Agnello L, La

5. Tucker R, Onywera VO, Santos-Concejero J. Analysis of the Kenyan distance-running

18. Lucia A, Olivan J, Bravo J, Gonzalez-Freire M, Foster C. The key to top-level

29. Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Carter S, Constantini N, Lebrun C, Meyer

50. Santos-Concejero J, Olivan J, Mate-Munoz JL, Muniesa C, Montil M, Tucker R, Lucia

Table 1. Characteristics of East African male runners from different studies

Table 2. Characteristics of East African female runners from different studies

Table 3. Characteristics of East African male runners leg circumferences

Table 4. Characteristics of East African male runners lengths

Lower leg: ground to the middle of the

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