e­conservation

the online magazine No. 21, September 2011

Contemporary Art Wall Clock by PaulaArt
 inde
E DITORIAL 4 On continual learning
By Rui Bordalo

NEWS & VIEWS 5 Restoration, Reality, and Life Behind the ‘Velvet Rope’
By Daniel Cull

8 Business Management Education in the Conservation Community

By Sarah Lowengard

11 New Approaches on Book and Paper Conservation‐Restoration

Review by Penelope Banou

17 NESAT XI ‐ Conference of the Northern European Symposium

of Ancient Textiles
Review by Annette Paetz gen. Schieck and Sylvia Mitschke

21 Outdoor Wall Paintings, Material and Techniques

Review by Mirjam Jullien and Johanna Nessow

24 Preservation of Archaeological Remains in Situ (PARIS 4)

Review by Mike Corfield and Jim Williams

31 University Training of Restoration within the European

Educational Context
Review by Luboš Machačko

ARTICLES 38 Characterization of Natural and Synthetic Dyes Employed in the

Manufacture of Chinese Garment Pieces by LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF
By Estrella Sanz Rodríguez, Angela Arteaga Rodríguez, María Antonia García and
Rodríguez Carmen Cámara

56 An Innovative Stretcher for Canvas Paintings

By Osama M. El‐Feky

66 Deterioration and Rates of Weathering of the Monumental Rock

Inscriptions at Wadi Hammamat, Egypt
By Hesham Abbas Kmally

EDUCATION 80 Sustainability in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage through

Education Training in Wood Conservation and Restoration in Malta
By Ninette Sammut

e‐conser vation
editorial On continual learning

I have recently noticed a tendency in young conservators who, after working in the field for several
years, are going back to study. And this, not necessarily to get a more advanced course in their area,
which they already master, but to get a second degree in a related field to help expand their area of
professional expertise. Studying chemistry, for example, will help conservators not only to
understand the intricacies of deterioration of works of art but will also allow them conservators to do
research and to get involved in the scientific sphere of the field.

These are by no means isolated cases. More and more people are going back to school at some stage of
their lives to pursue a second degree or some other type of advanced training. Many people stop
studying after they leave college, however they may find that the skills that they originally learned
may not be valid for the rest of their lives. The need to update skills or acquire new ones is now more
forceful than ever.

Like doctors, conservators become specialists by keeping up‐to‐date with the latest innovations,
materials and technologies. After all, conservation is an ever‐evolving field. We learn everyday, from
our work, which generates instructive experience which then accumulates over the years; we learn by
attending conferences, by going to professional meetings; we learn by simply reading an article. But
that is not systematic training and is hardly enough to acquire new skills. Here is where lifelong
learning comes into the picture.

Lifelong learning is a comprehensive concept of continual learning throughout a lifetime. It’s quite
straightforward yet has been promoted differently from country to country. While in Anglo‐Saxon
countries this is a widespread concept, in south European countries it may be seen as a weakness.
Indeed, after practicing for many years we become specialists in our field. So, one may think, if I am
already a specialist, why do I need to do more courses? Won't that actually be a sign that I doubt myself?
When in fact, it’s quite the opposite. No wonder that in countries where there are accreditation
schemes in conservation, lifelong learning is considered as an important criterion to be accepted and
recognized as specialists.

Proper learning demands an experienced tutor who can deliver the knowledge that you seek in the
best way. Depending on your particular case and your objectives, you may have a wide range of
possibilities, from simply attending a short course to going back to college to get a postgraduate or
masters degree. Nowadays, you can even do this online.

It’s wonderful to hunger for more knowledge or skills, but sometimes we simply get trapped in our
daily routines, concerned by meeting deadlines or overly focused on our work. We may think that
taking a course is just too much of a hassle; indeed, it is hard work and requires strong motivation.
Going back to school at a mid career stage is not the same as in our youth; the main difference being
that we must probably work while we study. It’s rather like taking on a second job. Despite this, the
advantages definitely outweigh the disadvantages. These are temporary circumstances that will
change you for the better: from performing your job under a completely different perspective up to
landing a new job, there’s a whole range of possibilities. At the end of the day it will inevitably enrich us.

Rui Bordalo
Editor‐in‐Chief

e‐conser vation

RESTORATION, REALITY, AND LIFE BEHIND THE ‘VELVET ROPE’
By Daniel Cull
"No scripts, no cue cards. It isn't always Shakespeare, but it's genuine. It's a life."
Have you ever wondered what it feels like to be a
contestant on a reality television show? What
does it feel like being stared at as you live out
your day‐to‐day life? I don’t have to wonder about
such things as I am one of a growing number of
conservators who work in a conservation studio
that is visible to museum goers. In recent years
there has been a steady growth in the number of
museums, and other cultural institutions, that
have incorporated ways of seeing ‘behind the
scenes’ in their buildings. The conservation pro‐
fession has, by and large, been supportive of
this development, as it hoped that by welcoming
the 'public gaze' into the conservation studio
this will help demystify conservation and raise
public awareness about the profession. To be
honest, I wasn’t sure about the concept at first,
I felt sure that I couldn’t possibly do tricky tech‐
nical work with an audience watching, but quite
to the contrary I’ve found that the opacity of glass
is very much a function of the mind.
One argument that has been raised against view‐
able studios is the extent to which they straddle
a strange line between a working studio and a
performance space. Much like popular reality
television what the audience sees is only a certain
aspect of reality, there remains other aspects
unseen. This argument, quite rightly, points out
that although a greater number of people get to
observe conservation through such spaces, they
only get to see a limited interpretation of con‐
servation; that of interventive treatments and
the use of ‘scientific’ looking equipment, which
e‐conser vation
news & view
Christof in 'The Truman Show' [1]
Fishbowl conservation
is generally observed
to be a technically
skilled, somewhat
scientific, profession
that is focused purely
on ‘fixing’ things.
of course stands in stark contrast
to the prevailing importance of the
approach of preventive conserva‐
tion both in contemporary theory
and practice. Fishbowl conserva‐
tion is generally observed to be a
technically skilled, somewhat sci‐
entific, profession that is focused
purely on ‘fixing’ things. For me
this critique became more interest‐
ing when considered in light of my
own interactions with the viewing
public.
In my experience these interactions
fall into one of three categories.
1) ‘What are you doing?’ 2) ‘What is
my object worth?’ 3) ‘Do you need
any help?’ The first category could
be considered to be the most inten‐
ded by conservation outreach, as it
is these sort of interactions in which
VIEWS
Conservation behind the glass. Photo by DebMomOf3 (Some rights reserved).
conservation itself is directly discussed and it is
through such interactions that the massive bene‐
fit of viewable studios is made abundantly clear.
The second category visitors have presumed, in‐
correctly but quite understandably, that conser‐
vators do appraisals. The third category is, to me,
the most intriguing. It seems that psychologic‐
ally the visibility of the studio, coupled with the
impossibility of accessing the space due to the
glass wall, acts in much the same way as a ‘velvet
rope’ at a bar or club; giving an air of exclusivity
to the inside, and creating a desire to be a part
of whatever it is that’s going on in there.
In line with the work of the Demos think tank who
discussed the importance of, and necessity for,
volunteerism within the heritage sector, I would
argue that conservation outreach should aim to
facilitate people's “active relationships” [2] with
their cultural heritage. I wonder whether the
conservation that the audience gets a glimpse
into, in which access is limited to the visual, is
actually encouraging such an active relationship?
Or is it, as I suspect, encouraging a desire to be
6 e‐conser vation
a part of an exclusive group behind the metapho‐
rical velvet rope? As those of us who work in such
visible studios continue to develop our outreach
approaches I wonder if we could incorporate some
of the lessons of the groundbreaking publication
Saving Stuff: How to Care for and Preserve Your Col‐
lectibles, Heirlooms, and Other Prized Possessions [3].
The main lesson that I took from the book being
the usefulness and applicability of conservation
ideas and methods for members of the public to
interact with their own material culture; an idea
that runs counter to the somewhat absurd as‐
sumption that it would be dangerous for people to
‘do conservation’ on their own stuff. As cultural
conservation becomes increasingly well‐known
to the general public, one aspect of our outreach
could be to mirror approaches taken within envir‐
onmental conservation to find ways to empower
people to care for their own cultural heritage as
they do their natural heritage. This would truly
be to begin to break down the barriers between
the public, our heritage(s), and professional
conservation(s).
 VIEWS

Notes:
1. The Truman Show, Paramount Pictures/ Scott
Rudin Productions, 1998
2. S. Jones and J. Holden, It's a Material World:
Caring For the Public Realm, Demos, London,
2008
3. D. Williams and L. Jaggar, Saving Stuff: How to
Care for and Preserve Your Collectibles, Heirlooms,
and Other Prized Possessions, Fireside, New York,
2005
The News section is bringing up‐to‐date
information on cultural heritage topics such as
on‐site conservation projects reports, reviews
of conferences, lectures or workshops and any
other kind of appropriate announcements.
If you are involved in interesting projects and
you want to share your experience with
everybody else, please send us your news
or announcements.
For more details, such as deadlines and
publication guidelines, please visit
www.e‐conservationline.com

DANIEL CULL
Conservator
The Musical Instrument Museum

Daniel Cull is from the West Country of the British

Isles. He trained at the Institute of Archaeology,
University College London, where he received a
BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of conser‐
vation, and an MSc in Conservation for Archae‐
ology and Museums. He was later awarded an
Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship at the National
Museum of the American Indian/Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, DC. He currently works
as a conservator at the Musical Instrument Mu‐
seum and as a collaborator with e‐conservation
magazine.

Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com
Contact: daniel.cull@themim.org

e‐conser vation 7
VIEWS
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN THE CONSERVATION
COMMUNITY
By Sarah Lowengard
All working conservators need to understand the
basics of business management.
At first glance, this statement seems to address
predictions for the future of the conservation
discipline. As the ratio of conservation program
graduates to institutional job openings grows, and
downsizing initiatives (including salary freezes)
within those same institutions take effect, we will
see significant increases in the proportion of in‐
dependently‐employed conservation and preser‐
vation professionals1. Faced with the likelihood
of future self‐employment in an independent
practice or moonlighting from an institutional
job, it seems reasonable to call for new or emerg‐
ing conservators to learn business basics.
This prediction may or may not come true but its
assumption that business management skills are
critical only to conservators who own or plan to
own an independent practice is false. My experi‐
ence as a course leader in the FAIC Online Educa‐
tion business management program and as a busi‐
ness adviser have proved to me that familiarity
with the language and norms of modern business
are important to all practicing conservators,
wherever they are employed. Opportunities to
learn these skills within the community are few
and those that exist are usually undersubscribed.
The result is an ignorance that prevents the dis‐
ciplines of conservation from full integration as
a professional practice within the educational‐
cultural institutions of which they are a part.
When conservators do seek business training,
they tend to focus on actionable advice — the re‐
8 e‐conser vation
gistrations to file, the insurance to purchase, the
taxes to collect and pay — rather than underlying
theories or transferable skills. For owners of micro‐
businesses, especially the one or two person op‐
erations with no discrete business goals, taking
time to learn about good business management
seems arcane, irrelevant or more appropriate to
larger firms. In my teaching and consulting ex‐
perience, discussions of such issues as defining a
business model, analyzing financial data and
communications planning always end quickly and
prematurely.
Instead, personal experience — deadbeat clients,
the breakdown of a business partnership, lack of
work — drives advanced training. Independent
conservators who recognize no problems seldom
seek information. Faced with a crisis, conserva‐
tors again seek a quick fix rather than context or
analysis. The extent of this piecemeal attitude
toward the business of running a business was
brought home to me early in February 2009, when
I organized an online meeting for independent
conservators to discuss responses to the then new
financial crisis. The meeting was well attended,
1 These projections, although widely accepted, are almost
entirely anecdotal. The paucity of adequate statistical,
economic or even sociological studies of the art conservation
community makes it difficult to describe the state of the
discipline or predict its future with certainty. The absence of
studies is, in itself, a function of the lack of understanding
of business management skills I discuss here. I should also
note that the basis of my own anecdotal experience is almost
exclusively Anglophone and largely U.S.‐based.

and many participants voiced concerns. Should
they lower fees or offer discounts? Should they
look for supplemental work outside of conserva‐
tion or plan to live on reserves? Then a few parti‐
cipants remembered that that the post‐holiday
period is always slow. Perhaps a new action plan
was not necessary. The tenor of the meeting
changed and it adjourned with general agreement
that more time was needed to study the questions.
Despite my entreaties, participants were not in‐
terested in analysis or planning. I scheduled two
follow‐up meetings. There was no interest.
As Christabel Blackman recently noted in this
magazine2, conservation training emphasizes the
cultural value of objects over any economic value
they might have. As a means to that end, conser‐
vators are taught to perform the assessment and
treatment of objects, but not the business‐based
issues surrounding the acquisition of work. Yet if
conservators — individual or institutional — could
clarify the structures supporting the work they
do, they would increase control over both the
performance and the work path. The result would
have a positive effect on the quality of work in the
short and long terms; in essence, the cultural and
economic bottom line.
The perception of business education as actionable
advice rather skills that define and simplify a path
of action, means institutionally‐based conserva‐
tors see no relevance to this knowledge for their
careers. Yet changes within institutions make this
stance increasingly less tenable.
2 C. Blackman, "Cleaning the Dirt off Money in Conserva‐
tion: Ethics and Economics", e‐conservation magazine 20,
2011, pp. 7‐11, URL
3 See, e.g., Mark Walheimer, “What is the Business of Mu‐
seums?” post to LinkedIn American Association of Museums
discussion group, http://lnkd.in/uQFYB9 (accessed 25
August 2011).
e‐conser vation
VIEWS
In the past thirty years, cultural institutions
have moved away from the special place they
once inhabited, where a lack of interest on prin‐
ciple in administrative theories and techniques
was expected. The institutions for which conser‐
vators work, either as employees or as indepen‐
dent contractors, now judge themselves and are
judged by the public using the same terms as
businesses outside of the cultural sector. They
look to short and long range goals, marketing
plans and measurable outcomes to establish in‐
stitutional quality and success3. Participants or
principals in an institutional department operate
within a microcosm of the larger business struc‐
ture of that organization. Understanding the way
An individual or group may
reject those norms,
but that should be a decision
based on information
and not an outcome
of ignorance.
cultural sector directors perceive the value of
their organization may establish more clearly the
position of the conservation or preservation de‐
partment, and skills and talents of its individu‐
als, within the institutional community. Is the
organization driven by services to members, so
that a collection is most important when it en‐
hances that service? Was the preservation de‐
partment established because accreditation
depended on it but the administration does not
understand how the department adds value to
the institution as a whole? What does “a real
marriage of science and art” mean to a marketing
department? Awareness of business approaches
9
VIEWS

permits conservators to better advocate on their

own behalf within an institution and to the public
at large.

A well‐designed program to teach business man‐

agement skills to those who do the specialized
work of the cultural sector would translate and
explain the basic concepts under which 21st cen‐
tury businesses operate. It would indicate how a
business derives value from its products or servi‐
ces and show conservators how to participate in
a well‐organized and well‐run business, both
relevant to any working environment.

Understanding the parameters of business mana‐

gement, its standards and expectations, permits
both independent and institutional practitioners
to make choices about their own professional life
based on a broader and more accurate context
for the work they do. An individual or group may
reject those norms, but that should be a decision
based on information and not an outcome of
ignorance.

SARAH LOWENGARD
Educator and Writer

Contact: info@researchandwriting.net
Website: www.researchandwriting.net

Sarah Lowengard has created and lead business

courses for the FAIC Online Education Business
Management for Art Conservation program since
2004. An adviser to independent practitioners
for more than for more 20 years, she currently
manages three distinct business ventures, includ‐
ing an independent art conservation practice
founded in 1978.

10 e‐conser vation

NEW APPROACHES ON BOOK AND PAPER
CONSERVATION‐RESTORATION
Review by Penelope Banou
9‐11 May 2011
Horn, Austria
Organised by:
European Research Centre for Book and Paper
Conservation‐Restoration
The conference "New Approaches in Book and
Paper Conservation‐Restoration in Europe" took
place in Austria, Horn, from 9th to 11th of May
2011. It was the first conference of the newly
founded European Research Centre for Book and
Paper Conservation‐Restoration (Horn), organ‐
ised under the supervision of Dr. Patricia Engel,
aiming to bring together conservators, librarians
and archivists, collection managers and many
more professionals in the field of book and paper
conservation‐restoration who are engaged with
the care, safeguarding and preservation of our
book and paper‐based cultural heritage.
Recognised professionals of the conservation
community, such as Joseph Schirò (Heritage
Malta, Malta), René Larsen, (Konservatorskolen,
Copenhagen, Denmark), Elissveta Moussakova
(St. Cyril and Methodius National Library, Sofia,
Bulgaria) and István Kecskeméti (National
Archives, Helsinki, Finland) participated in the
conference board.
Around 50 speakers from 25 different countries
(18 European and 7 other countries) participated
to the conference, which was developed in three
tight scheduled days. The topics of the conference
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
presented a diversity of approaching the conser‐
vation and preservation issues of cultural material
in libraries and archives, involving ethical and
aesthetical considerations, introducing new
equipment, materials and ideas.
In the morning session of the first day, the matters
of the fundamental principles and ethics in con‐
servation‐restoration, the reflection of aesthetics
in art restoration and the theoretical and practical
content in the training programs for conservators
were discussed. The presentations started with
Ursula Schädler Saub (Germany) arguing about
the “Theoretical Fundaments in the Conservation
and Restoration of Books: How Helpful are the
Theories of Alois Riegl and Cesare Brandi for the
Practice?”, followed by Weronika Liszewska (Po‐
land) with “Aesthetics and Standards in Paper
and Book Conservation–Restoration” and Maria
Casanova (Portugal) with “What Do We Need?
1 Information about the European Research Centre for
Book and Paper Conservation‐Restoration, the aims and
scopes, tasks, vision and strategy for research, educational
programmes, co‐operations and publications can be found
in the official website of the Centre.
11
REVIEWS
Panel of speakers during the discussion at the end of a session.
Education, Ethics, New Values or a Different Per‐
ception for the Profession! Revisiting Book Con‐
servation Theory and Practices in the First Portu‐
guese Paper Conservation Laboratory”.
After the coffee‐break, the presentation of Inge‐
borg Ullrich (Germany) “Expiry Date: Unknown –
The Experimental Use of Material in the Artist’s
Book and Installation Art” (presentation in Ger‐
man with simultaneous English translation) provi‐
ded a purely creative and aesthetic perspective.
Manfred Mayer and Erich Renhart (Austria) fol‐
lowed with “Searching for Traces”, presenting the
use of “Novec Fire Protection Fluid” in reading
faded or indistinct text, providing its technical
details and properties and advantages of its use.
The session ended with Nicholas Pickwoad (United
Kingdom) setting the question “Library or Mu‐
seum? The Future of Rare Book Collections and its
Consequences for Conservation and Access” in a
critical perspective.
12
The afternoon session included topics on the
study of types of 19th century paper concerning
quality and provenance and the investigation of
the effect of light and conservation treatments on
paper. These topics were covered by the presenta‐
tions of Penelope Banou (Greece) with “Archival
Records of the New Independent Greek State (mid
19th c.). Where History, Paper Technology and
Preservation Meet”, Petra Vávrová (Czech Repu‐
blic) discussing about the “Damage of Paper Due
to Visible Light Sources Irradiation and Post‐Ra‐
diation Effects after 2 Years of Storage in Dark‐
ness” and Spiros Zervos (Greece) arguing on the
results of his research with “Investigating the
Causes of Paper Strength Loss after Aqueous
Treatments”.
Salvador Muñoz‐Viñas (Spain), in his presentation
“A New Approach to Flattening and Lining Paper:
the Pleural System”, discussed the applications
and benefits of his invention (a vacuum table
e‐conser vation

A view of the conference hall.
that provides controlled, uniform drying of large
objects), while Manfred Schreiner (Austria) intro‐
duced the audience to “Documentation of Water‐
marks in Paper by X‐ray Radiography” in compari‐
son with other methods used for the same purpo‐
se. The presentations “Copying presses” discuss‐
ing the different types and variations by Josepf
Schiro (Malta), and “Wax Tablets in Polish Collec‐
tion – the State of Preservation and Restoration
Issues” by Elzbieta Jablonska (Poland) concluded
the first day.
A variety of topics characterized the second day
of the conference. The first presentation was given
by René Larsen (Denmark) who stressed the neces‐
sity of the “Scientific Approach in Conservation
and Restoration of Leather and Parchment Objects
in Archives and Libraries” in order to determine
the proper treatment arrangements. The next
presentation was made by Myriam Krutzsch (Ger‐
many) who discussed the conservation of ancient
leather fragments in “Is there a Chance to Rescue
Egyptian Texts on Leather?”. Later, Igor Kozjak
(Croatia) argued on “The Influence of Hydrolytic
and UV Treatment on Properties of Leather Used
in Book Conservation”.
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
The presentations of Zsuzsa Tóth (Hungary), “Res‐
toration of a Unique Hungarian Medieval Codex
based on Results of Recent International Research
and on a New Restoration Technique”, and Gayane
Eliazyan (Armenia), “Preservation and Restoration
of the Matenadaran Manuscripts”, responded to
practical conservation topics. In accordance, the
case study of a splendidly illuminated manuscript
and its conservation and preservation issues invol‐
ved was discussed by Theresa Zammit Lupi (Malta)
in “The Grand Master L’Isle Adam Manuscript,
Volume 8: a Particular Example of Degradation
and Pre‐treatment Testing”, where the removal
of historical extended additions was in question.
The majority of the second day’s presentations
were oriented to the approaches of conservation‐
restoration of collections, in respect of the original
structure (forms), materials, date, origin, histor‐
ical context, art and aesthetics, such as those of
Karin Scheper (Netherlands), who presented “Is‐
lamic Manuscript Structures. A Refinement of
Knowledge about Islamic Book Constructions and
the Implications for Preservation or Conservation
Treatments”, Rumyana Decheva (Bulgaria) with
“Preserving the Original Structure of the Medieval
Codex During Conservation”, Jedert Vodopivec
(Slovenia) with “Census and Analysis of Slovene
Medieval Codices” and Małgorzata Pronobis‐Ga‐
jdzis and Jolanta Czuczko (Poland) with “The
19th Century Book – Underestimated Beauty”.
The concern for developing the conservation dis‐
cipline and framework through systems and prin‐
ciples was discussed in the presentations “The
Romanian National Library National Centre for
Pathology and Restoration of Documents (NCPRD)
– Perspectives and Development Needs” by Mari‐
ana Lucia Nesfantu (Romania), “For a New Policy
for the Preservation of Documents” by Eduard
Zaloshnja (Albania), and “Results of the National
Program – a Complex System of Conservation in
13
REVIEWS
Siberia” by Irina Guzner (Russia). The needs of
each collection and the benefits of the recom‐
mended approach were argued respectively.
The necessity for research, evaluation and assess‐
ment for the conservation and preservation para‐
meters was also emphasised in the presentations
of Reni Marcheva‐Kanova (Bulgaria), “Need of
research in the Everyday work of the Librarian
and the Archivist Preservation of the Library and
Archive Collections – Care by Different Specialists”,
Maja Krtalić (Croatia), “Possibilities, Perspectives
and Obstacles in Book and Paper Conservation‐
Restoration Research: Example of Croatia” and
Ekaterina Andreyeva (Russia), “Safe Keeping As‐
sessment of Ancient Slave Manuscripts”.
Alternative solutions were recommended by Ab‐
dur Rasheed (India) in his presentation about
“Recent Trends in Book and Paper Conservation”
suggesting, e.g., the use of natural products
such as plants and seeds for insect control, while
Rodica Mariana Ion (Romania) discussed the use
of “Nanomaterials for Chemical and Biological
Restoration of Old Books”. Finally, István Kecs‐
keméti (Finland) discussed about “Managing
Archival Collections for Digitisation: Experience
from Two Projects of 1.55 and 2.07 Million €” a
matter that concerns the archival collections
community.
The morning session of the third day started with
Jörg Krüger (Germany) presentation on the res‐
ults of the experimental work on “Cleaning of
Soiled Paper Model Samples Using Short and Ul‐
trashort Laser Pulses”, while Florian Kleber (Aus‐
tria) proceeded with “Technical Approaches to
Manuscript Analysis and Reconstruction” report‐
ing a project involving interdisciplinary collabor‐
ation for the documentation, investigation and
edition of unique importance medieval Slavonic
manuscripts.
14
The investigation of the crucial problem of mould
activity and treatment were the topics of the fol‐
lowing presentations by Flavia Pinzari (Italy),
“The Contribution of Microbiological Research in
the Field of Book and Paper Conservation” and
John Havermans (Netherlands), “New Insights
on Disinfection of Archival and Library Materials
Using Gamma Radiation” proposing lower intens‐
ity in its application. The presentations by Erna
Pilch Karrer (Austria) and Dirk Andreas Lichtblau
(Germany) discussed the need and use of Surve‐
NIR in “Needs for Paper Research: Now We All Need
to Buy SurveNIRs” and “SurveNIR – the Non‐De‐
structive Evaluation of Material Conditions in
Conservation, the Actual and the Potential Use”
respectively.
The paper of Marina Bicchieri, Michaela Monti,
Giovanna Piantanida and Armida Sodo (Italy),
“Applied Research and Critical Approach: the
Proper Way to Deal with “Real” Library Heritage”
was kindly announced by Flavia Pinzari.
The discussion over the application of new or al‐
ternative materials, combinations or variations
in form and properties to serve the needs and
purposes of conservation and preservation out‐
line the topics of the final session with the con‐
tributions of Halina Rosa (Poland) on “Study on
the Adaptation of Biocellulose Nano Fibres to
Restoration of Historical Paper, Parchment and
Textiles”, Samantha Sheesley (USA), “Practical
Applications of Lascaux Acrylic Dispersions in
Paper Conservation”, Iza Zajac (Poland), “Seal‐
ant & Adhesive Remover, agent by WEICON. Dur‐
ing the Conservation Process of “Lindley’s Plans”,
Mehmet Konuklar (Turkey), “A New Method for
Conservation of Paper Works of Art: Triple Mix‐
ture of Methyl Cellulose, Carboxymethyl Cellu‐
lose and Nano‐Micro Calcium Hydroxide Particles”
and Yuri I. Aristov (Russia) with “ARTIC – A New
Family of Humidity Buffers for Libraries and
Archives”.
e‐conser vation

The lobby of the conference hall.
All the aforementioned presentations contributed
to a very successful conference that gave the op‐
portunity to the speakers to present their research
and approaches to conservation and preservation
today, as well as the needs, the problems, the
agony, the troubling issues and the various as‐
pects that influence or determine their efforts.
The contributions in the conference were already
available during the meeting in a publication en‐
titled “New Approaches to Book and Paper Conser‐
vation Restoration”, edited by Patricia Engel,
Joseph Schirò, René Larsen, Elissaveta Moussa‐
kova and Istvan Kecskeméti, and published by
Verlag Berger. Further information on the book
and the list of authors, articles and respective
abstracts can be found in the Center web address.
In the conference closure, experts on European
funding programmes presented and recommen‐
ded eligible ways of application and possibilities
for co‐operations within the upcoming EU’s 7th
framework program for research. The discussion
over the limited funding opportunities (packages)
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
related to conservation research projects, resulted
in the decision for the formulation of a common
statement to respond to the EU Green Paper on
the Common Strategic Research Framework for
Research and Innovation. In the following days,
this document was delivered to the EU Commis‐
sion (see on the official web site of the European
Research Centre).
The sessions were completed with the discussion
over the conclusions and results of the conference,
focusing on the research topics that the partici‐
pants of the book and paper conservation com‐
munity were mostly interested in. The decision on
the urgent topics of research leaded to the arran‐
gement of several subject discussion groups and
sessions respectively. The conference was conclu‐
ded with the wish of putting forward an accredit‐
ation of material for conservation which would be
gradually implemented by the Research Centre.
The successful outcome of this conference is not
only due to the excellent organisation, the inter‐
esting topics, the professional presentations, in
15
REVIEWS

the majority, and the proper publication, but also

to the benefits of witnessing an interdisciplinary
approach of conservation, varying in concept,
perception, and principles where scientific, cul‐
tural and financial parameters stood on a differ‐
ent basis. This also highlighted the need for the
creation of a solid platform for a common lan‐
guage, ethics, attitude and approach, consolid‐
ating research and education.

Finally, the hospitality of the organisers, the

vivid atmosphere during the breaks of the con‐
ference and the evening events delighted the
participants. This already started to show from
the organised welcome meeting, over a warm
soup, the first evening. The heavy schedule of
the conference was decompressed with a ban‐
quet with speeches from local politicians and a
representative of Net Heritage, Barbara Swiat‐
kowska, and a light dinner in the Vereinhaus the
first evening, the special piano and song recital
in the library of the Kunsthaus with the valuable
books and editions, the conducted tour in the fa‐
cilities of the European Research centre, followed
by wine and light snacks, in the second evening.
Everything was nicely organised, without exag‐
gerations, under the sharp eye and guidance of
Patricia Engel, who seemed to have everything
running like a clock. Horn, as the location of the
event provided a special character to the confer‐
ence and supplemented to its success. It was a
delightful, tranquil town in lower Austria, where
everything was in a walking distance in the quite
streets of Horn, green and blossomed with the
smell of lilac trees on the air.
Most of the participants were pleased with the
concept and outcome of the conference, really
supportive to the efforts and tasks of the Research
centre and agreed to the idea of repeating this
meeting in two years time.
Photos by Spyros Zervos, Patricia Engel and Maria
Giannikou.
PENELOPE BANOU
Conservator
Contact: pbanou@yahoo.gr
Penelope Banou graduated from the Department
of Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art
in the TEI of Athens (1996) and specialized in the
conservation of works of art on paper after her
postgraduate studies, Master of Arts in Conserva‐
tion of Fine Art at the Northumbria University in
UK (1998). Ever since, her professional activities
include participation in preservation and conser‐
vation projects of works of art on paper and archi‐
val material collections belonging to public and
private collections, while she is involved in edu‐
cation (lecturer in the Department of Conserva‐
tion, T.E.I of Athens) and research programs with
several publications. She belongs to the perman‐
ent staff of the Conservation Department of the
General State Archives in Athens since 2008.

16 e‐conser vation
 REVIEWS

NESAT XI ‐ CONFERENCE OF THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN

SYMPOSIUM OF ANCIENT TEXTILES

Review by 9‐13 May 2011, Esslingen, Germany

Annette Paetz gen. Schieck
and Sylvia Mitschke Organised by:
Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Esslingen
Archäologische Denkmalpflege, Textilarchäologie

Nordeuropäisches Symposium für archäologische Textilien

North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles

Starting off in 1981 as a meeting of a handful of
textile archaeologists, historians, natural scien‐
tists, conservators, craftsmen and autodidacts
NESAT became one of the major textile research
forums worldwide, meeting every three years at
varying places. The eleventh meeting was held in
Esslingen, Germany, at the “Landesamt für Denk‐
malpflege”, on May 9 to 13, 2011, under the aegis
of Dr. Johanna Banck‐Burgess.
Due to several large programmes, textile research
has entered a phase of great attention. In order
to manage the increasing number of interested
scholars, the coordinators decided to limit the
number of attendants to 140 in order to maintain
the traditional NESAT working atmosphere. The
group of participants was truly international, origi‐
nating from 26 nations from all over the world.
Representatives came from Austria, Belgium,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Ger‐
many, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Serbia, Slo‐
vakia, and beyond Europe from Iceland, Israel,
New Zealand and the USA.
see www.nesat.org), a poster presentation was
held and two excursions have been arranged in
parallel.
For the first time in NESAT history the organising
committee initiated a “special theme day”, being
the first day of the conference. This day was dedi‐
cated to methodology in textile archaeology
today introducing specific approaches on histor‐
ical sources of various kinds. The first lectures
dealt with classical archaeological and philologi‐
cal sources as representatives of the humanities,
followed by principles of documenting archaeo‐
logical finds and contexts, by methods of fibre
and dye analyses, and isotopic investigations as
representative techniques in natural sciences.
Audience during lectures. Photo by Lisa Masen, LAD.

The records of the conference are striking: within

four days, 37 papers were given (for abstracts

e‐conser vation 17
REVIEWS
Poster presentation. Photo by Annette Schieck, CES/REM.
The final section of the first day dealt with a se‐
lection of four current research projects in textile
archaeology, dealing with Bronze Age textiles
(HERA), the reconstruction of garments of a 17th
century bog body (Gunnister Man Project), the
Poprad‐Matejovce grave chamber, and Roman
textiles in Austria (both DressID).
From the second day on, the papers were present‐
ed grouped after three sessions starting with a
section of six presentations introducing individual
projects that combine archaeological research
and methods of natural sciences, virtualisation
and experiment. Virtual documentations served
as media in a better understanding of Neolithic
textiles, dyeing experiments provided deeper
insights into 3000 years old Hallstatt‐textiles,
fibre investigations will in future be employed on
Pre‐Roman textiles from Italy, archaeological wool
was investigated in terms of proteomics, the ma‐
terial of Danish textiles has been analysed accord‐
ing to its strontium isotopic composition in order
to trace its provenance, and comparison of light
stable isotopic compositions of textiles deriving
from an experimental burial in comparison to me‐
dieval archaeological textiles have been introduced.
The second and largest chapter included twelve
papers on latest textile finds focusing on Bronze
18
Participants in conversation. Photo by Carla Nuebold, LAD.
Age, medieval times to the 18th century. The find
contexts revealed great variety of cloth materials
and preservation conditions, and they allowed
great insights into burial customs, and habits of
dressing. Certain types of textile accessories were
introduced such as headgears and undergarments
that so far have been considered as an invention
of modern times. The sites presented geographi‐
cally range from Spain to Norway, including Ger‐
many, Poland, and the Czech Republic. Topics and
materials presented were ranging widely but the
scientific analytical methods remained an impor‐
tant focus even in this section. The first lecture
dealt with archaeobotanic studies in a Bronze Age
cave in Spain, followed by pollen analyses of a
medieval Catalan burial, investigations and visu‐
alisation of early medieval graves of Unterhach‐
ing (Germany), new investigations on samites
from the Oseberg ship, male clothing of a 9th cen‐
tury bog burial from Latvia, and remains of tex‐
tile production as well as baptising garments in
the Czech Republic. Furthermore figural embroi‐
deries of a Polish church collection have been in‐
troduced, as well as the investigations of the im‐
perial burial garments of Speyer (Germany),
embroidered silk headcovers from polish churches,
the invention of the bra in 15th century, as well as
precious silk textiles from the latrina of a wealthy
16th to 18th century house in Poland.
e‐conser vation

The lectures of the third chapter then dealt with
investigations on textile production such as the
Talmud exegesis of 11th century Rabbi Shlomo
Yitzhaki, the treatment of sheep and sheep wool
textiles in early medieval East Friesia, approaches
to Pompeian dying industry, interpretation of
loom weights and spindle whorls as ritual objects
in ancient Etruria, and finally considerations on
textile tools and textile production in Roman
Pannonia. The editing works of the conference pa‐
pers have already been started, the proceedings will
be published by 2012 by VML Marie Leidorf GmbH.
Following the lecture session on Wednesday, the
poster session was started at the headquarters
of the Landesamt für Denkmalpflege at Esslingen.
An innovative and highly professional concept of
presentation has been chosen by the NESAT team:
all of the posters had to be handed in to the
committee and were then arranged in a common
layout, grouped after topics such as textile or
experimental archaeology, certain colour‐codes
were assigned. Again, the number of posters had
to be limited to 24. The posters will be accessible
on the NESAT XI website. The posters can also be
lended as an exhibition afterwards via the Lande‐
samt für Denkmalpflege in Esslingen.
Participants of NESAT XI. Photo by Karl Fisch, LAD.
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
Beyond the papers and posters, a choice out of
two excursions was offered to the participants,
one heading to “Schloss Ludwigsburg” to visit
the costume collection, and the second to the
“Keltenmuseum Eberdingen‐Hochdorf” to visit
the place where the famous chief of the Celts had
been buried.
We would like to congratulate Dr. Johanna
Banck‐Burgess, her team, and the “Landesamt
für Denkmalpflege” for preparing such an inter‐
esting, wide ranging, and inspiring conference.
The high quality of the given papers perfectly
underlined the eminent and noteworthy outcome
in modern textile archaeology. Especially the
newly introduced “special theme day” was a
great success, which hopefully leads to a new
NESAT tradition. We highly appreciated the atmos‐
phere that enabled the participants to listen,
gain knowledge, and to find the time of gather‐
ing and discussing along with the main pro‐
gramme. We are now looking forward to the
publication of the NESAT XI conference proceed‐
ings, and we are also looking forward to NESAT
XII which will be hosted by the Naturhistorisches
Museum Vienna at Hallstatt, conducted by Dr.
Karina Grömer.
19
REVIEWS

FREE

CONSERVATION

RESOURCES

Participants in conversation. Photo by Lisa Masen, LAD.

ANNETTE PAETZ GEN. SCHIECK

Classical Archaeologist Art Conservation Research
Contact: annette.schieck@cez‐archaeometrie.de
conservationresearch.blogspot.com
Annette Schieck obtained a PhD in Classical Ar‐
chaeology on Late Roman Textiles in German Col‐
lections at Cologne University in 2002. In 2003
and 2005 she curated the exhibitions on Coptic
Textiles at the Deutsches Textilmuseum Krefeld
and Kolumba, Cologne. Since 2007 she is the pro‐
ject manager of the textile research and exhibi‐
tion project DressID at the Curt‐Engelhorn‐Stif‐
tung für die Reiss‐Engelhorn‐Museen, Mannheim.

SYLVIA MITSCHKE
Conservation‐scientist
Contact: sylvia.mitschke@cez‐archaeometrie.de

Sylvia Mitschke finished her studies at the Insti‐

tute of Conservation Sciences, Cologne University
of Applied Sciences in 2000. Since then she worked
as textile conservator and Scientist at Reiss‐Engel‐
horn‐Museums, Mannheim. Since 2007 she is a
PhD candidate at the University of Tübingen.

20 e‐conser vation

OUTDOOR WALL PAINTINGS, MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES
Review by Mirjam Jullien and Johanna Nessow
16 May 2011, Finspång, Sweden
Organised by:
Working Group for Wall Paintings of
ICOMOS Sweden
This warm and sunny spring hosted the seminar
on “Outdoor wall paintings, materials and tech‐
niques”, organised by the Working Group for Wall
Paintings of ICOMOS Sweden. The seminar took
place on the 16th of May 2011 at the Orangery
of Finspång castle near Norrköping in eastern
Sweden.
It was at the Finspång castle where three years
ago the paintings on the exterior walls of the
building revealed their unexpected technique.
Not executed in fresco technique, as it was previ‐
ously supposed, they are in fact oil paintings on
plaster. This unusual technique for Sweden lead to
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
further investigations concerning outdoor expo‐
sed oil paintings. It seemed to be a unique case.
Therefore, the surprise was big when a painting
with a similar technique was discovered nearly
1700 km. This lead to an interesting exchange
and finally to this seminar about wall paintings,
with a special focus on oil paintings.
As a consequence of an uncommon conservation
problem and fruitful exchange, the event was ani‐
mated by spontaneity and curiosity. This good
energy brought together conservators from dif‐
ferent parts of Sweden, travelling up to five hours
to join the half day seminar.
21
REVIEWS
Anna Henningsson, representing the ICOMOS
Working Group for Wall Paintings, opened the
conference. She presented the speakers and the
topics of the afternoon. In her introduction she
also explained the challenge of the conservation
of the outdoor wall paintings at the Finnspång
castle and the background which lead to this
seminar.
Hélèn Svahn Garreau, an architectural conser‐
vator, presented "Art on the walls, from mediev‐
al painted stone portals and enhancements of
architectural forms to the late 1900s graffiti art”.
Taking the participants from medieval to contem‐
porary murals, she reminded us how different
artistic expressions and materials can be.
Bengt Häger, building curator and former head
of the National Heritage Board, talked about the
long and difficult conservation history of the out‐
door murals at Finnspång castle. He highlighted
the conservation efforts, which over several years
Visiting the oudtoor oil paintings of Finspång Castle during the coffe break.
22
reached the goal of preserving the exterior mu‐
rals at the Orangery and at the Aurora Temple of
the park. He showed examples of how the paint‐
ings were technically secured. Their exposed lo‐
cation on a small stream and the strong Swedish
weather left severe damage. The presentation and
readability of the paintings were also an impor‐
tant aspect during the conservation campaign.
In the coffee break that followed, there was the
possibility to visit the paintings outside the Or‐
angery and at the Aurora Temple in the castle’s
park.
The seminar ended with the presentation of Mir‐
jam Jullien, "Mural paintings and the special
case of outdoor exposed oil paintings in Switzer‐
land", on which wall paintings executed in oil
technique around Basel, Switzerland were dis‐
cussed. For the seminar, she presented an over‐
view about the outdoor Swiss oil paintings as
well as results from Dr. Christian Heydrich’s
e‐conser vation
 REVIEWS

(Basel, Switzerland) research projects in 1960‐

1970. Certainly far more common than expec‐
ted, they decorated various buildings in Switzer‐
land. Some few examples resisted time, history
and human intervention. Some paintings from
Basel, Schaffhausen and Berne have been fur‐
ther investigated, leaving us the testimony of
tumultuous conservations histories. They give
testimony of early maintenance efforts, but also
of destruction, over painting, repainting and re‐
construction.

Facade paintings of the Town Hall of Basel, Switzerland

Mirjam Jullien emphasised the problem that
there remain more questions than answers in
this domain and that it will be important to learn
more about the techniques and conservation
possibilities. But she also underlined the impor‐
tant research work performed by Dr. Christian
Heydrich on the Town Hall of Basel. This probably
unique work in its completeness about oil wall
paintings was published in 1987. Since then it
seems that not much has been published. Hope‐
fully, talking about these paintings will also help
to discover other examples not known or, for the
moment, not identified as being painted in such
a technique. It shall also lead to protect them
more and give them more chances to persist into
the future.
With this last overview, the seminar came to an
end and many had a long way back home. The
coffee break had offered the possibility for the
visitors to observe the outdoor paintings and ex‐
change their conservation experiences. In this
way, the seminar also participated in the spread
of knowledge in general and particularly on a
very little discussed subject. Hopefully, it will be
the beginning of a more often discussed topic
leading to more research and development of
conservation methods adapted to the particular
situation of outdoor exposed oil paintings.
JOHANNA NESSOW
Conservator‐restorer
Contact: info@disent.se
Johanna Nessow has a BA in Conservation from
Gotheborg University, Sweden. Currently she
works for the conservation science company DIS‐
ENT AB in Stockholm.
MIRJAM JULLIEN
Conservator‐restorer
Contact: info@art‐cons.ch
Website: www.art‐cons.ch
Mirjam Jullien got here first experiences as con‐
servator for canvas at the C.I.R.T Châteaurenard,
France. In 2005 she graduated from the Univer‐
sity of Applied Sciences and Arts in Bern, Switzer‐
land. Specialized in architectural surfaces, she
worked in various national and international con‐
servation projects. Currently she realises projects
in Switzerland with her own company and is wor‐
king on the preparation of a research project fo‐
cused on outdoor exposed oil paintings.

e‐conser vation 23
REVIEWS
PRESERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS IN SITU (PARIS)
Review by Mike Corfield and Jim Williams
23‐27 May 2011
Copenhagen, Denmark
Organised by:
Department of Conservation,
National Museum of Denmark
The fourth of the conferences on the Preservation
of Archaeological Remains In Situ (PARIS) was
held in Copenhagen from 23rd to 27th May. Previ‐
ous conferences have been held in London (1996
and 2001) and Amsterdam (2006). The conferenc‐
es are particularly focussed on the survival of ar‐
chaeological evidence (artefacts, environmental
evidence, stratigraphic and contextual informa‐
tion as well as structural remains) when the envi‐
ronment of sites are affected by anthropogenic or
natural changes. Past conferences have focussed
on the nature of the ground environment, how
archaeological evidence changes through time
and what the impact is of short and long term
changes. Much of the earlier discussion was fo‐
cussed on wetland environments and saturated
urban deposits, partly because that was where a
great deal of the observations of change had
been undertaken and also because the impacts
of change were most readily seen in desiccated
wetland soils. There was also a predominantly
northern European bias in the papers presented.
The fourth conference showed a marked broad‐
ening of contributions, both geographically and
in the subject matter. The bias towards Europe
remained, with strong representation from Den‐
mark, the Netherlands, Norway and the United
24
Kingdom and lesser contingents from Eire, Swe‐
den, Finland, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy,
Portugal, Croatia and Azerbaijan. Single parti‐
cipants were from Turkey, Egypt, Pakistan and
the USA, while the southern hemisphere was rep‐
resented by Australia and New Zealand. PARIS
has become global!
The programme covered a wide range of topics
and was split between four themes:
‐ Degradation of archaeological remains
‐ Monitoring and mitigation case studies
‐ Protocols standards and legislation
‐ Preserving archaeological remains in situ ‐ can
we document it works?
Theme 1, Degradation of archaeological remains
included twelve papers. Because of the difficul‐
ties involved in evaluating the results from in vivo
experiments, microcosms in which the range of
variables can be controlled are invaluable and we
were given presentations using this method to
assess the decay rates for wood and to evaluate
impacts on the physico‐chemical and microbio‐
logy of wetlands caused by leaching from wood
treated with copper‐arsenic‐chromium preservative.
These were described and included follow up
work in the field to validate the study.
e‐conser vation

Round‐table participants, from left to right: Jane Sidell, Mark Pollard, Hans Huisman, Jens Rytter, Vicky Richards, Mike Corfield,
Henk Kars, Jim Williams, and standing at and by the podium, Henning Matthiesen and David Gregory, the conference co‐organisers.
Experimental work in the marine or fresh water
environment is challenging and this was evident
in papers discussing the impact of erosion and
protection of sites in Lake Constance and Zurich,
a poster presentation on the problems of protec‐
tion on the Gulf coast of Iran, and a major study
of the effects of reburial of metal objects under
seawater as a means of ensuring the survival of
many thousands of artefacts recovered from
shipwrecks at the island of Marstrand, Sweden.
The bioerosion of stone underwater is also an is‐
sue and we were shown how rapidly it can be de‐
graded by biological growth eroding the surface
and creating cavities to the extent that surface
detail is lost.
Evaluating the changes to burial conditions by
reference to the stratigraphic layers of corrosion
has been something that one of the reviewers
(MC) has long sought to see tested, so a paper on
this examining corrosion of ferrous artefacts from
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
an ironworking site in Normandy, France was very
welcome despite the risk of rapid change of cor‐
rosion species following excavation. Unsaturated
soils are notoriously varied and characterising
potential preservation without excavation is often
speculative so a paper reporting work to develop
methodologies for evaluating unsaturated soils
in Oslo was very welcome.
On a broader scale we heard a paper on the carbon
release arising from desiccation of wetlands and
the risk that archaeological excavations in wet‐
lands might be contributing to greenhouse gas
emissions. The impact of building over archae‐
ological sites was discussed and moves towards
the development of a risk assessment system for
archaeological sites were highlighted. Finally the
question was asked whether preservation can be
predicted from monitoring results, the question
we would all like to see the answer to.
25
REVIEWS
Overall, the papers in this first theme were excep‐
tionally broad in their subject matter and scope,
from small scale laboratory work to the large scale
analysis of an entire urban area. All provided dif‐
ferent methods of quantifying degradation rates
at these different scales, demonstrating that we
have now, collectively, developed a range of tools
suitable for assessing the state of preservation of
most common material. What is less clear, for the
most part, and was not tackled in many of the
papers in this session, are the rates at which de‐
gradation processes are taking place.
Theme 2, Monitoring and mitigation case studies
comprised seventeen papers and again we were
offered a rich mix of papers covering marine and
coastal sites, wetlands and unsaturated sites,
broad scale urban evaluation, and, breaking new
ground (perhaps an unfortunate metaphor for
this conference), studies of the preservation of
sites in the Greenland permafrost and at the other
extreme, in Abu Dhabi, and in addition to our
usual span of materials, mudbrick in China.
It is impossible to cover the details of each of the
papers, but suffice to say that there appeared to
be the recognition that monitoring had to answer
questions, and that only in exceptional circum‐
stances could monitoring be justified over very
long timescales. A report of the important work
at Bryggen, Bergen, Norway demonstrated how
post‐construction monitoring of the impact of
the uncontrolled construction of a hotel at the
World Heritage Site of the medieval waterfront
of Bergen enabled the implementation of post‐
development mitigation of the damages caused
to organic structural remains.
Two papers (one from session 4) showed how
monitoring could be used to devise strategies that
would enable historic towns such as Trondheim,
Norway and Nantwich, England to continue to
26
evolve to meet the needs of modern life. Interest‐
ingly, on many of the terrestrial sites presented
under this theme, monitoring was aimed at un‐
derstanding unsaturated, rather than fully water‐
logged deposits. Techniques ranged from the use
of TDR, in situ redox and oxygen probes, to soil
and water analysis. Although there was no one
common approach used, the detailed analysis of
soil and water chemistry (anion and cation con‐
centrations for example), before and throughout
monitoring seems to be one of the more reliable
ways of characterising these very challenging
burial environments.
Taking to the water again, we were shown the sad
destruction of the Stirling Castle, one of England’s
finest seventeenth century shipwrecks as it be‐
came increasingly exposed by the movement of
the great sandbank that had hitherto protected
it. It was a graphic example of the challenges in‐
volved in trying to protect entire ships and their
contents in the dynamic marine environment.
One of the other elements of the maritime envir‐
onment is wood borers and we were provided
with summary of work in the Baltic Sea, which is
increasing in salinity through the impact of cli‐
mate change as part of the EU project “WreckPro‐
tect” to develop protection strategies against
marine borers for underwater cultural heritage.
On the opposite side of the globe experimental
work to evaluate the options for protecting a
19th century wooden hulled ship south of Free‐
mantle, Western Australia were described. In an‐
other departure for PARIS we were shown how
efforts were being made to conserve the extens‐
ive submerged upstanding remains of Roman vil‐
las at Baia, Naples, Italy, and to make them
accessible to scuba divers.
Theme 3, Protocols standards and legislation at‐
tracted fewer papers with eight contributors.
There was a tendency in this session to drift rather
e‐conser vation

Per Kristian Madsen, Director of the National Museum of
Denmark welcoming the delegates and opening the
Symposium.
too far into straightforward cultural resource
management and this would be a danger for the
PARIS brand which has always tried to focus on
the importance of a sound scientific understand‐
ing to underpin the management of archaeolo‐
gical heritage. Nonetheless, the session did bring
in some new faces who will hopefully have bene‐
fited from the wider programme and who we hope
will return with examples of scientific studies of
the problems inherent in trying to preserve still‐
buried archaeological sites.
Some of the papers in this session reported on
efforts to establish sound management princi‐
pals to underpin their archaeological heritage.
The first paper described how the Norwegian Dir‐
ectorate for Cultural Heritage was using the work
it had funded at Bergen to develop a toolbox that
would enable it to apply the same standards so
that the right decisions can be made in future
cases, whilst another outlined the development
of a new governmental body to oversee the ar‐
chaeological heritage of the Flanders region of
Belgium. One paper was concerned with the po‐
tential for soils to be used as indicators of the
preservation potential of sites, using both the soil
itself and its inclusions of, for example, calcareous
shells to indicate the pH of the soil. The paper
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
Conference breaks provided ample opportunity to share
experiences and exchange ideas.
argued for more prior assessment of the soils
themselves to influence the design of monitor‐
ing schemes, and perhaps this paper would have
been better placed with the previous theme on
monitoring.
Two projects were concerned with the conserva‐
tion of exposed sites, one a Roman settlement at
Ludbreg in Croatia, and the other a mosaic floor
in Turkey. A more seriously misplaced contribution
concerned the need for more coherent strategies
to ensure the proper curation and storage of the
many thousands of dendrochronological cores.
Interesting as these papers were, they were not
really in the spirit of the PARIS conferences and
would have perhaps have generated wider interest
at other venues.
Theme 4, Preserving archaeological remains in situ
‐ can we document it works? was perhaps the most
challenging of all the sessions. It was pointed out
that one of the first attempts to scientifically
monitor an archaeological site was only twenty
one years ago, and this site, the Rose Theatre in
London, has been continuously monitored since
then. This timescale is short by comparison with
the lifetime of most structures built over archae‐
ological remains and it is often hard to tell what
27
REVIEWS
changes might take place before they can be re‐
examined. We were given a tour through sites in
London that had been first excavated up to 150
years previously, and when re‐excavated in recent
times were shown to be still in good condition.
However many of these were stone structures
or timber revetments close to the River Thames
where wood preservation has been shown to
be excellent.
The Rose Theatre itself is due to be re‐excavated
and there will be much interest in how effective
the reburial system has been, particularly as it
has become the benchmark for reburial at many
other sites. This was discussed in a paper which
also presented the preferred method for sealing
the site entirely so that the natural hydrology
alone maintains the site’s integrity. Equally in‐
teresting was the research into the impact of a
change in soil moisture content (SMC) that was
presented. It was suggested that a reduction in
SMC from 50% to 40% would to be likely to lead to
a 13% shrinkage in the important deposits of the
Rose Theatre. This is noteworthy as although other
projects have collected moisture data in the past,
few if any have used the data to any great effect.
The continuing information from the research at
Nydam Møse in Denmark was presented, and on a
shorter timescale, there were more results from
the reburial research at Marstrand (the RAAR pro‐
ject also discussed in session 1). The history of
monitoring peat extraction in England’s Somer‐
set Levels coupled with the peat wastage result‐
ing from land drainage was given together with
the hope that nature and archaeological conser‐
vation together with an aging farming community
may enable practical steps to be taken to begin the
long process of regenerating the peat, perhaps
driven also by the beneficial effect this would have
on carbon capture. Farming and drainage were also
critical elements in the management of the land‐
28
scape around the former island of Schokland. Re‐
sults of the monitoring that has been taking place
for 15 years since 1999 were presented and the
efficacy of the various tools used was discussed.
Finally, the evolution of monitoring over 30 years
in England was presented and an assessment of
the types of sites monitored, reasons from moni‐
toring and tools used was given. Recommenda‐
tions to help improve future monitoring projects
were presented. These included the need for more
assessment of the state of preservation of a site
before monitoring is considered; the need for a
proper project design to be developed at the out‐
set of the work; and finally that there should be
clarity about why monitoring is needed for a given
site and what can be done when monitoring data
suggest optimum conditions for survival are no
longer being maintained.
The conference finished with a round table discus‐
sion of the four themes lead by the session chairs.
It is hoped that a summary of the main discussion
points raised by the panel and audience will be
collated for the conference proceedings (from
audio recordings). Some of the points discussed
included the extent to which we can quantify de‐
gradation states and rates (states, yes, rates, in
some cases); the need for more ground‐truthing
of model and microcosm research to take place on
actual archaeological sites; the need for more
thought to go into designing monitoring schemes,
and for more assessment prior to monitoring; and
finally, a recognition that standards and protocols
can be useful in providing guidance to those
working in the discipline, but often need to be
re‐produced separately for each country due to
different legislation and burial environments.
Just before the discussion started, the session
was interrupted in order for a presentation to be
made to David Gregory and Henning Matthiesen,
e‐conser vation

Excursion to Roskilde in Viking ships.
the conference chairs. They were presented with an
award from the Sofie Elizabeth and Aage Rothen‐
bergs Scholarship in recognition of their research
in natural science at the National Museum. We
should also mention the other members of the
organising committee, Karen Brynjolf Pedersen
and Mads Chr. Christensen, who along with Hen‐
ning and David organised an extremely successful
and well run conference.
On the social side, there was an opening reception
in the entrance of the National Museum (the ven‐
ue for the conference) on the evening before the
conference began, a visit to on‐going excavations
in the city centre or a trip to see the ruins under
Christiansborg on the first evening, and the con‐
ference dinner in the Tivoli Gardens at the end of
the second day. The day after the conference itself
was over there was an excursion to Roskilde that
included a fleet of Viking ships filled with deleg‐
ates sailing in the bay, and a conducted tour of
the cathedral, and finally, on the fifth (or sixth)
day (depending when you had arrived), an infor‐
mal, guided tour of the National Museum’s con‐
servation department at Mølleådalen near Brede.
The conference proceedings will be published in a
special issue of Conservation and Management of
Archaeological Sites in late 2011 or early 2012.
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
MIKE CORFIELD
Conservator
Contact: mike1corfield@btinternet.com
Mike Corfield has been a conservator and conser‐
vation manager in Wiltshire, Wales and with Eng‐
lish Heritage. In 1991 he became responsible for
the hydrological monitoring programme at the
site of the Rose Theatre. Later, he carried out
projects to study the hydrology of sites to increase
understanding of hydrology and the preservation
of organic remains. With their support and like
minded colleagues the first Preservation of Ar‐
chaeological Remains in Situ conference was held
in 1996, and in 1998 recognising that archaeolo‐
gical resource managers recommending mitiga‐
tion strategies needed to be supported by sound
scientific advice and accordingly a team of nine
regional scientific advisers were appointed. Mike
was appointed English Heritage Chief Scientist in
1999, and since his retirement in 2002 he has re‐
tained his interest in site preservation as a con‐
sultant, carrying out projects for UNESCO in India
and Iran, and supporting academic research.
JIM WILLIAMS
Archaeological scientist
Contact: jim.williams@english‐heritage.org.uk
Jim Williams is an archaeological scientist, inter‐
ested in preservation in situ issues, specifically
groundwater monitoring and construction impacts.
Jim is a co‐author of the English Heritage docu‐
ment Piling and Archaeology, and has contributed
papers on preservation in situ to a number of
European conferences, and been involved with an
EC project on pile re‐use (RUFUS). During 2009
Jim took a secondment to coordinate the devel‐
opment of a UK‐wide National Heritage Science
Strategy. He is currently the English Heritage
Science Advisor for the East Midlands, a role that
he has undertaken on and off for the last 9 years.
29
 Do you need an online presence?
Do you feel it’s time to update to 'digital conservation'?
Do you have a website that looks like built in the last century?

GRAPHIC AND WEB DESIGN SERVICES FOR CONSERVATION

Yconservation is a collaborative project designed especially for individuals

and small businesses in the cultural heritage field. We create online solutions
that provide you with what you need, combining design, functionality and
ease of use. We offer HIGH QUALITY and LOW COST SOLUTIONS for your
business or project.

Visit our website

www.Yconservation.com

UNIVERSITY TRAINING OF RESTORATION WITHIN THE EUROPEAN
EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT
Review by Luboš Machačko
1‐3 June 2011
Litomyšl, Czech Republic
Organised by:
Faculty of Restoration, University of Pardubice
Between 1st and 3rd June 2011 the international
colloquium “University training of restoration
within the European educational context” took
place at the Litomyšl castle, listed as UNESCO
World Heritage site. The colloquium was held at
the historical building of the former castle’s brew‐
ery, recently reconstructed and restored accord‐
ing to the project of well‐known Czech designer
Josef Pleskot for the organisation of meetings.
This special event was organised by the Faculty of
Restoration of Pardubice University in connection
with the results of a project developed to gather
more information concerning the means and con‐
tent of conservation‐restoration study programmes
at important European educational institutions.
Jan Šíblo, from the Faculty of Restoration of University of
Pardubice.
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
This research was organised within the Project
“Restorers for European Practice” (CZ.1.07/2.2.00/
07‐0140) with funds from the operation programme
ESF “Education for Competitiveness”. The main
aim of the project is to improve the competitive‐
ness of the BA graduates from the Faculty of Res‐
toration on the job market. Innovation of Bache‐
lor study programmes at the Faculty helps to
achieve this goal.
Members of 12 European educational institutes
interested in conservation and restoration of
works of art, historical buildings and objects of
cultural heritage importance took part at the
colloquium to discuss recent trends in this field
or to deepen the cooperation within the European
educational system. Representatives of the inter‐
national organisations ENCoRE (European Network
for Conservation‐Restoration Education) and
E.C.C.O. (European Confederation of Conservator‐
restorers' Organisations) also took part in the
conference in order to inform participants about
the recent activities in the field of conservation‐
restoration programmes and about access to the
profession within the international scope.
A total of 20 lecturers from 7 European countries
participated in the colloquium. The main topics
of each seminar were: recent trends in university
restoration education, goals of education and
31
REVIEWS
A view of the conference auditorium.
way of their achievement at each educational
institute, general qualification demands required
for restoration practice, and qualification demands
required from official institutes of care for histori‐
cal monuments.
The colloquium was started by the dean of the
Faculty of Restoration, Ing. Karol Bayer, followed
by the rector of University of Pardubice, Prof.
Ing. Miroslav Ludwig, CSc., who welcomed the
participants.
The morning of the first day was especially focused
on the results of the Project “Restorers for the
European Practice”, aimed to the innovation of the
Bachelor study plans at the Faculty of Restoration.
During the last school year, the Faculty managed
to organise specialised workshops within this pro‐
ject supervised by recognized external experts
qualified in conservation‐restoration theory and
practice. Then the academic staff of the Faculty
of Restoration presented their experience from
visits to selected European institutions. Several
32
renowened educational institutes interested in
conservation‐restoration were visited by members
of academic staff of the Faculty to compare their
study plans and to define possible fields of inno‐
vation within the Bachelor study plan of the Fac‐
ulty of Restoration.
The first presentation, “BA, MA – quo vadis?”, was
given by Tatjana Bayerová from the University of
Applied Arts in Vienna. In her presentation, she
first summarised the history and the system of
conservation‐restoration education at the Uni‐
versity and later she focused on the recent state
of the “Bologna system” in the universities from
German speaking countries. The second present‐
ation was made by Karina Zajadacz, who informed
the participants about the educational system of
conservation‐restoration at the Academy of Fine
Arts in Krakow.
The afternoon session started with the presenta‐
tion “Education in conservation in Malta – chal‐
lenges and opportunities” by Prof. JoAnn Cassar
e‐conser vation

from the University of Malta. In her lecture, she
considered appeals and possibilities of conserva‐
tion‐restoration education in Malta. She introduced
their education system to the participants, MSc
courses in Conservation Technology for Masonry
Buildings, hands‐on courses offered by the Depart‐
ment of the Built Heritage, Faculty for the Built
Environment and warrant system for access the
profession.
Sandra Smith, Head of the Conservation Depart‐
ment of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London,
introduced the special educational course of
conservation‐restoration organised by the V&A
in “Filling the skill gap between training and
professional accreditation in the UK; work based
learning at the V&A”. The training programme
which is endorsed through the UK’s Qualifications
and Curriculum Development Agency (QCDA) de‐
velops conservators with high competence in a
specialist area of conservation (Upholstery, Tex‐
tiles, Furniture, Preventive, Metals; Ceramics,
Glass, Enamel or Sculpture conservation).
Octaviana Marincas, from the University of Arts
“Geroge Enescu” in Iaşi, Romania presented “In‐
tegrated Scientific Research into Romanian Edu‐
cational and Training Conservation Programmes”
where she spoke about the beginnings of conser‐
vation and care for historical monuments in Ro‐
mania. She briefly also explained the university
education system in this field and explained the
basic types of study programmes at University of
Iaşi to the participants.
After the coffee‐break, Prof. Christoph Herm from
the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts presented “Edu‐
cation in natural science in the Course in Art Tech‐
nology and Conservation of Works of Art at Dresden
Academy of Fine Arts”. In his lecture, he spoke
about the role of natural science in the conserva‐
tion‐restoration education at the Academy, he de‐
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
Prof. Ulrich Schießl (1948‐2011), from the Dresden Academy
of Fine Arts.
scribed topics of education in natural science and
briefly presented the University laboratory.
Prof. Ulrich Schießl, who unfortunately passed
away recently, developed the former topic by
presenting “Interdisciplinary Research on the
History of Architecture and Construction, the Deco‐
ration and Conservation of the West Choir of the
Naumburg Cathedral” as an example of the inte‐
gration of PhD studies within a special project of
restoration practice.
Next, in “Which Practice?” Prof. Wolfgang Baatz
from the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna and recent
president of ENCoRE, stressed in his lecture the
basic principles of the education system in the
field of conservation‐restoration as defined in
the international documents E.C.C.O., ENCoRE
and ICOM. Afterwards, Prof. Baatz concluded the
first day of lectures by presenting Barbara David‐
son’s lecture on “Competences for access to the
conservation‐restoration profession”. During the
presentation, he started by introducing briefly
the international organisation E.C.C.O. and conti‐
nued explaining the problems of the qualification
demands for access to the conservation‐restora‐
tion profession from the point of view of recent
and future legislative of the European Union.
33
REVIEWS
Prof. Wolfgang Baatz, from the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna.
The second day of the colloquium was opened by
Alena Selucká from the Technical Museum of Brno,
Czech Republic. In her presentation entitled “The
Methodical Conservation Centre of the Technical
Museum in Brno ‐ its role in training of conser‐
vators‐restorers”, she introduced the activity of
the Methodical Conservation Centre, which has
offered since 2003 the possibility of education in
the field of conservation‐restoration apart from
other various services for museums and galleries.
The following lecturer, Prof. Pavel Novák from the
Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT) in Prague,
Czech Republic introduced the education program
in conservation‐restoration at the ICT. In the se‐
cond part of his lecture he compared the study
programmes of universities and institutes which
offer education in conservation‐restoration in
the Czech Republic.
The presentations were concluded by Vít Jesenský
from the National Heritage Institute, Regional
department for Central Bohemia, Prague, who
discussed the specific factors influencing
conservation‐restoration and also about the edu‐
cation system of this field in the Czech Republic.
The discussion among the participants took place
in the afternoon and was supervised by Prof.
34
Wolfgang Baatz. The discussion was intended to
cover five main themes:
1. Structure of study at universities
2. Strategy, organisation – terms, courses, modules
3. Financial support of education system
4. Accreditation for restoration practice
5. Postgraduate programmes
During the discussion, most attention was given
to the study structure of the integration of the
Bologna system, the status quo at each institu‐
tion, the possibilities and limits of the system
and possible future development in the European
context. Another discussion theme of wide in‐
terest was how to ensure quality standards of
conservation‐restoration practice and ways of
accreditation the profession in each country.
The discussion resulted in a document signed by
the participants expressing their support to activi‐
ties concerning the international recognition of the
conservation‐restoration professional status as
it is developed in the EU by ENCoRE and E.C.C.O.:
The participants of the international colloquium in
Litomyšl fully support the principles of the Conser‐
vation‐Restoration education and access to the
Conservation‐Restoration profession as declared in
the ENCoRE Clarification paper from 2001 and in
“E.C.C.O. Professional Guidelines II” (Education
and Training, 2002) and “E.C.C.O. Professional
Guidelines III” (2004).
The participants further declare that their institu‐
tion´s Conservation‐Restoration training programs
aim to achieve the goals declared in the above men‐
tioned documents and that the Learning Outcomes
for these programs are informed by the competences
for professional practice as published in Compe‐
tences for Access to the Conservation‐Restoration
Profession (E.C.C.O. 2011).
e‐conser vation

A summary of the conclusions reached during the
discussion is as follows:
1. Exists similarity among the represented educa‐
tion institutions concerning the goals, purpose,
way of achievement, problems, etc., which is in‐
fluenced by various regional and social conditions
and traditions which cause different attitudes and
solutions.
2. All the institutions have implemented the “Bo‐
logna system”.
3. The “Bologna System” was adopted in Germany
and Austria although there is no BA/MA division.
4. All the study programs are based on the same
three basic elements – natural science, humane
science and art skills. Only their rate differs be‐
tween the institutions.
5. Knowledge and art skills are examined during
an entrance examination at majority of schools.
6. Former conservation‐restoration practice is not
necessary, except for German schools where one‐
year of practice is required before the first term.
Visit to St. Barbara Cathedral in Kutná Hora.
e‐conser vation
REVIEWS
7. Almost all the BA graduates continue to study
for MA at their alma mater.
8. With rare exceptions all students graduate from
the institutions.
9. All the institutions declared a very good em‐
ployment rate of their graduates.
10. All the institutions reported an increasing
lower number of applicants.
11. The teaching material of specific subjects is
competence of the respective lecturers.
All the representatives declared their support
concerning the education systems and care for
historical and cultural monuments and expressed
the necessity to discuss this problem at interna‐
tional level in Europe.
During the third day of colloquium the participants
visited the historical town of Kutná Hora, having
the opportunity to know more about the town
history and its monuments as well as the restored
historical town centre with its most important
conserved and reconstructed sites: the Church of
the Virgin Mary and Ossuary in Sedlec near Kutná
Hora, and the Gothic Cathedral of St. Barbara,
which is listed as UNESCO World Heritage site.
The colloquium has met with wide interest of quali‐
fied public and its organisers believe that this event
is just one of the first steps towards dialogue about
recent education trends in the field of conserva‐
tion‐restoration and connected to the needs of
cultural heritage care at European scale.
LUBOŠ MACHAČKO
Conservator‐restorer
Contact: machacko@seznam.cz
Luboš Machačko is a private conservator‐restorer
specialised in paintings conservation. Currently he
works at the Department of Chemical Technology at
the Faculty of Restoration, University of Pardubice.
35
Are you reading this?
So is everybody else...

For advertising
and other information on publicity,
please contact

general@e‐conservationline.com

and request a copy of our mediakit.

e­conservationline

Art History, Iconography,
Iconology, Chemistry, Physics,
Biology, Photography, Cultural
Management, Museology,
Computer Science, Legislation and
Juridical Processes, Conservation
Policies
and any other field applied to
Conservation and Restoration
of works of art.
Find out more:
e‐conser vation
article
AREAS OF PUBLISHING
Conservation Treatment
Mural Painting
Painting
Stone
Sculpture
Textiles
Paper / Documents
Photography
Metals
Tile / Ceramic / Glass
Furniture
Music instruments
Ethnographic assets
Archeological objects
Conservation Science
Scientific research
Material studies and characterisation
Analytical techniques
Technology development
Biodeterioration
State‐of‐the‐art
Reviews
Preventive Conservation
Theoretic principles
Case studies
Documentation in Conservation
Standardisation
Documentation methods
Data management
Conservation Theory
Ethics
Conservation History
www.e‐conservationline.com
 CHARACTERIZATION OF NATURAL AND
SYNTHETIC DYES EMPLOYED IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF CHINESE GARMENT PIECES
BY LC‐DAD AND LC‐DAD‐QTOF

By
Estrella Sanz Rodríguez,
Angela Arteaga Rodríguez,
María Antonia García Rodríguez,
Carmen Cámara
 CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS

In this work we present the results obtained for the characterization of dyes found in seven Chinese garment
pieces, which came from the Museum of Arts and Design in Madrid to Spanish Cultural Heritage Institute
(IPCE) for their restoration. They were dated to the times of the Qing Dynasty, between 1700 and 1900 AD.
The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to a diode array detector (LC‐DAD) and
liquid chromatography tandem diode array quadrupole time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (LC‐DAD‐QTOF).
Dyes identified in the pieces under study were clearly correlated with two important features, their oriental
origin and the date of manufacture, making them a particularly complex matrix. Thus, on one hand, the
natural dyes found, such as indigo, brazilwood, curcuma, Asian berberis yellow dye, pagoda tree and
safflower, are characteristic for Asia and the Middle East. On the other hand, these pieces date from the
transition period between the exclusive use of natural dyes and the widespread introduction of synthetic
ones during the late 19th century. Therefore, some early synthetic dyes such as Prussian blue, picric acid,
basic fuchsine and Victoria blue B were also detected.

Introduction tant information for the establishment of their

In all parts of the world, natural dyes have been
used since the oldest times until the end of the
19th century, when synthetic dyes became avail‐
able. The organic compounds responsible for the
colour in ancient dyestuffs were obtained from
plants, insects, shellfish and lichens [1] and in‐
cluded hundreds of dyes like cochineal, brazil‐
wood, madder, kermes, weld, young fustic, saffron,
indigo, orchil, Tyrian purple, etc. In 1740, indigo
carmine appeared as the first semi‐synthetic dye,
followed by picric acid in 1771. Aniline Purple (or
Perkin´s Mauve), considered to be the first really
synthetic dye, was accidentally discovered by
William H. Perkin in 1856 in an attempt to produce
artificial quinine. Since 1897, when 404 new dye‐
stuffs had been developed, the synthetic dyes
soon replaced most of the natural ones [2].
Due to the fact that the particular dyes employed
in each culture were related to locally available
dyeing technology, the identification of dyestuffs
present in historical textiles can contribute to
answer different questions linked with dyeing
techniques, time of manufacture and geographical
origin of a particular textile [1], offering impor‐
historical‐artistic profile. Moreover, these ana‐
lyses can evidence past restoration processes and
provide keys for the application of an appropriate
treatment in modern interventions of restoration
or conservation.
Since each dye can be a mixture of various organic
compounds and a fibre can be dyed with several
of them, chromatographic techniques that are
able to separate very complex mixtures are the
most appropriate tools for this type of analysis.
In between all of them, high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) is by far the most com‐
monly used, because it enables the separation of
non‐volatile compounds such as the components
of dyestuffs [3]. A HPLC system can be coupled
to different detectors. Evidently, most of the dye
components are strong chromophores, therefore
UV‐Vis absorbance detectors, most commonly with
a diode array configuration (DAD) are suitable for
the demands of their analysis from plant extracts
or animal sources [4‐8]. The same applies for
analysis from other matrices such as modern dyed
materials [2,9] or archaeological textiles [10‐18].
Employing DAD, detection can be carried out over
the whole range of the UV and visible spectrum,

e‐conser vation 39
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.
hence the complete spectrum of all the compounds
subsequently eluting from the liquid chromato‐
graphy (LC) column can be obtained, which are
then characterised by their retention time on one
hand and by their corresponding UV‐Vis spectrum
on the other. Even though, this technique is not
very specific and different chemical compounds
may have rather similar spectra. This is the reason
for that the actual trend within the field of iden‐
tification of complex mixtures of dyestuffs goes
towards the use of higher discriminating techni‐
ques such as hyphenation of liquid chromato‐
graphy to detection by mass spectrometry (MS).
In fact, over the last years, most research tends
towards uniting and complementing all the infor‐
mation obtained by on‐line coupling of DAD and
different mass spectrometer configurations, such
as ion trap (IT), single quadrupole (Q) or time of
flight (TOF) [10, 12,19‐28]. The use of a hybrid
LC‐QTOF, a quadrupole‐time of flight instrument
such as the one employed in this study has, to
best of the author’s knowledge, not yet been em‐
ployed for the analysis of natural organic dye‐
stuff. This system allows the separation of the
compounds present in each sample and their
subsequent characterisation due to its powerful
analytical capabilities for detection and identi‐
fication. The TOF detector delivers the high mass
accuracy (1‐2 ppm MS) needed for positive iden‐
tifications with absolute confidence. This instru‐
ment also performs MS‐MS using a quadrupole, a
hexapole (collision cell) and a TOF portion to
produce spectra (2‐4 ppm MS‐MS). The MS‐MS
spectra combined with accurate mass can be
used to confirm ion identity and structure.
With respect to commonly used mass detectors,
such as single quadrupole, the high mass accur‐
acy that a QTOF provides reduces drastically the
possible formulas for a given compound. This
information allows confirming the presence of a
compound, helping to identify unknowns and to
40
reduce risk of spending effort on the wrong mole‐
cule. The MS‐ MS spectrum yields a fragmentation
pattern which is exclusive and unique for each
compound and it is used helping to identify and to
confirm unknowns via elucidation of their chemical
structure. Summarising, the QTOF detector is an ex‐
tremely powerful tool for compound identification.
The collection studied in this work consists of
seven Chinese garment pieces provided by the
Museum of Arts and Design of Madrid for conser‐
vation purposes to IPCE. There is not much histo‐
rical information available; all pieces were dated
between 1700 and 1900, corresponding to the
Qing Dynasty period and, most probably, came
to Spain from Manila when the Philippines was a
Spanish colony [29]. All pieces were produced
using the typical traditional Chinese techniques
and decoration patterns. Their state of preserva‐
tion is acceptable, except the backside of a pair of
trousers, which is heavily damaged. Mainly silk, but
also other types of fibres such as cotton, flax, hemp
or jute, were employed in their manufacture [30].
The objective of the present study was the iden‐
tification of the dyestuffs employed in the manu‐
facture of fragments from this collection using
LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF. This identification can
contribute to obtain relevant information for
their historical documentation and to extend
the knowledge of the dyeing technology used in
their production.
Experimental
Reagents and reference fibres
High‐purity deionised water (Milli‐Q Element
system, Millipore, USA), formic acid (HCOOH)
from Fluka (Sigma‐Aldrich, Steinheim, Germany)
and acetonitrile (ACN), from J.T. Baker (Deventer,
Netherlands) were used for preparation of the
e‐conser vation
 CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS

mobile phase. Gradient grade methanol (MeOH)
from J.T. Baker (Deventer, Netherlands), formic
acid and dimethylformamide (DMF) from Panreac
(Barcelona, Spain) were employed for sample
preparation.
Extraction methods, chromatographic conditions
and instrumental parameters of the detectors
were previously optimised using reference fibres
dyed with several natural dyes, such as American
cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa), brazilwood
(Caesalpinia sp), madder (Rubia tinctorum L.),
weld (Reseda luteola L.), old fustic (Chlorophora
tinctoria), saffron (Crocus sativus L.), indigo (In‐
digofera sp.), Tyrian purple (Plicopurpura pansa
L.), alder bark (Alnus sp.) or sumac (Rhus spp.),
in between others.
Samples
meter with a quadrupole‐time‐of–flight analyzers
(LC‐DAD‐QTOF).
System I (LC‐DAD)
The chromatographic system used consisted of a
model 600E Multisolvent delivery system (Waters
Chromatography, USA) equipped with a Luna C18(2)
HPLC column (150 x 2.1 mm id, 5 μm particle size)
and a guard cartridge system (Phenomenex, USA).
Samples were injected by a 717 auto sampler
(Waters Chromatography, USA). Separated compo‐
nents of dyestuffs were detected with a 996 DAD
detector, scanning from 200 nm to 600 nm at a
rate of 1 scan/second and with a resolution of
1.2 nm (Waters Chromatography, USA). The mobile
phase, delivered at 0.5 ml/min, consisted of 0.1%
trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in water (A) and aceto‐

Figure 1. Nuptial tunic from the “Oriental garment” collection of

Figures 1‐7 show photos of each piece under the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid). Photo by Eduardo Seco.
study: a theatre costume, a nuptial tunic, a chi‐fu,
a belt, a jacket, a pair of trousers and child shoes.
The first step in the identification of a dyestuff
present in an historical textile is the sampling
procedure. This was carried out taking as few
amount of sample possible, but always keeping
the sample representative. To cover the different
colours discovered over every piece, a total
amount of 52 samples were taken. Subsequently,
these were examined under an optical microscope
to determine the macroscopic sample composition
and to detect impurities and fading phenomena.

Instrumentation

The samples were chemically analyzed employing

two rather different liquid chromatography sys‐
tems. First, a commonly used liquid chromato‐
graphy system coupled to diode array detector
(LC‐DAD) and, after, a liquid chromatography
coupled to diode array detector and mass spectro‐

e‐conser vation 41
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.

Figure 2. Theatre costume from the “Oriental garment” collection of the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid).
Photo by Teresa García.

42 e‐conser vation
 CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS

Figure 3. Chi‐fu from the “Oriental garment” collection of Figure 4. Jacket from the the “Oriental garment” collection of
the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid). Photo by Esther the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid). Photo by Esther
Galiana. Galiana.

Figure 5. Belt from the “Oriental garment” collection of the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid). Photo by Esther Galiana.

e‐conser vation 43
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.

Figure 6. Pair of trousers from the “Oriental garment” collection of the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid).
Photo by Eduardo Seco.

44 e‐conser vation
 CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS

Mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometry was performed on a 6530 Ac‐

Figure 7. Child shoes from the “Oriental garment” collection of
the Museum of Arts and Design (Madrid).
Photos by Eduardo Seco.
nitrile (B). The gradient applied was the follow‐
ing: 10% B isocratic to 1 min, to 30% B (linear) at
30 min, to 100% B (linear) at 50 min. The column
temperature was maintained constant at 35 ºC.
curate‐Mass QTOF operating in ESI positive and
negative modes. The ionisation source was a Jet
Stream Thermal Focusing technology which uses
super‐heated nitrogen (N2) to improve ion gene‐
ration and desolvation for greater signal and re‐
duced noise. The acquisition mode was Auto MS‐
MS to obtain the MS‐MS spectrum for each single
dye component. The precursor selection was sor‐
ting by abundance, being three the maximum
number of precursors per cycle. The mass spectro‐
meter operating conditions are summarised in
Table I. Data acquisition and processing were per‐
formed using MassHunter Workstation software.

System II (LC‐DAD‐QTOF)

Table I. Mass spectrometer operation conditions.

All the modules of LC‐DAD‐QTOF instrument (auto‐
matic injector, pump, column oven, diode array Source Parameters
detector and mass spectrometer) were from Agi‐ Polarity Positive, Negative
lent Technologies (USA). Gas temp 300 ºC
Gas flow 8 L/min
Chromatography
Nebulizer 55 psi
Sheath gas temp 400 ºC
The liquid chromatography system used consisted
Sheath gas flow 12 L/min
of a model 1200 Series equipped with a ZORBAX
Vcap 3500 V
Extend‐C18 Rapid Resolution High Throughput
Nozzle voltage 1000 V
(RRHT) column (50 x 2.1 mm i.d.; 1.8 μm particle
Fragmentor 185 V
size). The mobile phase, pumped at 0.8 ml/min,
consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and Skimmer1 65 V

acetonitrile (B). The gradient applied was the Octopole RF peak 750 V
following: 10% B isocratic to 0.4 min, to 35% B
(linear) at 12 min, to 95% B (linear) at 18 min, QTOF Parameters
95% B isocratic to 21 min and to 10% B (linear) at Acquisition Mode Auto MS‐MS
25 min. The column temperature was maintained MS Range 100‐1700 m/z
at 35 ºC by a model 1200 Series thermostatic
MS‐MS Range 50‐1700 m/z
column compartment. Separated components
MS and MS‐MS scan rate 3 spectra/s
were detected with a 1200 Series diode array de‐
Isolation Width MS‐MS Medium (~4 m/z)
tector, scanning from 200 nm to 800 nm and the
Fixed Collision Energy 35 V
chromatograms were recorded at 275 and 550 nm.

e‐conser vation 45
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.
Extraction procedure
In a first study, working with the LC‐DAD system,
we employed a previously optimised and published
extraction method [31], which can be resumed as
follows:
Extraction procedure I
Bulk samples were added to a conic glass vial
containing a (95:5, v/v) mixture of MeOH:HCOOH
and then heated for 30 minutes to 45‐50 ºC. Sub‐
sequently the solvent was evaporated under a N2
current. To the dry residue, a (1:1, v/v) mixture
of MeOH:DMF was added and the solution again
heat‐ed to about 100 ºC during 5 minutes, then
transferred to 0.2 μm Spin‐X nylon micro centri‐
fuge filters and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10
min. After evaporation of the filtrate to dryness
with N2, the residue was again dissolved in 50 μL
of a (1:1, v/v) MeOH:DMF mixture and shaked in
vortex for 1 minute. This extract was injected
onto the LC‐DAD system.
Later on, the method was further optimised [32],
basically regarding the first extraction medium,
and was employed with the second chromatogra‐
phic system, LC‐DAD‐QTOF.
Extraction procedure II
Samples were placed in a conic vial and treated
with 250 μL of a mixture of HCOOH:MeOH:H2O
(15:25:60, v/v/v) for 10 minutes at 50‐55 ºC. The
solvent was then evaporated under a N2 current.
A volume of 250 μL of the mixture MeOH:DMF (1:1,
v/v) was added to the dry residue and the mixture
was heated for 5 minutes at around 90 ºC. Then,
the solution was transferred to 0.2 μm nylon filters
Spin‐X (micro centrifuge filter) and centrifuged at
6000 rpm for 10 min. The filtrate was evaporated
to dryness under a N2 current and the residue was
46
dissolved in 5‐10 μL of MeOH:DMF (1:1, v/v) solu‐
tion. After shaking it in vortex for 1 min, the ex‐
tract was injected onto the LC‐DAD‐QTOF system.
Results and discussion
From observation under optical microscope it was
concluded that none of the samples were consti‐
tuted by a mixture of differently coloured fibres,
except for one orange‐red sample from a child
shoe, where the fibres were first yellow dyed and
afterwards superficially in red‐orange. It is worth
mentioning that an important decolouration
process was observed in this particular sample.
Results of the analysed samples using the system
I (LC‐DAD), are summarised in Table II. The com‐
pounds were identified based on matching their
retention time and UV‐Vis spectra.
In the brown samples, gallic acid, ellagic acid and
traces of flavonoids were detected, indicating the
use of tannins as dye (probably obtained from
galls and/or bark of oak species).
Indigotin, as main component, and indirubin
were detected in the blue samples and those col‐
ours deriving from blue, such as green or purple
(Figure 8(c)). The percentage of each component
was in concordance with the composition of in‐
digo (Indigofera sp.) or woad (Isatis tinctoria L.)
but due to the origin of these textiles, the dye
was most probably indigo obtained from some
Indigofera species.
Another type of indigo in dark blue, green and
purple samples containing indirubin, either pre‐
sent as a main component or at very high concen‐
tration, was found (Figure 8(d)).
When the ratio indigotin to indirubin in 17 sam‐
ples of different shades of blue, green and purple
e‐conser vation

Table II. Summary of the dyestuffs found in the seven Chinese pieces of garment studied.
Colour Detected compounds
indigotin, indirubin
[4‐[[4‐Anilino‐1‐naphthyl][4‐(dimethylamino) Victoria blue B (Basic blue 26; C.I. 44045)
phenyl]methylene]cyclohexa‐2,5‐dien‐
Blue
1‐ylidene]
iron (Fe), cyanide group (‐CN)1
unknown blue compound
(λmax= 220 and > 600 nm)
Dark blue indirubin, indigotin
carminic acid, dcII, dcVII
brasilin, Type C component
Red carthamin
fuchsine, magenta II, new fuchsine
unknown red compounds
(λmax.= 279, 368, 482 nm)
curcumins I,II and III
berberin, palmatin
Yellow
rutin (quercetin‐3‐O‐glucoside),
quercetin
2,4,6‐trinitrophenol
gallic acid, ellagic acid, flavonoids
Brown
(trace level)
1 The identification was carried out by XRF (detection of iron) and FTIR (detection of cyanide group)[29]
2 The pigment (Fe
4 [Fe(CN)6]3) was applied as paint layer to create a decoration in the chi‐fu
is represented (Figure 8(e)), it is clearly shown
that two different types of indigo dyes were
present. Available literature refers in only two
occasions to an indirubin content of blue dye‐
stuff different from Indigofera or Isatis tinctoria.
Wouters and Rosario‐Chirinos [14] reported that
“in the early Peruvian samples, indirubin was of‐
ten more abundant than indigotin [...]” and con‐
cluded that “more studies will be needed to inter‐
pret the high indirubin amounts that were often
encountered [...]”. Equally, Cardon [33] reported,
e‐conser vation
CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS
Identified dyestuff
(analyzed by)
Indigo (Indigofera sp.)
(LC‐DAD)
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Prussian blue2
Unknown blue dye
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Dark Indigo (Asian species ?)
(LC‐DAD)
Cochineal, probably American cochineal
(Dactylopius coccus Costa) (LC‐DAD)
Brazilwood, probably
Caesalpinia sappan L.) (LC‐DAD)
Safflower (Carthamos tinctorius L.)
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Basic Fuchsine (Basic violet 14; C.I. 42510)
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Unknown red dye
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Curcuma (Curcuma longa L.)
(LC‐DAD)
Asian berberies (Berberis sp. – Mahonia
sp. – Phellodendron amurense) (LC‐DAD)
Chinese yellow berries (Sophora japonica L.)
(LC‐DAD and LC‐DAD‐QTOF)
Picric acid
(LC‐DAD)
Tannins
(LC‐DAD)
about the dye composition of a plant from Asia,
Rum or Assam Indigo (Strobilanthes cusia): “Re‐
cently, the Japanese chemist Satoshi Ushida con‐
cluded that the rather high pH of Strobilanthes
juice may explain the production of high propor‐
tions of indirubin when dyeing with fresh leaves
at elevated temperatures”. About the dyeing and
colours obtained with this dye, Cardon reported
that “intensive blue‐black or dark blue colour was
obtained with this dye by repeated immersions in
a vat of osak indigo (Strobilanthes sp.)[…]”.
47
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.

Figure 8. (a) UV‐Vis spectrum of indigotin; (b) UV‐Vis spectrum of indirubin; (c) DAD chromatogram at 275 nm of blue sample
from theatre costume where indigotin (majority) and indirubin were detected; (d) DAD chromatogram at 275 nm of dark blue
sample from a pair of trousers where indirubin (majority) and indigotin were detected; (e) relation of indigotin and indirubin
in blue, green and purple samples with different shades (n= 17).

Figure 9. (a) DAD chromatogram obtained for a red sample from theatre costume and UV‐Vis spectra of the three main red com‐
ponents detected; (b) Extract compound MS chromatograms; (c), (d) and (e) the accurate mass and the mass‐mass spectrum
for the fuchsine, magenta II and new fuchsine, respectively. Note: the ion precursor is marked with a little red rhomb over it and
has been fragmented in the collision cell to give the corresponding mass‐mass spectra.

48 e‐conser vation

The only chromatographic pattern where we found
amounts of indirubin very close or higher than
indigotin has been in the analysis of a product
called Ching‐Dai (Indigo Naturalis) or in Chinese
qing dai [34‐36]. Indigo naturalis is a dark blue
power used to treat several health problems in
Chinese and Taiwanese medicine and it is prepared
from leaves of plants such as Baphicacavthus cusia,
Polygonum tinctorium, Isatis indigotica, Indigofera
tinctoria and/or Strobilanthes cusia. Thus, we think
that the dark blue colour in the samples from the
Chinese garments was obtained from a dye pre‐
pared from such Asian species which, due to the
dyeing method employed or to the composition
of some of the plant used, contains a high amount
of indirubin. Moreover, a blue pigment used like
a paint layer in a decoration of the chi‐fu could
be identi‐fied as Prussian blue by FTIR and XRF
[30]. Two other blue dyes could not be identified
by LC‐DAD because they did not match any available
reference.
Regarding red samples, we found that they were
dyed with cochineal, brazilwood and possibly saf‐
flower, although the presence of the latter could
not be confirmed because a carthamin standard
was not available. Additionally, two red dyes could
not be identified.
Four different yellow dyes were found. Two of them
could be identified as curcuma and Asian berberis.
A third yellow containing rutin as a possible main
component, the principal component of Chinese
yellow berries (the Japanese pagoda tree, Sophora
japonica L.), but its identification was doubtful
because the UV‐Vis spectra of flavonoids are all
very similar. Furthermore, no corresponding refe‐
rence fibre was available (e.g. dyed with pagoda
tree), which would have allowed confirmation of
its specific retention time. The last yellow could
be identified as picric acid, one of the first semi‐
synthetic dyes based on matching its UV‐Vis spec‐
e‐conser vation
CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS
tra with data kindly provided by M. van Bommel.
Summarising, after the LC‐DAD analysis, dyes
such as tannins, indigo, cochineal, brazilwood,
curcuma, Asian berberis and picric acid could
be identified. The possible presence of safflower
and Chinese yellow berries could be detected and
four dyes, two blue and two red, remained un‐
identified.
In order to improve these results, samples con‐
taining doubtful and unidentified compounds
were subsequently analyzed using LC‐DAD‐QTOF.
These analyses allowed the confirmation of the
presence of carthamin and rutin via its accurate
mass and mass‐mass spectrum and consequently
the use of safflower and Asian berries dyes. The
use of safflower in the orange sample from a child
shoe explained the decolouration phenomena
observed due to the well‐known poor light fast‐
ness of this dye.
In the characterisation of one of the unknown
blue dyes, a mixture of blue components (accord‐
ing to their UV‐Vis spectra) was obtained. One of
the main compounds could now be identified as
the synthethic dye Victoria blue B, introduced in
1883 [37]. The identication was based on its UV‐
Vis spectrum, exact mass (m/z 470.2583; error
0.53 ppm), corresponding to the [M‐Cl]+ ion,
distinguishable from other Victoria Blue dyes [38]
and on its mass‐mass spectrum matching with its
chemical structure. However, the other blue dye
still remains unidentified because the entire
sample was used in the analysis on system I.
Equally, only one of the two unknown red dyes
could be identified. In this case, the analysis re‐
veals the presence of three main red components.
From the extracts MS chromatograms, three com‐
pounds were identified as fuchsine, magenta II
and new fuchsine, components of basic fuchsine
49
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.

Table III. Dyestuffs identified and dating for each piece studied.

Piece Identified Dyes Dating

Natural dyes:
indigo, dark indigo, Asian berberis, 1700‐1900
safflower and their mixtures

Natural dyes:
indigo, Asian berberis, Chinese yellow berries, 1700‐1900
brazilwood, tannins and their mixtures

Natural dyes:
indigo, dark indigo, Chinese yellow berries, 1700‐1900
tannins and their mixtures

Natural dyes:
1700‐1900
dark indigo

Natural dyes:
indigo, dark indigo, Asian berberis, brazilwood, Chinese
yellow berries, their mixtures and mixed with 1856‐1900
Synthetic dyes:
picric acid and fuchsine; Prussian blue employed in
decoration paint layer

Natural dyes:
indigo, dark indigo, Asian berberis, brazilwood,
curcuma, cochineal their mixtures and mixed with 1856‐1900?
Synthetic dyes:
picric acid, fuchsine and unknown red dye

Natural dyes:
brazilwood, Asian berberis, curcuma,
safflower and their mixtures, not mixed with
1883‐1900?
Synthetic dyes:
Fuchsine (sewing thread)
Victoria blue B (typical Chinese bottom)

50 e‐conser vation

dye, a synthetic dye which was introduced in 1856
[2]. All compounds were detected as [M+H]+ (m/z
302.1655, error ‐0.96 ppm; 316.1807, error 0.49
ppm and 330.165, error ‐0.02 ppm, respectively)
and were identified based on their accurate mass,
comparison with literature data [39], MS‐MS frag‐
mentation pattern according to their chemical
structure and UV‐Vis spectra (Figure 9).
Finally, Table III shows the dyestuffs identified
for each piece studied. These dyes were found
alone or mixed in different proportions to create
different shades, though colour degradation ef‐
fects also took place such as in the bands of the
chi‐fu.
Conclusions
Dyes identified in the pieces under study could be
clearly correlated to two important aspects: their
oriental origin and their date of manufacture,
because the pieces date from the transition peri‐
od between the exclusive use of natural dyes and
the widespread introduction of synthetic ones
during the late 19th century. Consequently, nat‐
ural dyes found, such as indigo, brazilwood, cur‐
cuma, Asian berberin yellow dye, Chinese yellow
berries and safflower, are characteristic for Asia
and the Middle East, but some early synthetic dyes
such as Prussian blue, picric acid, basic fuchsine
and Victoria Blue B were also detected. Knowing
the year of introduction of these synthetic dyes
helps to improve the initially wide range of uncer‐
tainty when dating the pieces, as shown in Table
III. Prussian blue was introduced in 1724‐1725,
picric acid in 1771, fuchsine in 1856 and Victoria
Blue B in 1883. Hence, for the shoes, belt, jacket
and pair of trousers, which were dyed employing
natural dyes only, the initial date range between
1700 and 1900 AD could not be narrowed. For the
chi‐fu and the theatre costume, natural dyes
e‐conser vation
CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS
were found mixed with some early synthetic dyes
(picric acid and fuchsine) and Prussian blue was
used to elaborate a paint layer decoration; in
particular the presence of fuchsine indicates a
fabrication date later than 1856. The case of nup‐
tial tunic is different because though synthetic
dyes were identified (fuchsine and Victoria blue
B), these were found in parts of the textile (inte‐
rior sewing thread and typical Chinese bottom,
respectively) which could be attributed to later
interventions dating from after 1856 AD for the
sewing thread and 1883 AD for the blue bottom.
Regarding the applied techniques, the LC‐DAD‐
QTOF system has demonstrated to be an excellent
tool for both, to confirm the presence of a com‐
pound and to provide a confident identification
of unknowns in a single analytical run without
the essential use of previous standard analysis
because this technique combines UV‐Vis data,
excellent mass accuracy and MS‐MS structural
information.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Spanish Ministry of Culture
and the Complutense University of Madrid for the
establishment of the agreement of collaboration,
in the frame of which the present study has been
developed. We would like to thank to the staff of
the Textiles Department of the IPCE for their col‐
laboration and valuable help and to the Museum
of Arts and Design in Madrid. We also would like
to say thank you to Maarten R. Van Bommel, Edith
Oberhumer and Maria Melo for always attending
our doubts and questions and for their valuable
input. Finally, we would like to thank Ana Roquero
for her important advice on dyed fibres belong‐
ing to the Reference Collection of IPCE and for her
collaboration and valuable help.
51
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.
References
[1] D. A. Peggie, A. N. Hulme, H. McNab and A. Quye,
“Towards the identification of characteristic minor
components from textiles dyed with weld (Reseda
luteola L.) and those dyed with Mexican cochineal
(Dactylopius coccus Costa)”, Microchimica Acta 162 (3‐
4), 2008, p. 371‐380, doi: 10.1007/s00604‐007‐0866‐0
[2] M. van Bommel, I. Vanden Berghe, A.M. Wall‐
ert, R. Boitelle and J. Wouters, “High‐perform‐
ance liquid chromatography and non‐destructive
three‐dimensional fluorescence analysis of early
synthetic dyes”, Journal of Chromatography A
1157(1‐2), 2007, pp. 260‐272, doi: 10.1016/j.
chroma.2007.05.017
[3] I. Surowiec, “Application of high‐perform‐
ance separation techniques in archaeometry”,
Microchimica Acta 162(3‐4), 2008, pp. 289‐302,
doi: 10.1007/s00604‐007‐0911‐z
[4] J. Wouters, “High Performance Liquid Chro‐
matography of Anthraquinones: Analysis of Plant
and Insect Extracts and Dyed Textiles”, Studies in
Conservation 30(3), 1985, pp. 119‐128
[5] J. Wouters and A. Verhecken, “The Coccid In‐
sect Dyes: HPLC and Computerized Diode‐Array
Analysis of Dyed Yarns”, Studies in Conservation
34(4), 1989, pp. 189–200
[6] G. C. H. Derksen, T. A. van Beek, A. de Groot
and A. Capelle, “High‐performance liquid chro‐
matographic method for the analysis of anthra‐
quinone glycosides and aglycones in madder
root (Rubia tinctorum L.)”, Journal of Chroma‐
tography A 816(2), 1998, pp. 277‐281,
doi: 10.1016/S0021‐ 9673(98)00492‐0
[7] M. Cristea, I. Bareau and G. Vilarem, “Identi‐
fication and quantitative HPLC analysis of the
52
main flavonoids present in weld (Reseda luteola
L.)”, Dyes and Pigments 57(3), 2003, pp. 267‐
272, doi: 10.1016/S0143‐7208(03)00007‐X
[8] R. Pedreschi and L. Cisneros‐Zevallos, “Pheno‐
lic profiles of Andean purple corn (Zea mays L.)”,
Food Chemistry 100(3), 2007, pp. 956‐963,
doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.004
[9] S.M. Halpine, “An Improved Dye and Lake
Pigment Analysis Method for High‐Performance
Liquid Chromatography and Diode‐Array Detector”,
Studies in Conservation 41(2), 1996, pp. 76‐81
[10] L. Rafaëlly, S. Héron, W. Nowik and A.
Tchapla, “Optimisation of ESI‐MS detection for
the HPLC of anthraquinone dyes”, Dyes and Pig‐
ments 77(1), 2008, pp. 191‐203, doi: 10.1016/j.
dyepig.2007.05.007
[11] I. Surowiec, A. Quye and M. Trojanowicz, “Li‐
quid chromatography determination of natural
dyes in extracts from historical Scottish textiles
excavated from peat bogs”, Journal of Chromato‐
graphy A 1112(1‐2), 2006, pp. 209–217,
doi: 10.10 16/j.chroma.2005.11.019
[12] L. Valianou, I. Karapanagiotis and Y. Chrys‐
soulakis, “Comparison of extraction methods for
the analysis of natural dyes in historical textiles
by high‐performance liquid chromatography”,
Analytical Bioanalytical Chemistry 395(7), 2009,
pp. 2175‐2189, doi:10.1007/ s00216‐009‐3137‐6
[13] X. Zhang and R. A. Laursen, “Development
of Mild Extraction Methods for the Analysis of
Natural Dyes in Textiles of Historical Interest
Using LC‐Diode Array Detector‐MS”, Analytical
Chemistry 77(7), 2005, pp. 2022‐2025,
doi: 10.1021/ac048380k
e‐conser vation

[14] J. Wouters and N. Rosario‐Chirinos, “Dye
Analysis of Pre‐Columbian Peruvian Textiles with
High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography and
Diode‐Array Detection”, Journal of American In‐
stitute of Conservation 31(2)7, 1992, pp. 237‐255
[15] W. Nowik, S. Desrosiers, I. Surowiec and M.
Trojanowicz, “The analysis of dyestuffs from
first‐ to second‐century textile artefacts found
in the Martres‐de‐Veyre (France) excavations”,
Archaeometry 47, 2005, pp. 835‐848,
doi:10.1111/j.1475‐4754.2005.00235.x
[16] G. G. Balakina, V. G. Vasiliev, E. V. Karpova, and
V. I. Mamatyuk, “HPLC and molecular spectroscopic
investigations of the red dye obtained from an
ancient Pazyryk textile”, Dyes and Pigments 71 (1),
2006, pp. 54‐60, doi:10.1016/j.dyepig.2005. 06.014
[17] I. Vanden Berghe, M. Gleba and U. Manner‐
ing, “Towards the identification of dyestuffs in
Early Iron Age Scandinavian peat bog textiles”,
Journal of Archaeological Science 36(9), 2009,
pp. 1910‐1921, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.04.019
[18] I. Degano and M. P. Colombini, “Multi‐ana‐
lytical techniques for the study of pre‐Columbian
mummies and related funerary materials”, Journal
of Archaeological Science 36(8), 2009, pp. 1783–
1790, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.04.015
[19] X. Zhang and R. Laursen, “Application of
LC–MS to the analysis of dyes in objects of his‐
torical interest”, International Journal of Mass
Spectrometry 284(1‐3), 2009, pp. 108–114,
doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2008.07.014
[20] X. Zhang, R. Boytner, J. L. Cabrera and R.
Laursen, “Identification of Yellow Dye Types in
Pre‐Columbian Andean Textiles”, Analytical
Chemistry 79(4), 2007, pp. 1575‐1582,
doi:10.1021/ac061618f
e‐conser vation
CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS
[21] X. Zhang, I. Good and R. Laursen, “Characte‐
rization of dyestuffs in ancient textiles from Xin‐
jiang”, Journal of Archaeology Science 35(4), 2008,
pp. 1095‐1103, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.08.001
[22] M. Puchalska, K. Polec‐Pawlak, I. Zadrozna,
H. Hrysko and M. Jarosz, “Identification of in‐
digoid dyes in natural organic pigments used in
historical art objects by high‐performance liquid
chromatography coupled to electrospray ioniza‐
tion mass spectrometry”, Journal of Mass Spec‐
trometry 39(12), 2004, pp. 1441‐1449,
doi:10.1002/jms.728
[23] G. C.H. Derksen, H.A.G. Niederländer and
T.A. van Beek, “Analysis of anthraquinones in
Rubia tinctorum L. by liquid chromatography
coupled with diode‐array UV and mass spectro‐
metric detection”, Journal of Chromatography A
978(1‐2), 2002, pp. 119‐127,
doi:10.1016/S0021‐9673(02)01412‐7
[24] I. Karapanagiotis, Y. Chryssoulakis, “Investi‐
gation of Red Natural Dyes Used in Historical Ob‐
jects by HPLC‐DAD‐MS”, Annali di Chimica 96(1‐2),
2005, pp. 75‐84, doi: 10.1002/adic.200690008
[25] K. Pawlak, M. Puchalska, A. Miszczak, E.
Rosłoniec, M. Jarosz, “Blue natural organic dye‐
stuffs — from textile dyeing to mural painting.
Separation and characterization of coloring mat‐
ters present in elderberry, logwood and indigo”,
Journal of Mass Spectrometry 41(5), 2006, pp.
613‐622, doi: 10.1002/jms.1018
[26] D. A. Peggie, A. N. Hulme, H. McNab and A.
Quye, “Towards the identification of character‐
istic minor components from textiles dyed with
weld (Reseda luteola L.) and those dyed with
Mexican cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa)”,
Microchimica Acta 162(3‐4), 2008, pp. 371‐380,
doi: 10.1007/s00604‐007‐0866‐0
53
ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ et al.
[27] R. Marques, M. M. Sousa, M. C. Oliveira and
M. J. Melo, “Characterization of weld (Reseda lu‐
teola L.) and spurge flax (Daphne gnidium L.) by
high‐performance liquid chromatography–diode
array detection–mass spectrometry in Arraiolos
historical textiles”, Journal of Chromatography A
1216(9), 2009, pp. 1395–1402,
doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.12.083
[28] Y. Lee, J. Lee, Y. Kim, S. Choi, S. Wook Ham
and K.‐J. Kim, “Investigation of natural dyes and
ancient textiles from korea using TOF‐SIMS”, Ap‐
plied Surface Science 255(4), 2008, pp. 1033‐
1036, doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2008.05.097
[29] Catalogue of the Museum of Arts and Design
(Madrid), ed. Ministry of Culture, Spain, available
at URL
[30] E. Galiana, T. García, A. Platero, M. Algueró,
A. Arteaga, C. Martín De Hijas, E. González and E.
Sanz, “Proceso de intervención de un conjunto
de siete piezas de indumentaria oriental: trata‐
miento de conservación‐restauración y análisis
de mate‐riales constitutivos”, Publicaciones del
IPCE: Mono‐grafías, Investigación y Conservación
de obras de arte oriental del Museo de Artes Decor‐
ativas, Minis‐terio de Cultura, Madrid, 2010, pp.
43‐69, available at URL
[31] E. Sanz, A. Arteaga, M. A. García, M.A. Del
Egido and C. Cámara, “Identification of natural
dyes in historical Coptic textiles from the National
Archaeological Museum of Spain”, e‐conservation
magazine 15, 2010, pp. 32‐45, available at URL
[32] E. Sanz, A. Arteaga, M.A. García and C. Cá‐
mara, “Characterization of natural dyes from the
reference collection of American dyestuff of the
Spanish Cultural Heritage Institute (IPCE)”, 28th
Meeting of Dyes in History and Archaeology
54
(DHA28), Poznan (Poland), 21‐24th October 2009
[33] D. Cardon, Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition,
Technology and Science, Archetype, London, 2007
[34] Y.‐K. Lin, Y‐L. Leu, S.‐H. Yang, H.‐W. Chen,
C.‐T. Wang and J.‐H. Su Pang, “Anti‐psoriatic
effects of indigo naturalis on the proliferation
and differentiation of keratinocytes with indiru‐
bin as the active component”, Journal of Derma‐
tology Science 54, 2009, pp. 168‐174,
doi: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2009.02.007
[35] B. C. Liau T. T. Jong, M. R. Lee and S. S.
Chen, “LC‐APCI‐MS method for detection and
analysis of tryptanthrin, indigo, and indirubin in
Daqingye and Banlangen”, Journal of Pharma‐
ceutical and Biomedical Analysis 43(1), 2007, pp.
346‐351, doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2006.06.029
[36] Yuan Shiun Chang, Yu Ling Ho, “Studies on
the Homonymic Chinese Crude Drug Species in
Taiwan. Evaluation of the Quality of Da‐Ching‐Yeh
and Ching‐Dai”, Analytical Sciences 17, 2011, pp.
a243‐a426, available at URL
[37] A. Bowes, S. Collins, S. Elliott, L.T. Harris, L.
Hazlett, E. Methé, M. Razak and P. Y. Subagiyo,
“Important Early Synthetic Dyes: Chemistry,
Constitution, Date, Properties”, M. W. Ballard
(ed.), Conservation Analytical Laboratory,
Smithsonian Institution, 1991, URL
[38] J. D. Brewer, K. A. Hagan and J. M. Egan,
“Forensic Analysis of Black Ballpoint Pen Inks
Using Capillary Electrophoresis”, Forensic Science
Communications 7(3), 2005, pp. 1‐10
[39] R. Köhling, “Colors of the world: fast separ‐
ation of dyes with Ascentis Express”, Reporter 38,
2009, pp. 3‐5, also available at URL [pdf]
e‐conser vation

ESTRELLA SANZ RODRÍGUEZ
Conservation‐Scientist
Estrella Sanz Rodríguez (MSc, PhD) studied at the
Faculty of Chemistry in the Complutense University
of Madrid (UCM), graduating in 1996. She worked
for three years as an analytical scientist in the
Department of Analytical Chemistry, carrying out
research about the identification of organic and
inorganic materials in historical samples by high‐
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
coupled to ultraviolet detection, Raman spectros‐
copy and GC‐MS. From 2000 to 2003 she worked in
the Spectroscopy Research Assistance Centre of
the UCM. Subsequently she carried out her PhD
dedicated to the development of new methods for
arsenic species extraction from environmental
samples by HPLC and inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS). Presently she works
as UCM investigator in the Laboratories of the
Spanish Cultural Heritage Institute (IPCE). Her
research interest include the development of
new extraction methods for natural dyes from
historical and archaeological textiles samples and
their analysis by liquid chromatography coupled
to array and mass detector (LC‐DAD‐MS).
ANGELA ARTEAGA RODRÍGUEZ
Conservation‐Scientist
Angela Arteaga Rodríguez received her CINE‐5b
(1972) in Chemistry by the School of Industrial
Masters of Madrid. Since 1992 she develops her
professional work in the Area of Laboratories of
the Spanish Cultural Heritage Institute (IPCE).
Her work consists in the analyses of natural dyes,
binding media from works of art by different tech‐
niques like FTIR, TLC and HPLC‐DAD. She has also
participated in several publications, congresses
and other professional meetings, both national
and international.
e‐conser vation
CHARACTERIZATION OF DYES IN CHINESE GARMENTS
MARÍA ANTONIA GARCÍA RODRÍGUEZ
Conservation‐Scientist
María Antonia García Rodríguez received her MSc
(1991) in Analytical Chemistry from the Complu‐
tense University of Madrid. From 1992 to 1997 she
developed her professional work in the Laboratory
of Doping Control in Madrid (The Sports Council,
CSD). In 1998 and 1999, she collaborated with the
Laboratory of Public Health of the Community of
Madrid. Between 2001 and 2005 she worked as
technical attendance in the study of instrumental
techniques applied to the Investigation and docu‐
mentation on artworks in restoration process in
the IPCE, where since 2006, she belongs to the
technical staff in the Area of Laboratories. Her
work consists in studies related to mural paintings
and archaeological material, as well as the analysis
of organic materials in other art objects.
CARMEN CÁMARA
Chemist
Carmen Cámara is a professor in Analytical Chem‐
istry at the Complutense University since 1992.
She is the leader of the Research Group of Trace
Determination and Speciation, belonging to the
Department of Analytical Chemistry. Her main
research interest is focused on the development
of new analytical methods for trace metal speci‐
ation, emergent contaminants, bioaccumulation
studies of trace metals and organic compounds in
zebra fish embryo, proteomics and other topics
related with a wide variety of samples. She has
coordinated more than six European and several
National projects. She has also participated in
more than 30 European projects. She has published
more than 250 papers in international journals,
was invited to held plenary lectures in the most
relevant international meetings related with her
activity and helds two patents.
55
 AN INNOVATIVE
STRETCHER FOR
CANVAS PAINTINGS

By Osama M. El‐Feky
 AN INNOVATIVE STRETCHER FOR CANVAS PAINTINGS

One of the most important deterioration factors of paintings on canvas is the inadequate fixation to a
stretcher frame. In addition, metallic nails are often used, causing corrosion and tears in canvas edges,
etc. Climatic changes will cause expansion or shrinkage, leading to a sagging or rippling canvas
resulting in the need for the painting to be re‐stretched. Paintings with a fragile stretcher need to be
stretched on a new one. The objective of this study aimed to invent a new stretcher frame avoiding the
drawbacks of the traditional ones, made of plexiglass which is a transparent material. This frame
consists of four sides with chamfered inner edges and mitered corners with slot and tenon joints that
can be expanded by using a control unit containing eight gears. The sides can be moved easily by
turning the gears, which aids the adjustment of the painting when it expands or contracts. Around the
new stretcher frame there are four plexiglass pieces which are covered by toothed rubber and eight
straps for fixing the oil painting to the frame1.

Introduction

In 2003, the author designed and executed a new
modern stretcher frame to control the rate of
canvas tension by using a screw system which
pushes a free wooden frame that the canvas is
fixed to [1] (Figure 1). In 2007 a new stretcher
frame made of transparent Plexiglass (10 mm)
was applied to the “Musicians” by Emile Bernard
(1895) oil on canvas that belongs to the Museum
of Fine Arts in Alexandria. This idea arose be‐
cause there is another painting on the back of the
painting's canvas support and using the Plexiglass
stretcher frame allows the observation of the rear
of the oil painting. Stainless steel nails were used
to fix the fabric edges on the Plexiglass stretcher
frame [2] (Figure 2).
Generally, stretcher frames have several disadvan‐
tages including many technical shortcomings; the
members of the old wedged stretchers are often
not chamfered, where the inner and the outer
edges are not rounded off. They are not grooved
on the miter and the grooves and/or tenons tend
to shrink these defects affect the appearance and
the state of preservation of the painting. If the
textile support is lying on members that have not
been chamfered, a pronounced wedged stretcher
crack can form. If the outer edges under the tex‐
tile support are not rounded off they endanger the
stretched edges. In post‐stretching, if the wedged
stretcher is not grooved on the miter, when the
frame is more powerfully enlarged, creases occur
in the corner area. If the tenon and the groove are
not precisely matched, or are altered as a result
of shrinkage, the members twist in the grooves
as the textile support is stretched, and creases
occur running from the corners into the painting
(Figure 3). Wrinkles may sometimes appear in the
canvas, and these may be caused by the fact that
the wedges driven into the corners of the stretchers
have come loose or fallen away altogether [3].
The wooden wedges of the traditional stretcher
frame can fall off by transporting the painting
from place to place leading to a loose canvas
support, so it will be necessary to re‐fix the keys
again and by continual repetition of this process,
the painting will be subjected to many creases
and deteriorations over time.
1 This invention was presented to the Egyptian Patent Of‐
fice, a Performance‐Based Organization of the Government
of the Egypt, and Academy of Scientific Research and Tech‐
nology, Ministry of High Education and Scientific Research
under the No. 192/2010 in 7‐2‐2010.

e‐conser vation 57
OSAMA EL‐FEKY
Figure 1. A modern stretcher frame was designed and executed
to control the rate of painting stretch by using screw system.
Using a hammer on the wooden wedges of the
traditional stretcher frame is not an accurate
process to control the rate of the stretching of a
painting because it leads to many drawbacks on
the painting's layers such as cracking and/or
paint loss in cleavage parts, especially in the
case of paintings with weak adhesion. The old
stretcher frame cannot allow a satisfactory ad‐
justment to one side of a painting without the
adjustment of the others. On the other hand,
the wooden stretcher frame may be attacked by
fungi and insects that are capable of destroying
it wholly or in part (Figure 4), even spreading to
the oil painting support and to the upper layers.
Wood is a material that is highly susceptible to
atmospheric influences because of its hygro‐
scopic character, which leads to shrinkage and
swelling due to humidity fluctuation [4].
Shrinkage and swelling take place when mois‐
ture content decreases or increases, respect‐
ively; however the volume changes are never
equal in all directions. The dimensional change
58
Figure 2. Applying a transparent stretcher frame on a double
face oil painting.
occurs mainly in a direction tangential to the
growth rings. The shrinkage 5‐10% in the tangen‐
tial direction and 2‐6% in the radial direction [5],
resulting in many defects such as curving, warp‐
ing, twisting, cupping, splitting, and cracking;
these factors affect not only the supporting
structure but also the appearance and stability
of the oil painting itself.
The wood used in stretcher frames emit a low, but
still detectable, amount of vapors such as carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
chlorohydroxide and ammonia gas, depending on
either exogenic factors such as temperature, and
relative humidity or endogenic factor as wood
species, binder level, binder type, and production
conditions, etc. [6], and produces number of
e‐conser vation

Figure 3. Tears and cuts in the edges area of the painting due
to not chamfered wooden bars.
volatile organic compounds, including aldehydes
and organic acids [7], such as formaldehyde,
acetic acid, formic acid, sulphuric acid, resulting
in corrosion, discoloration and deterioration
which are speeded up by high temperature and/
or high humidity levels [8, 9].
Sometimes drawings, signatures, or other impor‐
tant words are covered by the wooden stretcher
frame which hinders the accurate and precise
study by specialists or art students, which may
lead to the necessity to remove the stretcher
frame from the painting to allow a complete ob‐
servation and study of the back of the oil paint‐
ing then re‐fix it again to the stretcher frame,
this process leads to damaging the fragile oil
paintings. On the other hand, iron nails in the
wooden frame cause several harmful effects to
both the frame and the edges of the oil painting
such as corrosion, tears and cuts specially by re‐
peating the fixation process. Furthermore, using
the screw systems in the corners of the modern
stretcher frame requires thick sides resulting in
heavy weight addition. The plexiglass stretcher
frame made in 2007 was fixed in the corners, so
it is difficult to control the degree of stretching
of the oil painting due to the expansion or shrin‐
kage of the oil painting in hot or cold weathers.
e‐conser vation
AN INNOVATIVE STRETCHER FOR CANVAS PAINTINGS
Figure 4. Fungal infection (left), and attack of insects (right) in
the wooden stretcher.
The aim of this study is to invent a new stretcher
frame that avoids the drawbacks of traditional
frames. Its concern is to give a complete fixation
and precise adjustment in any part of the paint‐
ing when it expands or contracts, and to avoid
the harmful effects and strains on canvas which
result from the use of iron nails to fix the oil
painting on the frame. It aims to protect the oil
painting from various deterioration aspects such
as cuts, tears in canvas, cracking, separation and
falling off of painting layers. It strives to provide
a maximum degree of safety and protection to
the oil painting for the longest possible time.
Material and Laboratory Tests
The new stretcher frame is made of Plexiglass,
which are "poly acrylates, composed of poly‐
(methyl methacrylate)” [10]. It is a transparent
material and its chemical stability can be ensured
by the results of testing using a FT‐IR Nexus 670
infrared spectrometer, Nicolet (USA), before and
after artificial aging in a climatic chamber (60°C,
70% RH, 360 nm) for 400 hours constant. Also,
the transparency and yellowness resistance of
the material can be ensured by using Hunter lab
colorimeter Model D25 A‐2 before, during and
after the exposure to artificial aging.
59
OSAMA EL‐FEKY

Description of the new stretcher frame

The new stretcher frame (35x50 cm) was made at

the Academy of Scientific Research and Techno‐
logy, Ministry of High Education and Scientific
Research, Cairo, Egypt. It consists of four main
Figure 5. The corners of the stretcher frame were mitered with
sides, each side has a 7 cm width, the internal slot and tenon joints to allow the free movement for sides of
edges are chamfered by 5 mm to avoid direct the frame.
contact between the back of the painting and the
sides of the frame in the fixation process. The
corners were mitered with slot and tenon joints to
allow for free movement of the sides of the frame
(Figure 5). The internal surface of each side of the
frame has two teethed columns (4.5 cm) made of
Plexiglass, so that the complete frame contains
eight columns (Figure 6). A control unit was sup‐
plied to the frame, it consists of a small fixed
frame (18x33x0.5 cm), it contains eight gears
where each gear faces a teethed column, and
each gear can be turned using a constant haft
(Figure 7). Figure 6. Presence of two teethed columns in the internal sur‐
face of each side of the frame, so the complete frame contain
eight column.
An innovative method was used to fix the oil
painting on to the stretcher frame without using
any metal nails. This method depends on prepar‐
ing 4 streaks of Plexiglass (2 cm height, 0.5 cm
thickness) surrounding the outer edges of the
frame in the same dimensions, so it will surround
all edges of the oil painting during the stretch‐
ing process. All outer edges of the frame and the
facing streaks are covered by a teething layer of
rubber to restrict and control the stretching pro‐
cess of the oil painting on the frame. A column
(12 cm length) was fixed in the middle of each
streak; its latter part was screwed (4 cm length)
into place. In the screwing part, two slices of
plexiglass were fixed by two nuts, the first slice
(Figure 8, element A) used to press on the inner
part of the frame side for preliminary fixation for
the edges of the oil painting on the frame. The Figure 7. A control unit was supplied to the frame, it consists of
a small fixed frame, it contains eight gears where each gear
second slice (Figure 8, element B) was used to faces a teethed column, and each gear can be turned using a
press on the inner edge of the control unit to constant haft.

60 e‐conser vation

Figure 8. The streak contains a column in the middle; the later
part of the column was screwed. In the screwing part, two slices
of plexiglass were fixed by two nuts.
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of eight straps made of plexiglass,
in a rectangle shape without long side. A screwed gape was
made in the short side of each band to be suitable for the
entry of the nail.
avoid mobility of the edges of the frame after
fixation of the oil painting. Eight straps were
made of plexiglass with a rectangle shape without
long side (the long side has 9 cm length, while
the two short sides have 2 cm length). A screwed
gape was made in the short side of each band to
be suitable for the entry of the nail (Figure 9).
These straps were used to fix the edges of the oil
painting in the new frame, where the entry of the
e‐conser vation
AN INNOVATIVE STRETCHER FOR CANVAS PAINTINGS
Figure 10. Placing of the oil painting face down on a flat surface
followed by putting the new frame on the back of the painting.
nails in the screwed gapes causes pressure on the
straps on the streaks surrounding the oil painting
in the frame resulting in tight stretching of the
oil painting securely on the frame.
Fixation process
Firstly the painting should be placed face down
on a flat surface. The new frame should be put in
the back of the oil painting where the inner chan‐
fered edges of the four sides facing the back of the
oil painting with upward haft of gears (Figure 10).
Then, the edges of the oil painting should be bent
on the outer edges of the frame (Figure 11). The
four streaks should next be fixed surrounding the
edges of the painting, then the teethed rubber
layer, which covers the outer edges of the frame
61
OSAMA EL‐FEKY

and the facing streaks, should strictly stretch the

oil painting (Figure 12).

The first slice (A) of these streaks should be fixed

in the edges of the frame for preliminary fixation
of the paintings edges (Figure 13). Then the
eight straps should be fixed surrounding the
back edges of the frame. This process should be
carried out in all four edges of the frame, where
as each edge contains two fixed straps, one of
them is on the right and the other on the left
side (Figure 14).

The painting should be adjusted on to the new

frame and tightly stretched, using hafts of the
gears to move the teethed columns to push the
sides of the frame outwards (Figure 15). This
process is used to achieve complete control in
specific stretching on one side or more of the
frame without the need to remove the painting
from the frame.

In the final stage, the second slice (B) should be

fixed to the inner edge of the control unit to avoid
falling of the edges of the frame after fixation of
the painting; this process should be carried out
in all edges of the frame (Figures 16 and 17). The
conservator should take into consideration that
the slice (B) should be disentangled from the in‐
ner edges of the control unit before performing
the fixation of the oil painting on the frame using
the gears, and after finishing fixation process,
slice (B) should be fixed again.

Figure 11 (top). Bending of the edges of the oil painting on the

outer edges of the frame.

Figure 12 (center). Putting the streaks surrounding the

edges of the oil painting.

Figure 13 (bottom). Fixation of the first slice of the streak in

the inner edge of the frame.

62 e‐conser vation
 AN INNOVATIVE STRETCHER FOR CANVAS PAINTINGS

Results and Discussion

Using this new frame, the oil painting can be

either vertically or horizontally stretched. This
frame is used to overcome the disadvantages of
the traditional frames and provides a maximum
degree of safety and protection of the painting
over the long term, giving a complete and accur‐
ate control in the stretching of the painting to
prevent its flaccidity in case of expansion or shrink‐
age with complete safety for the oil painting. The
control unit in the new stretcher frame is used for
the complete and precise adjustment in any part
in the oil painting as it expands or contracts, so
the oil painting can be accurately adjusted on
Figure 14. Fixation of the straps surrounding the back edges of
the frame to prevent tearing. It is considered as the frame
a good method to enable specific adjustments,
without having to dismount the picture. This new
frame resists different biological infestations
either by insects or fungi, so that, it provides a
great protection for the oil painting over time. In
addition it has a greater resistance to several de‐
fects such as curving, warping, twisting, cupping,
splitting, and cracking. On the other hand, the
material of the new stretcher frame is chemically
stable as analyzed by FTIR (data not shown) and
therefore no interaction or defects are formed by
contact with the back of the oil painting, so that
no harmful effects occur. In addition its transpar‐
ency and resistance to the yellowness of aging
have been confirmed by extensive scientific tests.

Conclusions

Plexiglass is a transparent material allowing the

observation of drawings, signatures, or any other
important written words that may be found on
the back of the oil painting to be easily and ac‐
curately studied by specialists and art students
Figure 15. Adjustment of the oil painting on the new frame
without the need to remove the oil painting from using hafts of the gears to move the teethed protrusions to
its stretcher. push the sides of the frame to outside.

e‐conser vation 63
OSAMA EL‐FEKY

The fixation process of the oil painting on the

new stretcher is a new method that does not de‐
pend on the use of metal nails, so no tears or
cuts take place at the fixation area in the paint‐
ing's canvas, even by repeating the fixation
method several times. It is an innovative meth‐
od to fix the oil painting onto the frame that
does not depend on the use of any metals thus
avoiding any corrosion in the edges or deterior‐
ation of different layer of the oil painting.

This new frame is a helpful method for paintings

conservators all over the world because it main‐
tains the stability of the painting allowing fixa‐
tion and re‐fixation of the canvas on the frame
without any tears or cuts in the edges of the
Figure 16. Fixation of the second slice (B) to the inner edge of
paintings. It also protects the oil painting from the control unit to avoid falling of the edges of the frame after
cracking at the ground and paint layer levels fixation of the oil painting.

which leads to separation and loss of paint.

References

[1] O. M. El‐Feky, In the thought of restoration of

oil paintings, The Anglo‐Egyptian Bookshop,
Cairo, 2004, pp. 203‐205

[2] O. M. El‐Feky, “New Restoration Method for

a Doubled Oil Painting of Emile Bernard, 1895
A.D.”, The Fifth International Conference on
Science and Technology in Archaeology and Conser‐
vation, Granada ‐ Baeza, Spain, 7‐11 July 2007

[3] M. John and F. Mournce, The care of Antiques,

Arlington Book, London, 1980, pp. 89‐90

[4] A. J. Stamm, Wood and Cellulose Science,

Ronald Press, New York, 1964, p. 509

[5] J.C.F. Walker, B.G. Butterfield, T.A.G. Langrish,

J.M. Harris, and J.M. Uprichard, Primary Wood Pro‐ Figure 17. The oil painting after fixation on the invented
cessing, Chapman and Hall, London, 1993, p. 595 stretcher frame.

64 e‐conser vation
 AN INNOVATIVE STRETCHER FOR CANVAS PAINTINGS

[6] E. Roffael, “Volatile organic compounds and CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

formaldehyde in nature, wood and wood based
panels”, European Journal of Wood and Wood e‐conservation magazine is open to submission
Products 64(2), 2006, pp. 144‐149, of articles on a wide range of relevant topics
doi: 10.1007/s00107‐005‐0061‐0 for the cultural heritage sector.

[7] M. Ryhl‐Svendsen, “The PROPAINT Project:
Preliminary Results from Studying Gaseous Pollu‐
tants within Microclimate Frames”, Facing the
Challenges of Panel Paintings Conservation: Trends,
Treatments and Training, Getty Conservation
Institute, 2009
[8] A. Schieweck, and T. Salthammer, “Chemical
emissions and secondary reactions in museum
showcases”, 8th Indoor Air Quality 2008 Meeting,
Vienna, Austria, 17‐19 April 2008
[9] H. Phibbs, "Sealed frames for preservation",
Supplement to Picture Framing Magazine, 2002,
p. 14
[10] K. J. Saunders, Organic Polymer Chemistry,
Chapman and Hall, London, 1976, pp. 131‐133.
Next deadlines for article submission are:
for Issue 22, November 2011 – submissions
due 30th September 2011
for Issue 23, February 2012 – submissions
due 15th December 2011
Nevertheless, you can always submit your
manuscript when it is ready. Between the
receival of the manuscript until the final
publication may pass up to 3 months
according with:
‐ the number of the manuscripts on hold,
submitted earlier by other authors
‐ the release date of the upcoming issue
‐ the pre‐allocated space in the magazine
to each section

Please check our publication guidelines

for more information.
OSAMA M. EL‐FEKY
Conservator‐Restorer
Contact: osmelfeky@yahoo.com

Osama El‐Feky is a conservator‐restorer specia‐

lized in oil paintings. He has a Ba and MA in Con‐
servation from the Department of Conservation
and Restoration from the Faculty of Archaeology
of Cairo University, Egypt. In 2003 he obtained
his PhD from the same university with a thesis on
comparative evaluation of materials and methods
used for the conservation of oil paintings. He
currently works as Assistant Professor at the
Department of Conservation and Restoration of
Cairo University.

e‐conser vation 65
 DETERIORATION AND
RATES OF WEATHERING
OF THE MONUMENTAL
ROCK INSCRIPTIONS AT
WADI HAMMAMAT,
EGYPT

By Hesham Abbas Kmally

 DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

The famous ornamental stone known in antiquity as ''Bekhen‐stone'' comes from the Wadi Hammamat
area and it has been used for ornamental purposes since the ancient Egyptian times. The Wadi
Hammamat is one of the most ancient archaeological sites in Egypt because of the important rock
inscriptions scattered in the area, dating from before the earliest Egyptian dynasties to the late period.
These rock inscriptions suffered from serious damage due to natural weathering, pollution, salt
efflorescence and other physicochemical weathering. Field observations referred that hard cement
mortars were used for re‐pointing the greywacke rock inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat. The different rate
of expansion and contraction between the cement mortar and the greywacke rocks will eventually lead to
the separation of the two materials. This paper tries to clarify the main types of deterioration and
measure the chemical alteration and geological characteristics of the monumental greywacke rocks. In
order to achieve this, several studies were performed using a petrographic microscope, SEM micrographs,
X‐ray fluorescence and X‐ray diffraction analysis. The results have shown that the greywackes have a
moderate weathering and high content of ferromagnesian minerals.

Introduction

In Wadi Hammamat there are outcrops for about
two kilometers of the Bekhen‐stone (conglomer‐
ates, silt stone and greywackes) that were quar‐
ried by the ancient Egyptians from the Predynas‐
tic times until the Roman period. These rocks,
called the Hammamat formation, are a thick se‐
quence of late Precambrian age distributed in the
Eastern Desert of Eygpt. The Wadi Hammamat
area can be found halfway of the road between
Qift and Qusier. This area contains hundreds of
hieroglyphic and hieratic rock inscriptions (Fig‐
ure 1), texts that represent royal and private
names varying in length from a single word to
several lines. Some inscriptions show a number
of cartouches of several kings of Egypt who sent
several military and quarrying expeditions to ex‐
tract greywacke rocks. These rocks were used to
make several statues, vessels, sarcophagi and
other ornamental structural elements from the
Predynastic time to the Roman period. Romans
built watchtowers on the tops of the mountains
to guard the road, wells and quarries (Figure 2).
The Hammamat quarry still contains remains of
ancient quarrymen's huts on the north side of
Qift–Qusier road, built with dark greywacke and
silt stone (Figure 3). The region also includes Bir
Hammamat, located in the Central Eastern Desert
of Egypt at Wadi Hammamat, which is a Roman
watering station serving traffic travelling along
the Qift‐Qusier road (Figure 4).
The Hammamat Group includes a thick sequence
of unmetamorphosed, clastic, coarse‐medium
and fine grained sediments of molasse facies
[1, 2].
The Hammamat sediments formed by alluvial fan
braided stream [3] and composed mainly of con‐
glomerate, greywacke, arkose, siltstone and
little of mudstone [4], are affected by a very low
grade regional metamorphism, characterised by
the presence of muscovite, sericite and chlorite
[5]. In time, the rock inscriptions were affected
by several types of deterioration, namely exfoli‐
ation, flakes, pits, joints, fissures, overloading,
thermal expansion, dissolution and salt efflores‐
cence. The Hammamat quarries have influence
by natural hazards, including torrential rains and
flash floods, salt efflorescence, mechanical and
chemical weathering. In most cases these hazards

e‐conser vation 67
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY

Figure 1. Example of rock inscriptions from Wadi Hammamat.

and weathering agents work together influencing

or strengthening each other. Moisture and rains
are considered the primary factors of deteriora‐
tion of the rock inscriptions in the studied area.
The interaction between the stone and moisture
or rain results in the appearance of destructive
subsurface patterns such as flaking, crumbling
and cracking of the stone surface.

Granular disintegration represents the most im‐

portant weathering process as result from the
hydration and dehydration of salts and hydrolysis
processes. The intensive alteration of greywacke
rocks is very porous, individual mineral grains are
weakened and bonding between them is lost du‐
ring witting‐drying cycles of moisture and salt
crystallisation, ultimately causing flakes and gra‐
nular disintegration of the inscriptions [6, 7].

In arid or semi‐arid regions insolation weather‐

ing, the alternating warming and cooling of rock
Figure 2. Roman stone watchtowers on the top of hills. surfaces through solar heating, is capable of

68 e‐conser vation

Figure 3. Remains of workmen huts.
breaking up rock inscriptions through thermal
action [8]. Insolation weathering causes fracture
of the minerals on the rock surface while the
great temperature difference between the rock
layers causes exfoliation [9], making the grey‐
wacke rock to become weaker and more deform‐
able. The majority of the rock fragments and
different grains in the Hammamat sediments are
composed of several elements with different
chemical weathering. Thus, the major element
contents (wt%) in the sedimentary rocks were
used for calculating the rate of chemical altera‐
tion and paleo‐weathering conditions [10‐14].
Materials and methods
Fresh and weathered samples were collected from
the rock inscriptions at Wadi Hammamat. The
altered samples of siltstone and greywacke sur‐
faces were studied by polarizing microscopy (PL),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X‐ray fluo‐
rescence (XRF) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) to
determine their mineral composition, alteration
products, morphological and the degree of chemi‐
cal weathering. The major elements of greywacke
rocks were determined by XRF at the central labo‐
ratories of Egyptian Geological Survey, Cairo. Grey‐
wacke samples were coated with gold and examined
e‐conser vation
DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT
Figure 4. Bir Hammamat, a Roman watering station for
travellers.
by SEM in the laboratories of the Scientific Mobark
City in Alexandria.
The present study tries to define the deterioration
features and describe the conservation state of
the rock inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat. A de‐
tailed petrographic study covering about 20 thin
sections was also performed.
Results and discussion
Field observation
Through a complete survey carried out by visual
observation and digital photography at Wadi
Hammamat quarries, we realised that there are
different deterioration processes with varying
degrees of weathering and decay features in the
studied area. According to Fassina, all sediment‐
ary, metamorphic and igneous rocks exposed to
a weathering agents deteriorate continually as a
result of physical and chemical processes [16].
Geologically, the Hammamat stone belong to the
sedimentary rocks and have several weakness
zones such as bedding, lamination, spherical and
oval nodules from soft material. These zones are
weaker than the rest of the rock, being more sus‐
69
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY
ceptible to weathering and erosion. Mechanically
or structurally, the Hammamat stone inscriptions
are predominantly dissected by many joint sets
of different attitudes and separated by weathering
processes as rectangular, angular and cuboidal
joint blocks (Figure 5A). The process of jointing
greatly increases the amount of surface space
exposed to weathering. These joints in the rock
allow the circulation of water and facilitate the
disintegration of minerals by hydrolysis processes,
leading to more mechanical and chemical weath‐
ering. Several small and large pieces of greywacke
are separated from the rock inscription walls due
to the combination of bedding planes and vertical
joints or inclined fractures (Figure 5B). It is also
worth mentioning that the fall down of greywacke
blocks lead to damage of many inscriptions.
Wadi Hammamat was subject to heavy rains in
1925, 1954, 1960, 1979, 1987, 1991 and 1996
with an average amount of rain fall of 40‐300x106
mm3 over the area [17]. Several flash floods were
also recorded in the Eastern Desert during the
last decades (1969, 1980, 1984, 1985 and 1994)
[18]. The rock slides in the area are attributed to
structural features and a period of very high rain‐
fall. The area has an arid desert climate, very high
moisture in the early morning, appearing as con‐
densation of water droplets on the surface of the
greywacke and siltstone. Rocks may deteriorated
and weaken by moisture and the action of water
may reduce the compressive strength of sandstone
up to 60% [19, 20]. The weathered rock inscrip‐
tion surfaces show a dark brown ferruginous layer
a few millimetres thick (Figure 5C) as a result of
chemical processes (water action) that change
ferrous iron to ferric iron in greywacke rocks.
Also, chemical weathering leads to dissolution of
calcite and clay nodules (Figure 5D) that create
many fractures and extension fissures connected
with the empty nodules (Figure 5E). The relative
humidity (RH average) of the Eastern Desert
70
ranges between 43% in summer to 48% in winter,
while the temperature ranges between 21°C and
41°C and increase from north to south [18]. The
temperature changes of the greywacke surface
are due to warming by the sun during the day
and cooling by night. The expansion and con‐
traction are important thermophysical factors
affecting their capacity to transform heat into
mechanical external energy (tensile and shear‐
ing stresses) leading to fractures and flakes in
greywacke rocks. Spalling and flaking were ob‐
served on the rock inscriptions as a result of the
thermophysical action (Figure 5F). Contour scal‐
ing phenomena was observed commonly in the
studied area as several lamellar parallel the grey‐
wacke surface as a result of thermophysical action
and salt crystallisation (Figure 5G).
Use of hard cement mortars for re‐pointing
greywacke rocks
This is probably the most common form of human‐
induced stone decay. Sedimentary rock walls need
to ‘breathe’ through porous to allow water to
easily evaporate from them. Most cement mortars
are harder, massive and less porous materials, so
any evaporation is concentrated in the face of
the rock rather than in the mortars filling joints,
fractures and cleavages of greywacke rocks. This
result in soluble salts crystallising in the surface
layers of the greywackes and not in the adjoining
mortar leading finally to flakes and crumbles of
the rock rather than the pointing (Figure 5H).
Interactions between the atmosphere and grey‐
wackes or adjoining mortars lead to the formation
of altered surface layers and producing damage
in the original greywackes structure. The appear‐
ance of salt efflorescence deposits over the rock
inscriptions is common as a result of the reaction
of Portland cement with the rock and/or atmo‐
sphere pollution (Figure 5I). The main cause of
damage of the cement mortars and their adjoining
e‐conser vation
 DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Figure 5 (left to right, up tp down). Deterioration aspects of Hammamat quarry.(A) Several joint sets produced cuboidal jointing
blocks. (B) The vertical joints intersecting the bedding plane and inclined fractures lead to damage the rock inscriptions. (C) The
greywacke rock surfaces appear as a dark brown ferruginous layer. (D) Dissolution of calcite and clay nodules leads to serious
loss of rock inscriptions. (E) Extension fissures developing on the rock inscriptions. (F) The mechanical spalling in the rock in‐
scription. (G) Contour scaling on the greywacke surfaces as a result of high salt content near the surface. (H) Rock inscriptions flakes
and crumbles as a result of repairs with Portland cement. (I) Whitish deposit over the surface due to the reaction of Portland ce‐
ment with greywacke rock inscriptions.

e‐conser vation 71
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY
rock inscriptions is probably sulphating formation,
in particular of gypsum and anhydrite. Sulphate
damage is closely related to the location of the
cement repair, indicating that the sulphate source
is internal, obtained from a sulphur‐rich clinker
phase in the cement mortars. Sulphates are also
obtained from atmosphere pollution and soils.
The different rate of expansion and contraction
between the cement mortar and the greywackes
will eventually lead to the two materials separat‐
ing, a phenomenon referred to as ‘bossing’.
Petrography of the altered greywackes
(Polarizing Microscope)
A – Greywackes
The examination of the greywacke samples thin
section under polarized light microscope showed
that the greywacke rock composed mainly of quartz,
plagioclase, epidote and lithic fragments of sand
size embedded in a finely crystalline pelitic ground‐
mass (Figure 6A). The pelitic groundmass consists
of chlorite, calcite, quartz, musco‐vite, sericite,
epidote and iron oxides. Lithic frag‐ments are
subangular to rounded, composed mainly of glassy
fragments and reworked siltstones. Quartz occurs
as subangular to subrounded grains and stained
by fine grained dust of ferric iron oxides as a
result of alteration. Some quartz crystals show
turbid colour, fractures and opening of microfrac‐
tures as a result of mechanical external energy
(tensile and shearing stresses) (Figure 6B).
Plagioclase grains dissected by microfaults and
partially altered to epidote and sericite (hydro‐
mica) as a result of mechanical and chemical
weathering (Figure 6C). Also, some of the weath‐
ered plagioclase grain is completely kaolinitized
due to chemical weathering. In some slices, plagio‐
clase lamellae are bent as a result of deformation in
greywacke rock. Sericite occurs as randomly small
flakes and scaly aggregates that are frequently
72
interlacing the quartz and plagioclase grains. The
scaly aggregates of sericite filling the fractures
in the quartz grains and replaced several plagio‐
clase grains as a result of chemical activity of
water and mechanical stress action, ultimately
causes disintegration of the greywacke rocks.
Calcite occurs as original mineral either as alte‐
ration product of feldspar minerals or as a result
of the chemical alteration by water. It appears as
irregular patches scattered in the interspaces
between the other constituents as a cement joint
between grains and sometimes occurs as nodules
scattered through the greywacke rocks. Epidote
occurs as original mineral or as alteration products
of feldspar minerals. Chlorite occurs as original
mineral in the groundmass that cemented the
greywacke rocks. Chlorite coats the quartz and
plagioclase grains and gives the green pigmenta‐
tion of greywacke rocks. Iron oxides are repre‐
sented mainly by irregular granules, dust and
films of hematite covering the other mineral
constituents in the greywacke rocks. The grey‐
wacke appears stained with a dark brown colour,
indicating the presence of iron oxides suggesting
extensive invasion of water and exposure to
oxidizing conditions for a long period of time.
B‐ Foliated greywackes
These rocks are fine grained, greenish grey in
colour and foliated. They are composed mainly of
subangular to subrounded quartz, plagioclase,
clastic grains together with lithic fragments of
sand size set in fine grained matrix of silty sand
size consisting of quartz, chlorite, calcite, musco‐
vite, epidote and iron oxides. The foliation is
raised by the parallel arrangement of quartz,
plagioclase, lithic fragments, chlorite and musco‐
vite. The weathered plagioclase grain is partially
kaolinitized and replacement by calcite patches
due to chemical weathering.
e‐conser vation

Figure 6 (left to right). The examination of the greywacke samples thin section under cross polarised microscope.(A) grey‐
wacke rock composed mainly of quartz, plagioclase and epidote embedded in pelitic groundmass. (B) Quartz crystals occur
fractures and opening of microfractures. (C) Plagioclase grains dissected by microfaults and partially altered to epidote and
sericite as a result of mechanical and chemical weathering.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
SEM micrographs of the deteriorate rock inscrip‐
tions show that the greywacke surface is rough,
porous, crumbling, and fractures have flakes,
scales and etch pits due to alteration and weath‐
ering processes (Figure 7A). Mechanical weath‐
ering effects take place in hot deserts such as
Wadi Hammamat. The absorbed sun heat causes
not only heating of the rock surface but also
external mechanical stress for linear and volume
expansion or contraction of the rock and its
minerals [21]. These stresses are causing many
fissures and flakes in greywacke as seen in SEM
micrographs (Figure 7B). Several rock fragments
weather and the surfaces can be seen rough, scaled
and flaked as a result of the thermal action. On
the other hand, the action of rain, moisture and
groundwater on the greywackes can cause a diffe‐
rent expansion and consequently contraction of
minerals upon drying. Between wet and dry zones
a shear force may set up and causes many fractures
both between and within mineral grains. The SEM
micrographs of grey‐wackes show many deep
fissures inside the internal structure and the
opening of the mineral grains boundaries as a
e‐conser vation
DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT
result of water action. Water weathering leads to
changes of the mechanical behaviour and strength
parameters of the rock. The rock strength para‐
meters were changed by the development of
crack fractures and microfractures due to water
absorption [22].
Pits are also present on the studied samples, with
diameters and depths ranging from macroscopic
to microscopic scales. Secondary minerals such as
chlorite, sericite, kaolinite and calcite typically
cemented the greywackes. With prolonged wet‐
ting and draying, these secondary minerals beco‐
me soft and fail readily, creating numerous pits.
For instance, the dissolution and leaching of
calcite by acidic water lead to the formation of
irregular pores which may be randomly distribu‐
ted. Moreover, the increase in number and size of
pits in the greywacke is due to the intermineral
space that results from transformed several pri‐
mary minerals into fine aggregates from secon‐
dary minerals have total volume less than the
total volume of the primary minerals (Figure 7G).
For instance, several feldspars are pitting as a
result of partially or completely altered to seri‐
cite (hydromica) and clay minerals, through the
73
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY
Figure 7 (left to right). The SEM micrographs of external deteriorated greywacke surfaces (rock inscriptions).
(A) The weathered greywacke surfaces are porous and fractures have flakes and scales. (B) Many fissures and flakes of rock
break away from the greywacke surfaces (C) Kaolinite grains and several secondary minerals contain many residual pores
between them.
dissolution and leaching processes. Generally the
connected pores and microfracture within grey‐
wacke minerals act as channels through which
the soluble salts and the alteration products mi‐
grate and cause many deterioration features in
greywackes. These soluble salts entrapped in the
pores, between grains and cover the greywacke
surfaces, often causing microfractures, pores and
fractures. In some weathered greywacke close to
the position of the Portland cement mortars, the
SEM micrographs show that the gypsum salts pre‐
cipitate in pore spaces and coatings the calcite
grains as a result of chemical processes. Ollier
stated that a thermal and hydra‐tion stresses
developed when salts precipitated in the pores
and cracks between or in the grains of the rock
[6]. The salt crystals expand and exerts hydra‐
tion pressure against the pore and crack walls
when hydrates. Ultimately the thermal and hydra‐
tion processes lead to disintegration of the grey‐
wacke rock. Sulphates may be coming from the
atmosphere (pollution) or cement mortars.
Interactions between the greywackes and the
atmosphere or adjoining mortars leads to the
formation of gypsum salts, producing damage to
the original structural of greywacke rocks. SEM
74
micrographs of some greywacke samples adjoining
the cement mortars show crumple of the gypsum
crust and rolled the outer layer of greywacke,
ultimately separated from the rock inscriptions.
Commonly, the salt weathering leads to flaking
and scaling the stone surface [23, 24].
X–Ray Diffraction Analysis
Four samples of greywacke rock inscriptions were
collected and studied by X‐ray diffraction to de‐
termine their mineral composition. The results of
the analyses is shown in Table I. The altered grey‐
wacke sample from the Hammamat quarry wall
consists of quartz (SiO2), microcline (KALSi3O8),
plagioclase, calcite (CaCO3), halite (NaCl), anhyd‐
rite (CaSO4), iron oxide – nontronite (smectite
group), orthoclase, hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite
(Fe3O4), halloysite, kaolinite (hydrated aluminum
silicate), greenalite (Fe2+, Fe3+) 2‐3 SiO2O5(OH)4,
chloritoid, magnesio chloritoid and forsterite
(Mg2SiO4).
The clay minerals shown in Table I are represented
mainly by nontronite (smectite group) kaolinite
e‐conser vation
 DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Table I. Results of X–ray diffraction analysis of greywacke rocks from Wadi Hammamat.

Sample Material Type Chemical composition

Quartz (51.65%), Microcline (3.2%), Calcite (5.89%), Halite

1 (9.66%), Anhydrite (6.25%), Iron oxide (6.76%), Nontronite
(smectite group, 5.58%), Ca‐plagioclase (anorthite, 1.14%),
Epidote (7.39%), and Chloritoid (Brittle mica, 2.48%)

Greywacke rock Quartz (63.65%), orthoclase (14.51%), Hematite (3.63%),

2
from Wadi Anhydrite (13.56%), Epidote (4.65%)
Hammamat

Quartz (62.35%), Microcline (6.01%), Calcite (8.11%),

3
Magnetite (8.3%), Hematite (11.97%)
Chloritoid (3.25%)

Quartz (53.65 %), Halloysite (4.9%), Kaolinite (hydrated aluminum

4
silicate) (4.56%), Gypsum (10.46 %), Hematite (4.33%), Greenalite
(Fe2+, Fe3+) 2‐3 SiO2O5 (OH)4‐ (8.5%), Magnesio chloritoid (5.7%),
Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) (7.9%)

and halloysite, commonly dispersed as a result of X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis

chemical alteration of feldspar minerals and ferro‐
magnesian minerals. The clay minerals normally
occur as alteration products, filling the fractures,
microfractures and cleavages. The change of the
moisture content of clay minerals can cause signi‐
ficant problems related to the high swelling pres‐
sures such as the opening up of microfractures and
fractures and lead to rock falls. The crystallisation
of soluble salts in pores and cracks between or in
the grains of rock is one of the major causes of
greywackes decay in nature [25, 26]. Halite and
gypsum accumulation occurs on the faces of the
Hammamat stone inscriptions due to the influence
of meteoric water, conden‐sation, groundwater
and Portland cement. XRD analyses have shown
the predominance of gyp‐sum in their crystalline
phases (gypsum and anhydrite). The accumulation
of gypsum and halite salts behind the rock inscrip‐
tion surfaces lead to a detachment of the stone
material in the form of granular disintegration,
contour scaling and flaking.
Three samples from the altered greywacke rock
inscriptions were collected and analysed by XRF
to determine their elements. The results of this
analysis are listed in Table II.
There are some differences between the chemical
composition of greywacke rocks in amounts of
SiO2, TiO2, MnO, K2O, Fe2O3, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, CaO
and Na2O. These differences may be due to the
alteration and deterioration processes. The high
amount of Na2O in greywacke samples is attributed
to the greater amount of Na‐rich plagioclase and
alkali feldspar. The greywacke samples have a
high content of iron oxides due to the mineral
alteration and high content of MgO due to the
high amount of phyllosilicate minerals such as
chlorite, mica and clay minerals. Moreover, the
CaO content is higher in greywacke samples, which
can attributed to the greater amount of Ca‐rich
plagioclase, epidote and carbonate minerals.

e‐conser vation 75
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY

Table I. Results of X–ray diffraction analysis of greywacke rocks from Wadi Hammamat.

Element Contents (wt %)

Samples

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Total

1 65.08 0.58 13.25 6.05 0.06 2.51 9.65 2.03 0.75 99.96

2 64.22 0.70 13.90 6.60 0.15 5.10 4.65 2.62 0.98 98.92

3 66.69 0.82 14.50 2.95 0.10 2.12 6.17 4.70 1.19 99.24

Chemical Classification Degree of Weathering

Different diagrams were constructed to classify
the sedimentary rocks according to the chemical
analysis such those of Pettijohn et al. [27], Crook
[28], and Blatt et al. [29].The analysed samples
were plotted using Blatt’s Ternary diagram [29].
This diagram indicates that the plotted samples
fall in the greywacke field lying close to the Fe2O3
+ MgO field. This is again confirmed by plotting
the samples on the Log (Na2O/K2O) versus Log
(SiO2 /Al2O3) diagram, suggested by Pettijohn et
al. [27], where the studied samples mostly fall in
the greywacke field. Furthermore, the samples
were plotted on the Na2O ‐ K2O diagram by Crook
[28] where the all greywacke samples fall in the
quartz‐intermediate field. Combining the three
diagrams, the greywacke rock inscriptions can be
described as ferromagnesian rich and quartz‐
intermediate greywacke. The chemical classifica‐
tion diagrams also prove that the greywackes
have a high content of ferromagnesian minerals
such as chlorite, mica, chloritoid (brittle mica),
Magnesio chloritoid and forsterite (Mg2SiO4) as
detected by XRD. The petrographic study suggests
that the ground‐mass in greywacke consists essen‐
tially in ferro‐magnesian minerals and calcite. It
is know that the ferromagnesian minerals were
rapidly altered as a result of chemical processes
and converted into clay minerals.
The degree of chemical weathering for greywacke
rocks can be quantified by applying the Chemical
Index of Alteration (CIA) [15]. The CIA was used
to quantify and to calculate the degree of rock
alteration and deterioration [10]. The CIA can be
obtained by using the following equation:
[Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] × 100. If
the CIA value less than 50% it indicates that the
rock is unweathered. In case the CIA value ranges
between 50% and 75%, it indicates that the rock
have a moderate weathering While if the value if
more than 75% this indicate that the rocks suf‐
fered strong weathering. The CIA values of the
samples analysed were of 58, 69 and 73, indica‐
ting a moderate weathering. This index reflects
the chemical alteration of plagioclase, orthoclase,
microcline and mica to kaolinite. Generally, this
index is used for calculating the total chemical
weathering of greywackes in Wadi Hammamat.
Conclusions
The greywacke rock inscriptions have significantly
deteriorated in the last decades. Several types of
rock deterioration can be found, namely exfolia‐
tion, flakes, efflorescence, current detachment
of stone material and deformation. The site is
affected by a series of joints, faults, cracking,

76 e‐conser vation

sliding movements, dislocation block and rock
falls. It is worth mentioning that the fall down of
the stone blocks leads to the damage of many
rock inscriptions carving on greywacke rocks.
Furthermore, two types of the failure might result
from thermal weathering (insolation weathering),
including exfoliation and disintegration of the
stone. In addition, water from rainwater, moisture
and groundwater assist in the weathering of
greywacke minerals, increasing the chemical
weathering and leading to the formation of clay
minerals. The petrographic analysis reveals that
all the greywacke rocks are mainly cementing by
calcite, iron oxides, sericite, chlorite and clay
minerals. The ferromagnesian (chlorite, chlori‐
toid, magnesio chloritoid and forsterite), iron
oxide, calcite and clay minerals were easily al‐
tered and removed by chemical weathering. With
increasing grade of the chemical weathering by
the dissolution of calcite and clay minerals the
amount of microfractures and voids increases in
the greywacke rocks and causing damage of the
rock inscriptions. The XRF analysis reveals that
the greywackes have a high content of Fe2O3 due
to the alteration processes and the high content
of MgO due to the high amount of ferromagnesian
minerals. Gypsum, anhydrite and halite were the
common salts developing in the greywacke rock
inscriptions. High gypsum content near the sur‐
face is a crucial factor for flaking, pitting and
contour scaling, when the areas with high load of
halite are characterised by a visibly darker weak
surface. Gypsum and anhydrite formation cause
damage of the Portland cement mortars and
their adjoining rock inscriptions. The reaction
between the cement mortar and the greywackes
will eventually lead to flake, crumble and deterio‐
rate greywacke rocks. The chemical classification
diagrams confirmed that the greywacke rock can
be described as ferromagnesian rich quartz‐inter‐
mediate and have a high content of ferromagne‐
sian minerals as detected from petrographic
e‐conser vation
DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT
studied, XRD and XRF analysis . These minerals
are easily altered and finally transformed into
clay minerals and cause intensive disintegration
of greywacke rock inscriptions. Moreover, the CIA
values of the analysed greywacke samples indica‐
ted a moderate to less strong weathering. Conse‐
quently, we believe that the temperature change,
moisture, rain, salts, and incorrect restoration
representing the very important factors lead to
the disintegration of greywacke rocks.
Geochemically, the greywacke deterioration can
be attributed to the dissolution of calcite, clay
and iron oxides. Feldspar and ferromagnesian
minerals by intensive alteration were easily remo‐
ved, altered into iron oxides and clay minerals
very rapidly and cause different deterioration
features in the greywacke rock inscriptions.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Dr. Mohamed Fathy,
geology in the laboratory of Egyptian Geological
Survey in Cairo for his helping during laboratory
work. This work has been supported by the High
Institute of Tourism and Restoration,
Alexandria‐Egypt.
References
[1] M.K. Akaad, and A.M. Nowier, “Geology and
lithostratigraphy of the Arabian Desert Orogenic
Belt of Egypt between Latitudes 25º 30' and 26º 30'
N”, Bulletin of the Institute of Applied Geology 4(3),
King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, 1980, pp.
127‐134
[2] M.K. Akaad, and A.M. Nowier., “Lithostrati‐
graphy of the Hammamat Um Seleimat district,
Eastern Desert, Egypt”, Nature 223, 1969, pp.
284‐285
77
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY
[3] B. Grothaus, D. Eppler and R. Ehrlich, “Deposi‐
tional environment and structural implication of
the Hammamat formation”, Annals of the Geolo‐
gical Survey of Egypt 9, 1979, pp. 564‐590
[4] M. Ghanem, A.A. Dardir, M.H. Francis, A.A.
Zalata, and K.M. Abu Zeid, “Basement rocks in
Eastern Desert of Egypt north of latitude 16º40'N”,
Annals of the Geological Survey of Egypt 3, 1973
[5] A.‐E.A. Ahmed, M.L. Kabesh, and S.G. Mawas,
“Dokhan Volcanics of Abu Gawa area and their
epiclastic derivatives Central Eastern Desert,
Egypt”, Bulletin of the Faculty of Science, Assiut
University 17, 1988, pp. 195–222
[6] C.D. Ollier, Weathering, Longman, New York,
1984
[7] G. Benito, M. J. Machado and C. Sancho, “Sand‐
stone weathering processes damaging prehistoric
rock paintings at the Albarracin Cultural Park, NE
Spain”, Environmental Geology 22(1), 1993, pp.
71‐79, doi:10.1007/BF00775287
[8] M.J. Selby, Earth's changing surface. An intro‐
duction to Geomorphology, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1985
[9] L.‐P. Zhu, J.‐C. Wang, and B.‐Y. Li, “The impact
of solar radiation upon rock weathering at low
temperature: A laboratory study”, Permafrost
and Periglacial Processes 14, 2003, pp. 61‐67,
doi: 10.1002/ppp.440
[10] H.W. Nesbitt, and G.M. Young, “Early Prote‐
rozoic climates and plate motions inferred from
major element chemistry of lutites”, Nature 299,
1982, pp. 715–717
[11] J.R. Price, M.A.Velbel, “Chemical weather‐
ing indices applied to weathering profiles develo‐
78
ped on heterogeneous felsic metamorphic parent
rocks”, Chemical Geology 202, 2003, pp. 397‐416
[12] Z. Jin, J. Cao, J. Wu and S. Wang, “A Rb/Sr
record of catchment weathering response to
Holocene climate change in Inner Mongolia”,
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31, 2006,
pp. 285‐291, doi: 10.1002/esp.1243
[13] S.L. Yang, F. Ding, Z.L. Ding., “Pleistocene
chemical weathering history of Asian arid and
semi‐arid regions recorded in loess deposits of
China and Tajikistan”, Geochimica et Cosmochi‐
mica Acta 70, 2006, pp. 1695‐1709,
doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.12.012
[14] S. Ceryan, “New Chemical Weathering Indices
for Estimating the Mechanical Properties of Rocks:
A Case Study from the Kürtün Granodiorite, NE
Turkey”, Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 17, 2008,
pp. 187‐207
[15] D.E. Kirkwood, H.W. Nesbitt, “Formation and
evolution of soils from an acidified watershed:
Plastic Lake, Ontario, Canada”, Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 55, 1991, pp. 1295–1308,
doi: 10.1016/0016‐7037(91)90308‐R
[16] V. Fassina, “Atmospheric pollutants respon‐
sible for stone decay. Wet and dry surface deposi‐
tion of air pollutants on stone and the formation
of black scabs”, in F. Zezza (ed.), Weathering and
Air pollution, First Course, Community of Mediter‐
ranean Universities, University School of Monu‐
ment Conservation, Mario Adda Editore, Bari,
1991, pp. 67–86
[17] M.B. Ismaiel, “Geoarchaeological Study on
Rock Art Sites, with Special Emphasis on Gebel‐
El Silsilah and Wadi Hammamat”, Qena 7(2),
Faculty of Arts‐ South Valley University, 1996,
pp. 7‐59
e‐conser vation

[18] A.A. Abdel Monein, “Overview of the geomor‐
phological and hydrogeological characteristics of
the Eastern Desert of Egypt”, Hydrogeology Journal
13(2), 2005, pp. 416‐425, doi:10.1007/s10040‐
004‐0364‐y
[19] K.I. Meiklejohn, Aspects of the weathering of
the Clarens formation in the Kwazulu‐Natal drakens‐
berg. Implications for the preservation of indige‐
nous rock art, PhD Thesis, University of Natal,
Pietermaritzburg, 1995, unpublished
[20] F.G. Bell, Engineering properties of soils and
rocks, Butterworths, London, 1983
[21] S.M. Soliman, Thermal weathering of sedimen‐
tary ancient monuments, Department of Geology,
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, 1999
[22] P. A. Rebinder, L. A. Shreiner, K. F. Zhigach,
Hardness reducers in drilling: a physico‐chemical
method of facilitating the mechanical destruction
of rocks during drilling, Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, 1948
[23] D.A. Robinson, and R.B.G. Williams, (eds),
Rock Art and Landform Evolution, John Wiley and
Sons, Chichester, 1994
[24] S. Hoerle, “A preliminary study of the weath‐
ering activity at the rock art site of Game pass
shelter(Kwazulu‐Natal) in relation to its conserva‐
tion”, South African Journal of Geology 108(2),
2005, pp. 297‐308, doi: 10.2113/108.2.297
[25] I.S. Evans, “Salt crystallisation and weath‐
ering: a review”, Revue de Geomorphologie Dyna‐
mique 19, 1970, pp. 153‐77
[26] E.M. Winkler, and P.C. Singer, “Crystallisation
pressure of salts in stone and concrete”, Geological
Society of America Bulletin 83, 1972, pp. 3509‐3514
e‐conser vation
DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT
[27] F.J. Pettijohn, P.E. Potter, R. Siever, Sand
and Sandstone, Springer‐Verlag, New York, 1972
[28] K.A.W. Crook, “Lithogenesis and geotectonios:
the significance of compositional variations in
flysch arenites (greywackes)”, in R.H. Doti, and
R. H. Shaver (eds.), Modem and Ancient Geosyn‐
clinal Sedimentation, Society of Economic Paleon‐
tologists and Mineralogists Spec. Publ. 19, 1974,
pp. 304‐310
[29] H. Blatt, G.V. Middleton, R.C. Murray, Origin
of Sedimentary Rocks, Prentice‐Hall, 1980
[30] W.F. Hume, Geology of Egypt, Vol. 2, Part I.
The Metamorphic Rocks, Geological Survey of
Egypt, 1934
HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY
Conservation scientist
Contact: heshamabbas@windowslive.com
Hesham Kmally is a conservation scientist
specialised in conservation of rock inscriptions.
He obtained his Master degree in Geochemistry,
Petrography and Structural Studies of Rocks from
South Valley University, Egypt in 1999. He was
director of the Conservation Center at the Nubia
Museum in Alexandria, Egypt up to 2003, after
which he pursued a PhD in Archaeological Quar‐
rying and Conservation of Rock Inscriptions in
Aswan from the same university in 2005. He now
works at the Conservation Department of the
High Institute of Tourism, Hotel Management
and Restoration, Egypt.
79
educatio
SUSTAINABILITY IN THE PRESERVATION
OF CULTURAL HERITAGE THROUGH
EDUCATION

Training in Wood Conservation and

Restoration in Malta

By
Ninette Sammut
 TRAINING IN WOOD CONSERVATION IN MALTA

Sustainability in the preservation of cultural heritage is multi‐faceted. Education is one of the facets.
Courses in conservation, restoration and conservation science help reach this aim by bringing together
policy makers, enforcement units, educational institutions, the employment sector and people with
different backgrounds of knowledge, skills and competences. This is the outcome of a three year project
co‐funded by the European Union that Heritage Malta has conducted as the lead partner. Through this
project four accredited courses were designed within the European Qualifications Framework (EQF),
namely at EQF levels 1, 3, 6 and 7. The courses at EQF levels 1, 3 and 7 have been implemented
throughout the period of this project with the courses at EQF levels 1 and 3 to be established as part of
the prospectus of two of the national educational institutions, namely the Lifelong Learning Directorate
in the former case and the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) which is mainly
responsible for vocational education and training in the latter.

Introduction people in conservation and restoration, hence

The type of objects that need to be safeguarded
range from organic to inorganic, from natural to
man‐made and from a single material to compos‐
ite materials. Furthermore, the object materials
could have been sourced within the country or
imported.
Natural resources in Malta are limited to stone,
sun and sea. Wood was also one of its natural re‐
sources but through its extensive use through the
ages to make way primarily for agriculture and
grazing of animals [1] and then for structural,
technologic, storage and decorative purposes [2],
it became a treasured material. Cultural identity
is kneaded within such purposes and hence the
importance to preserve, conserve and restore
wood objects/structures. Yet, the lack of know‐
ledge about how to cherish this material, the per‐
formance of interventions within the considera‐
tion of conservation‐restoration ethics and the
desire to avoid maintenance in a fast moving world
are main issues that are leading to the destruction
of this local patrimony.
The need to preserve wood objects/structures
brought about the need to educate and train
the design and implementation of this project co‐
funded by the European Union, European Social
Funding (ESF). The title of this project is ‘Wood
CPR: Education and Training in Wood Conservation
and Restoration’.
The courses in this project were developed to give
its participants the opportunity to realise that
one is living in a global society where everybody
is a citizen of the world, according to Whithead’s
philosophy of education [3]. This approach seeks
to link new and past knowledge acquired in diffe‐
rent ways and from different contexts to different
forms of knowledge within the established disci‐
plines. That is linking competences, skills and
knowledge acquired throughout one’s life while
bringing people together.
Wood as material heritage in Malta
Although wood is not considered one of Malta’s
natural resources, the existence of objects made
from this material indicates its extensive use
through time. The species of such wood is not
limited to one but to a variety of species which
could be found locally or imported. The uses of
the various types of wood depended on its

e‐conser vation 81
NINETTE SAMMUT

physical properties, morphology and anatomy.

Such characteristics determined whether the par‐
ticular type of wood would be used to construct or
embellish an object/structure, to manufacture a
piece of fine or utilitarian furniture, to seal or
support a building structure, and as a means of
transport.

The concept of reuse was more practised in the

past. This can be observed through scientific in‐
vestigations of panel paintings which have shown
evidence of over‐painted surfaces, and through
research in notarial documents, specifically those
related to dowry or wills, which refer to pieces
of furniture inherited from one generation to
another. Past craftsmen utilised wood as beams
to support limestone slabs in ceiling structures
and to be able to span large areas.

Other uses in buildings include apertures such as

window frames and balconies (gallarija in Maltese)
which became more elaborate during the Baroque Figure 1. Wooden balconies at Birgu as part of the streetscape.

period [4] complete with shutters to redirect or

block natural light, and solid wood doors with lock
systems to divide spaces and safeguard what is
behind them. Such apertures characterise street‐
scapes in Malta’s capital city, Valletta, which is
considered a world heritage site by UNESCO, and
in Birgu, one of the three cities characterising
the waterfront of the Grand Harbour (Figure 1).
Extensive use of wood has also always made for
the internal decoration of churches.
Other uses of wood include its utilisation to pro‐
duce tools used in quarrying and wood working
as well as machinery such as windmills and wax
candle factories. Wood was also used for the
manufacture of traditional fishing and passenger
boats ‐ an integral part of Malta’s heritage.
As in other countries, there are hazards in Malta
that threaten the survival of this material result‐
ing from natural and/or anthropogenic factors.
Such factors include mishandling, lack of know‐
ledge or maintenance, unnecessary or wrong
interventions, exposure to the surrounding envi‐
ronment and biological infestations, vandalism,
fires and floods. The combination of the nature of
artefacts, the relative scarcity of such material on
the island, and the hazards to which it is exposed,
led to the necessity to create courses that address
such matters and disseminate knowledge, skills
and competences.
Sustainability through an integrated approach
to conservation practice
Huge strides ahead with respect to sustainability
in wood preservation have been made at first
through the grant offered by Malta Environment

82 e‐conser vation

Planning Authority (MEPA) [5] and through this
European Union funded project where the founda‐
tions to sustain the preservation of wood objects/
structures were built upon training. This project
started during the first quarter of 2009 and last
until the end of 2011.
The importance of wood as material heritage in
Malta should be considered as an essential part
of the local heritage and also as part of the world
heritage. The importance to preserve wood
through education resulted from the fact that:
‐ grants given in a local scheme to restore wooden
balconies were offering the opportunity to skilled
craftsmen to diversify their dying business to the
field of conservation‐restoration without any
consideration being given to ethics related to
this specialised field because the skilled crafts‐
men were not trained according to international
ethics existing in conservation‐restoration;
‐ there has been a general increase in apprecia‐
tion of cultural heritage in the last decade, which
has led to an increase in demand for conservation‐
restoration;
‐ the amateur woodworker was increasingly at‐
tracted to the restoration practice by taking it up
as a hobby;
‐ there was lack of awareness on preservation of
material heritage irrespective of a high interest
in antiques;
‐ anyone going through vocational education
training could not specialise in wood conservation‐
restoration;
‐ training in conservation‐restoration of wood at
bachelor level was being taught as a small com‐
ponent in comparison to other materials;
‐ training of scientists supporting conservator‐
restorers did not have the necessary background
knowledge related to conservation science.
These considerations brought about the need for
such a project. The main aims were: (a) to increase
e‐conser vation
TRAINING IN WOOD CONSERVATION IN MALTA
awareness in preservation of material heritage;
(b) to train people coming from different educa‐
tional backgrounds; (c) to give equal gender
opportunities; (d) to address skills mismatches;
and (e) to propose a strategy for future grant
schemes in relation to restoration of wooden bal‐
conies. This brought the need to design courses
at different EQF levels within the frameworks of
the Copenhagen and Bologna Processes, namely
the following courses:
‐ Preservation of Material Cultural Heritage at
EQF level 1;
‐ Wood and Furniture Heritage Skills at EQF level 3;
‐ Conservation‐Restoration of Wood at EQF level 6;
‐ Conservation Science applied to Wood at EQF
level 7;
The courses were designed from a “life‐long lear‐
ning” perspective where irrespective of age,
whether active or inactive and irrespective of one’s
level of education, the person wishing to engage
in such courses could progress accordingly. Such
an exercise brought together various other local
state entities: the Malta Qualifications Council
(MQC); the Institute of Building Construction &
Engineering within MCAST; the Employment &
Training Centre; the Malta Environment & Plan‐
ning Authority; the National Women’s Council
and the Federation of Women’s Council; and the
Commission for People with Disabilities (KNPD).
Partici‐pants who showed difficulty in providing
an accredited certificate to be able to follow the
courses at EQF level 3 and EQF level 7 were given
the opportunity to get it accredited to the right
EQF level through the Malta Qualifications Re‐
cognition Information Centre (MQRIC), which is
part of MQC.
Three out of the four designed courses were im‐
plemented. Ten editions of the same course with
a maximum of one hundred and fifty participants
were delivered in the case of the course at EQF
83
NINETTE SAMMUT
level 1 in both Maltese and English languages.
The course at EQF level 3 was open for a maximum
of fifteen participants while the course at EQF
level 7 was open for a maximum of eight partici‐
pants. The language in this case was English. The
course at EQF level 6 was intended to run at a later
stage, which is after there are specialists trained
in wood conservation science at EQF level 7 to be
able to support EQF level 6 students in their
studies. The lecturers were all Maltese or foreign
qualified professionals. The ratio of theory versus
practical of each course varied according to the
needs within the course content. The assessment
methods of the courses in levels 1, 3 and 7 include
the preparation of assignments, reports, exami‐
nations and presentations to the public depend‐
ing on the course level. In all cases a certificate
is awarded. The same assessment methods are
proposed in the course at level 6 but in this case
a degree is awarded.
The EQF level 1 course treated basic conservation
skills. It addressed all materials, namely ceramics,
glass, metal, stone, wood, canvas, textile and
paper. Such materials can be found either singu‐
larly or assembled together composing objects.
The properties of each material were initially
tackled on their own and then in combination
with each other. The effect that such materials
can have on wood and vice versa was discussed
through practical exercises and on site visits to
museums. Through this course participants were
made aware of the vulnerability of such cultural
heritage objects. They were also taught how to
reduce this vulnerability from a preventive con‐
servation perspective. The pedagogic role of the
lecturer was primarily to provide opportunities
for participants to develop and demonstrate
skills which allow them to pursue a career as mu‐
seum attendants, housekeepers, cleaners, hand‐
lers, maintenance personnel, and antique dealers
within an ethical framework. The teaching was
84
Figure 2. People attending level 1 course.
also aimed at avoiding damage by “thinking be‐
fore acting” and knowing when one needs to
consult a professional in the field (Figure 2).
The EQF Level 3 course aimed towards a more
practical background and therefore prospective
students had to have sound knowledge of wood
and good hands skills in woodwork. These prospec‐
tive students included either those who have ac‐
quired a certificate at EQF level 2 by MCAST (the
maximum qualification which could be acquired
at the beginning of the project) or those who were
already practising wood restoration. In both cases,
the certificate at EQF Level 1 course was a pre‐
requisite. Throughout the EQF level 3 course the
participants have put into practice the conserva‐
tion‐restoration ethics acquired through the EQF
level 1 course under the vigilant eyes of the quali‐
fied conservator‐restorer. Documentation meth‐
ods and ethics were largely discussed as well as
the non‐existence of ‘recipes’ applied in conser‐
vation‐restoration practice was made very clear
to the participants especially during their prac‐
tical sessions (Figure 3). It was imperative to
pass clearly the message, especially to students
at this level, that evidence is lost with every
single restoration intervention that is taken.
e‐conser vation

Figure 3. Students undertaking restoration work on a 16th century sacristy.
The participants were instructed on historical
manufacturing techniques. Towards the end of
their course they were capable to reproduce part
of a traditional wooden balcony (Figure 4). This
will allow them to become part of the list of
skilled carpenters recognised to undertake bal‐
cony restoration projects such as the one promo‐
ted by MEPA.
The course at EQF Level 6 was designed in the
framework of the current course content being
offered at bachelor’s level by the University of
Malta. This is a 4‐year degree which currently
trains conservator‐restorers in the following
areas: paintings, objects (ceramics, glass, metals,
and stone), textiles and paper. The first year is
considered a foundation year across all areas of
study and streaming together with hands‐on
practice which starts from the second year on‐
e‐conser vation
TRAINING IN WOOD CONSERVATION IN MALTA
wards. The course designed in this project focuses
on wood. The area of study in wood conservation‐
restoration as part of the degree course was not
offered at this stage: professionals in conserva‐
tion science related to wood needed to be trained
beforehand to be able to support students in their
conservation projects. The study‐units covered
in the course content include the use of wood
throughout the ages, stylistic analysis, manufac‐
turing techniques, scientific analysis of wood,
past interventions/restoration and evaluation of
conservation treatments.
The EQF Level 7 course in conservation science
aimed to promote research and innovation in
conservation science education in relation to
conservation‐restoration of wood and wooden
structures and artworks. The aims of this course
were to strengthen the human resource capacity
85
NINETTE SAMMUT
Figure 4. Reproduction of part of the traditional balcony.
to aid in training of future conservator‐restorers
and create a common language to ease commu‐
nication between the persons trained through
this course and the conservator‐restorer. Lectur‐
ers from the Department of Agricultural and
Forest Economy, Engineering, Sciences and Tech‐
nologies of the University of Florence (DEISTAF)
delivered this 9‐week long certificate course.
Lectures were delivered 4 weeks in Florence and
5 weeks in Malta. The course content included
study‐units of applied physics and chemistry rela‐
ted to the morphology of wood at micro and macro
levels, the deterioration process influenced by
physical and chemical reactions, and practical
sessions in analytical techniques using different
instrumentation including sample preparation
within the ethical and legal framework related to
conservation‐restoration. This course brought
together a multi‐disciplinary team of profession‐
als specialised in their own field without having
much in common, yet finding common grounds
through the analysis of wood objects (Figure 5).
86
Conclusion
The appreciation of cultural heritage should be
communicated through an integrated education
approach in this global society. Sustainability in
the preservation of cultural heritage through
education should be encouraged. It is a way of
how tangible and intangible cultural heritage
can be safeguarded.
This European‐funded project presented various
challenges throughout the various stages of re‐
search, design and implementation of the
courses. The fact that the courses had to be de‐
signed around needs in conservation‐restoration
in the local context posed a further challenge
than just designing and implementing general
courses in preservation, conservation‐restoration
and conservation science. Yet this challenge is
what will make it sustainable in the long run:
offering new opportunities to all those already
involved in wood working by providing further
training and increasing awareness on the need
to preserve wood objects in their current envir‐
onment. It should be pointed out that in this
case two of the four courses, namely those at
EQF level 1 and 3, are already featuring in the
prospectus of two educational institutions for
the next academic programmes.
The course created at EQF level 1 will help a per‐
son, irrespective of his background, to appreciate
cultural heritage through the use of materials.
This will increase the interest and transform
such awareness to further training in the fields
of conservation‐restoration and conservation
science. Through this approach, other professions
and existing courses would be directed to sustain
directly the preservation of cultural heritage.
e‐conser vation

Figure 5. Laboratory work by the participants on micro‐CT.
References
[1] P. J. Schembri, "Physical Geography and Eco‐
logy of the Maltese Islands: A Brief Overview",
Options Meditérranéennes 7, 1993, URL
[2] L. J. Saliba, "Education and Afforestation in
Malta", Options Méditerranéennes 9, 1971, URL
[3] A. N. Whitehead, The Aims of Education and
Other Essays, Free Press, New York, 1967
[4] G. Bonello, "Mysteries of the Maltese Gallar‐
ija in Treasures of Malta", Progress Press, Vol. IX
No. 2, Malta, 2003
[5] Traditional Maltese Wooden Balcony Restora‐
tion Grant Scheme, http://www.mepa.org.mt
[accessed on 31st July 2011]
e‐conser vation
TRAINING IN WOOD CONSERVATION IN MALTA
NINETTE SAMMUT
Conservation Manager
Contact: ninette.sammut@gov.mt
Ninette Sammut is the manager leading the edu‐
ca‐tion arm of Heritage Malta. Her qualifica‐
tions and experience as a conservator‐restorer
and her involvement in education in the past 10
years, including vocational and tertiary educa‐
tion and training on national and European
levels, led to her choice in this leading position
and as project leader of this EU‐funded project.
87
e‐conservation magazine offers the possibility to publish bilingual articles in the html version. Articles in
English may also be published in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian, at authors request.
 No. 21, September 2011 LICENCE

ISSN: 1646‐9283

Registration Number Attribution‐Noncommercial‐No Derivative Works 2.5

125248 Portugal
Entidade Reguladora
para a Comunicação Social You are free:
to Share — to copy, distribute and transmit this work
Property
e‐conservationline, Teodora Poiata

Periodicity
Bimonthly
Under the following conditions:
Cover
Town Hall of Basel, Switzerland
Photo by Mirjam Jullien Attribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified
by our licence, best by linking to CC website.
Executive Editor
Rui Bordalo

Editors
Teodora Poiata, Anca Nicolaescu
Noncommercial. You may not use this work for commercial
Collaborators purposes.
Ana Bidarra
Daniel Cull

Graphic Design and Photography

Anca Poiata, Radu Matase
No Derivative Works. You may not alter, transform, or build
Execution upon this work.
Teodora Poiata

Address
Rua de Santa Catarina, nº 467, 4D
4480‐779 Vila do Conde, Portugal

e‐conservationline informs that the published information is

www.e‐conservationline.com believed to be true and accurate but can not accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may occur or
All correspondence to: make any warranty for the published material, which is solely
general@e‐conservationline.com the responsability of their authors.

e‐conser vation 89
e­conservation magazine is published and distributed under the
Creative Commons Licence
Attribution ­ Noncommercial ­ No Derivative Works.