Unit 4

Biotechnology and Society

INTRODUCTION

What do rum, beer, and wine have in common with bread and
cheese? They all depend on the activity of living organisms so small
that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Similar types of organ-
isms are responsible for the yoghurt that has been enjoyed in places
like India for thousands of years. In Module 1, we introduced tech-
nology as “the set of tools and techniques for controlling and chang-
ing one’s environment”. In biotechnology, these tools and
techniques are based on the processes and products of living things.
Although the biological science behind the techniques may not have
been fully understood, clearly, biotechnology is not new.

Farmers have used cross-breeding to improve yields and enhance the

useful characteristics of their animals and plants for over 9,000
years. All the staple foods in our diet have been developed in this
way. Corn, wheat, rice, and sugar cane have been bred for higher
yields and disease resistance. Cattle and pigs have been improved
with respect to milk and meat production. Most farm animals are so
different from their ancestors that they would not be able to survive
in the wild for a week. Many have become highly specialised “facto-
ries” that make products for human use. Until recently this kind of
cross-breeding was limited to closely related animals or plants;
modern biotechnology has changed that.

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 Modern biotechnology no longer limits itself to the use of whole
organisms. There are now techniques that allow scientists to manip-
ulate genes directly. Genes can be moved from a human to a
bacterium and then into a cow! Genetic engineering, as this is
called, has alarmed many but mostly those who know little about
it. We hope that when you have finished this unit you will have
learned enough to make a more enlightened contribution to the
ongoing discussion on the possibilities offered by this new technol-
ogy and the controversies surrounding certain aspects of its use.

OVERVIEW

In this unit, we examine different aspects of modern biotechnology.

We also recall some of the older type of biotechnology. There are
four sessions in the unit. The first three deal with some of the appli-
cations of biotechnology in medicine, agriculture, and industry, in
that order. Several terms used in biotechnology, which may be new
to some of you, are introduced and explained in Session 1.
Contributions to these fields are noted and some of the ethical and
legal concerns voiced with regard to this area are also introduced.
The fourth and last session of the unit summarises some of the
issues and unanswered questions that concern biotechnology as a
whole. The implications of biotechnology and its applications for
both global and Caribbean society are also discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of the term biotechnology and related

concepts
2. Give examples of ways in which biotechnology has impacted on
medicine, agriculture and industry

3. Recall some Caribbean contributions to these fields

4. Discuss the implications of biotechnology for global and

Caribbean society

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 5. Discuss in an informed manner some of the ethical issues arising
out of biotechnology

FOR THE STUDENT

In Unit 3 you were introduced to information on the basis of inheri-

tance. This information is important for a full understanding of
much of this Unit. It would be wise to review it before starting this
one. You should recall the structure of the genetic material (DNA),
and the meaning of terms like chromosome and gene. You will need
to be familiar with these concepts to get the most out of this Unit.

READINGS

l Betsch, David F. DNA fingerprinting in human health and

society. National Health Museum, 1994.
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/BA/DNA_Fingerprinting_Basics.html
l DaSilva, Edgar J. and Mary Taylor. Island communities and
biotechnology. http://www.ejb.org/content/vol1/issue1/full/1/bip/
e.dasilva@unesco.org maryt@samoa.net
l Irving, Dianne N. Stem cell research: Some pros and cons.
Canadian Physicians for Life.
http://www.physiciansforlife.ca/stemcellproandcon.html
l McLaren, Lyndon. A life dedicated to the local dairy and beef
industries. Red Poll Supplement. The Gleaner. November 14, 2002,
p. 17.
l Roberts, Michael. Fingerprinting the future of chocolate in
Trinidad. The Courier, no. 176 July-August 1999.
l Smith, Wesley J. Cloning reality: Brave new world here we come.
National Review 1/31/01.
http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/commentprint013101a.html
l Status report on transgenic organisms. Virginia Cooperative
Extension. http://filebox.vy.edu/cals/cses/chagedor/97microbes.html
l The new eugenics: Genetic engineering.
http://www.ulm.edu/~palmer/NewEugenics.htm
l Twenty years of test-tube babies. Minnesota Public Radio 1998.
http://news.mpr.org/features/199711/20_smiths_fertility/part7/section1

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 l Tennant, Paula. Crops of agricultural biotechnology. The Gleaner,
November 7, 2002, p. B10.
l Wellington, Karl. The Jamaica Red Poll story. Red Poll Supplement.
The Gleaner, November 14, 2002, pp. 2, 16.

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 Session 4.1
Biotechnology and Medicine

Introduction

New techniques in biotechnology have opened up many new

avenues for the prevention, treatment or possible cure of various
diseases. Benefits include the production of safer vaccines against
communicable diseases and the production of medications such as
insulin. There is even the possibility that defective genes that cause
incurable conditions like sickle cell anaemia or cystic fibrosis could
be replaced with normal genes. We shall look at some of the
processes involved, and suggest some of the questions and issues
raised even as we acknowledge the benefits.

Techniques affecting reproductive capacity

In humans, mating is nature’s way of introducing sperm into a

woman’s reproductive tract, so that egg and sperm can fuse to
produce a child. Sometimes this process that normally takes place
very easily (too easily at times!) does not happen though both
sperm and egg appear to be normal. In other cases a woman may
want to have a child although she has no male partner. Two tech-
niques that were first used in livestock breeding programmes are
now commonly used to relieve childlessness in humans, whatever
its cause. These techniques are artificial insemination and in-vitro
fertilization

Artificial insemination

A woman may be artificially inseminated using sperm from her

partner, if he is impotent for some reason, or she may use sperm
from a donor as an alternative to adoption, if she is fertile and her
partner is not. In this process, medical personnel place sperm in the
reproductive tract of a woman. Semen is collected from a partner or
a donor depending on the circumstances of the case.

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 There are registered human sperm banks, where donors leave semen
specimens. In some cases donors are paid for their contributions. In
reputable facilities, donors are screened for their suitability and their
medical and social histories recorded. A physical description and
biography is also recorded so that women or couples using the bank
can select a donor with characteristics of their choice. For example,
if a man is infertile, the couple may want to use donor sperm from
someone similar to him in appearance, ethnic group, and educa-
tional background. Application and screening processes vary in the
strictness of their requirements, but the insemination procedure is
not guaranteed to result in an embryo.

In vitro fertilisation

Normally, in mammals, fertilisation takes place in a protected envi-

ronment inside the body. It is possible, however, to fuse sperms and
eggs outside of this environment, in a glass dish (a petri dish) in a
laboratory. This is in vitro (literally in glass) fertilisation.

In humans fertilisation normally takes place in the tubes that carry

the eggs to the uterus (womb). Sometimes for different reasons this
is not possible, although both sperm and eggs themselves are
normal. For example, the tubes may be blocked by scar tissue from
an old infection so the eggs cannot pass down the tubes. In vitro
fertilisation offers a solution to this problem. A woman wishing to
undergo in vitro fertilisation is first given medication that causes her
to produce many mature eggs at one time. These are collected from
her, then fertilised in a glass dish with sperm from her partner (or
from a sperm bank if necessary). Two to five days later, two to four
of the embryos that are developing from the fertilised egg cells are
returned to the mother’s womb, to develop in the normal way. At
this time, they are smaller than a pin-prick. The hope is that one or
two embryos will grow to term, giving single births or twins.

Unused embryos are quickly deep-frozen in liquid nitrogen for possi-

ble future use. The success rate is about 20% so most couples have
to try more than once. In that event, two to four of their fertilised
ova are removed from storage, thawed out, and the implantation
process repeated. The rest of the embryos remain in storage.

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 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. In your opinion what should be done with surplus embryos

from in vitro fertilisation attempts, if parents have no use for
them?

2. Should in vitro fertilisation be made available to childless

couples in developing countries such as ours?

Genetic engineering and gene cloning

All living organisms are made up of cells. In each of our cells is a

nucleus with chromosomes on which there are genes that instruct
the cell what to make or do. Genes therefore control the characteris-
n Enzymes are tics of an organism. Genetic engineering is a technique by which
protein molecules genes from one organism can be inserted into the chromosomes of
produced by living
cells for a variety of another organism of the same or different species. These chromo-
purposes. Each somes now carry different information than before and will issue
enzyme type has a
specific job. Each of
different instructions to the cells that contain them. The process
the enzymes involves using specific enzymes to cut out short pieces of the DNA
mentioned here, can
cut DNA strands at
from one chromosome and then removing it. The recipient cell’s
different points, i.e., DNA is cut and the short piece of DNA spliced into it (see figure
between certain
bases.
4.1). This sounds easy! It is not. It is a very complex process that
takes place in many steps.

Figure 4.1 Genetic engineering: some steps in the process

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 When DNA from two different sources are joined together it is
called recombinant DNA. Another related technique that is very
important for the practical applications of genetic engineering is
gene cloning. The foreign gene is inserted into the DNA of bacter-
ial cells. Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly. Each cell simply
divides in two, making exact copies of itself. This is repeated over
and over and in a short time there are thousands of exact copies of
the original cell all containing the recombinant DNA strand.
Whatever the clones now produce can be isolated and collected for
sale or used in other research areas. The importance of this tech-
nique is that large quantities of a useful product can be manufac-
tured very quickly and relatively cheaply.

Where do we go from here? Research is now being directed at creat-

ing animals and plants that can produce larger quantities of useful
products or produce products that they do not normally make.
These organisms are called transgenic organisms when the new
genes they carry are from a different species. We will now look at
some of the ways in which the technology described above has been
applied in the field of medicine.

Think about it! What thoughts do you have about using genetic
engineering to change the genetic makeup of a species? Write them
down for further consideration at the end of Session 3.

The production of hormones

In our bodies there are special glands that secrete substances directly
into the bloodstream. They are transported in the blood to the
organs or cells where they have an effect. These substances regulate
the growth or functioning of specific organs or tissues in the body.
For example, the hormone insulin, produced in the pancreas, helps
to control the level of glucose in the blood by stimulating liver cells
and other cells to remove excess glucose from the bloodstream.

The use of recombinant DNA techniques has made possible the

large scale production of hormones like insulin. Escherichia coli, a
bacterium which normally lives in the gut, is used as a host organ-
ism for the human genes that control the production of specific
hormones. The gene for human insulin is introduced into

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 Figure 4.2 Genetic engineering for large scale production

1. DNA strand removed from human cell and gene removed,

e.g. gene for making insulin
2. Gene inserted into bacterial DNA

3. Bacterium with recombinant DNA strand cultured

4. As cells multiply, a large clone of recombinant bacterial cells form

5. Clone used for further research or large scale production

6. For commercial purposes, bacteria grown in large sterile vat
containing nutrient medium
7. Product, e.g. insulin, extracted from fermenter and purified

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 E. coli bacteria which are then cloned. Large quantities of the altered
bacterium can be grown in a large vat called a fermenter where they
will produce the hormone. Before this technology became available,
insulin was obtained from the pancreas of slaughtered pigs and
cattle. Some patients were allergic to insulin from these sources and
only small quantities were found in each pancreas. Insulin was
therefore extremely expensive and many persons could not afford it
at all.

Insulin, now produced using a synthetic gene, is used to treat

diabetes mellitus. Two other hormones produced using these tech-
niques are human growth hormone and erythropoietin. Growth
hormone is produced in a special gland in the brain. It regulates
overall body size. A deficiency results in dwarfism. Growth
hormone is used to treat dwarfism in children. Erythropoietin is
needed for the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. It
is normally made in special kidney cells, but many patients with
damaged kidneys cannot make the hormone themselves and so
become anaemic.

A mutant strain of E. coli, which can only survive under laboratory

conditions, is now used in research. This is a precautionary measure.
In the unlikely event of “escape” from the laboratory, the bacteria
would die and not be a threat to humans.

Find out (or suggest) what traits the mutant strain of the bacteria
used in research might have so that they cannot survive in the open.

Manufacture of vaccines

Most of us have been vaccinated against a number of childhood

diseases. What is a vaccine? To answer this question we need to
know something about how the body normally defends itself
against disease. One way in which the body does this is by produc-
ing compounds called antibodies.

l Antibodies are made by special white blood cells called B cells

when foreign substances enter the body.
l They fight against these foreign substances and their effects.
l Each B cell produces only one type of antibody.

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 l Each antibody is specific to the foreign substance that
stimulated its manufacture. Thus, antibodies against measles
will have no effect on chicken pox germs.

Disease organisms (pathogens) are “foreign”. If we have an attack of

a disease, for example, measles, after we recover, some of our B cells
“remember” the attack. If we are infected again by this pathogen,
the cells very quickly stimulate the production of large amounts of
the required antibody. More than likely, this will mean that we will
not get the disease again. We have become immune to that particu-
lar disease.

Vaccines mimic the action of this first infection. Each vaccine

contains a specific amount of killed or weakened forms of a particu-
lar pathogen. These are introduced into the body orally or by injec-
tion. The body responds by producing some antibodies. If the same
organism in its active form later infects the body, there is the same
effect on antibody production as described before. Large quantities
of the specific antibody are quickly made and the pathogens
destroyed before we get ill. In this way, vaccines make the body
immune to the disease.

It is now known that the substance (termed an antigen) which

stimulates the production of antibodies is in the outer surface of the
pathogen. Through recombinant DNA techniques, the genes
controlling the pathogen’s surface characteristics can be inserted
into a harmless organism. The resulting recombinant organism then
produces the antigen from the pathogen and can then be used as the
vaccine. This type of vaccine is referred to as a recombinant vaccine.
This procedure removes the risk of an active form of the organism
being introduced, perhaps during the preparation of the vaccine.
Vaccines against smallpox, influenza, Herpes simplex type 1 (cold
sores), and hepatitis B, have been prepared by this method. More
commonly used are subunit vaccines. This is where the antigen
alone is isolated and used as the vaccine.

Prenatal diagnostics

Genetic abnormalities may be detected either during development of

a baby before it is born (foetal development), or during adult life. In
order to detect such abnormalities in the foetus, amniocentesis

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n THINK ABOUT IT! may be used. In this process, a fine needle attached to a syringe is
Do parents really inserted into the amnion or protective fluid-filled case in which the
have the right to
choose the baby is developing. Some of the fluid, in which there are cells from
characteristics of the embryo, is withdrawn. These cells are grown in special media
their children? until enough are available to carry out the required tests. The
numbers of chromosomes, as well as the chemical structure of the
genes can be determined in these tests. The tests show whether or
not the sequence of the bases on the chromosomes is normal (see
Module 2 Unit 3). Amniocentesis is particularly useful in those situ-
ations where disorders like haemophilia already exist in a family, or
for late pregnancies where the risk of abnormalities developing is
greater than in younger mothers. It allows parents to make
informed decisions as to whether to continue or terminate a
pregnancy.

Other diagnostic tests

Another way of getting large amounts of an antibody is to use

hybridomas. This is done in vitro by fusing a B cell, the special
antibody producing white blood cell, with a cancer cell. Cancer cells
have the ability to multiply rapidly and indefinitely. A B cell
normally makes small quantities of antibody, and lasts only a few
days. However, when it is fused with the cancer cell, the hybrid cell
continues to multiply. The new cell can also be cloned. Many new
cells can be produced that are genetically identical with the parent
cell and with each other. So large amounts of antibody can be
produced from these multiple hybridomas.

Antibodies prepared by this technique have been used for various

diagnostic tests. The specific antibody is brought into contact with
some substance carrying the antigen with which it will react. The
reactions cause a change that can be detected in some way. The
speed with which results are obtained is an advantage. Some of the
tests are:

(a) Pregnancy tests. These are based on recognition of a hormone,

the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) by the appropriate
antibody. Within a few days after conception, a signal is sent
from the developing placenta to the ovary to produce the
hormones which will prevent the mother from menstruating

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 and so losing the baby. This signal is carried by hCG. Within
about two weeks after conception, hCG can be detected in the
urine. The pregnancy test uses antibodies to detect hCG in a
sample of urine. The results are ready in five minutes.

(b) Differentiating between chlamydia and gonorrhea infections in

the female genitals. The results are available in 15 to 20 minutes,
as against days, if routine culture methods were used.

(c) Recognition of herpes simplex type 1 virus, which causes cold

sores, and herpes simplex type 2 virus, which causes genital
herpes. Results are known in 15 to 20 minutes.

(d) Diagnosis of streptococcus throat infections: This is immediate.

Forensic medicine

DNA fingerprinting has been popularised by the exposure it receives

in court cases and crime stories on television. The technique is
useful in forensic medicine as it allows minute quantities of body
fluids or tissues to be identified accurately even several years after a
crime has been committed.

The DNA of each of us is as unique as our fingerprints. In order to

prepare DNA “fingerprints”, DNA is treated with enzymes to break
it up into fragments of various sizes. The pattern of sizes of DNA
fragments is unique for each family line. Except for identical twins,
each person has different combinations of the genetic material from
the mother’s egg, and the father’s sperm. So the pattern of frag-
ments can be used as fingerprints for identifying individuals
precisely. In practice, scientists look at several DNA regions and use
the information to create a DNA profile. The likelihood of finding
anyone else with the same profile for a particular set of regions is
remote. The patterns are recognised by DNA probes. These are
molecules labeled with a radioactive isotope, dye or enzyme, which
will highlight a particular sequence on the DNA molecule.

DNA fingerprints from blood or semen stains on a victim may be

compared with fingerprints from the blood of suspects. In this way,
guilt or innocence may be established. DNA fingerprinting can be
used to identify the remains of missing persons by comparing a

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 tissue sample with one obtained from the belongings of the person.
In cases of disputed paternity prints of the child, the mother and
the alleged fathers are compared for similarities. The technique is
also useful in transplant programmes for matching organ donors
with persons needing to receive the organs.

Medical research
Transgenic animals with human genes

Plants or animals with recombinant DNA are termed transgenic or

genetically modified organisms. Transgenic organisms can now be
patented. These organisms have been of immense value in medical
research as there are limited possibilities for conducting experimen-
tal research in disease on humans. One example of this is a trans-
genic strain of mice that was created and used extensively in cancer
research. These mice carry genes for certain types of cancer and
researchers can study these diseases and possible cures without
taking risks with human patients.

Transgenic animals have been reared to produce in their milk rare

and expensive proteins for use in medicine. For example, in the
United Kingdom, sheep have been engineered to produce AAT
(alpha-1-antitrypsin) in their milk. AAT regulates the breakdown of
elastic fibres in the lungs. Where the gene for producing AAT is
defective, too many fibres are broken down and patients develop
emphysema. Obtaining AAT from sheep’s milk opens up an avenue
for developing effective treatments.

ACTIVITY

Discuss the following with a friend.

Do you think it is morally acceptable to produce transgenic

organisms? (Include in your considerations possible effects of
“foreign” genes on these plants or animals.)

Research is also being directed at the possibility of manipulating

special cells in the body’s defense system in such a way that they
destroy cancer cells without damaging normal cells and tissues.

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 Preventing rejection of transplants

There are also possibilities for using genetic engineeering to prevent

n THINK ABOUT IT!
Is using hybridomas the rejection of transplants. Transplanted tissues are recognised as
in biotechnology foreign by the body’s immune system. Antibodies react to molecules
wise? Give reasons
based on what you on the cell surface membranes, treat them as antigens and destroy
have read in this the transplanted tissue. Research is being done to produce pigs that
module about the
basis of inheritance do not carry the antigen. These pigs will carry a human gene for a
and the readings on cell surface membrane molecule that would prevent attack by one
cancer.
of the body’s defence systems. These transgenic pigs could then be
bred to supply material for transplanting into humans. This is still
in the future.

Gene Therapy

One of the most exciting and controversial areas of medical research

n Most gene therapy
that is approved for using genetic engineering techniques is in gene therapy. This area of
clinical use is done research offers the possibility of curing genetic diseases and defects.
on children or adults,
not embryos. The It relies on the in vitro fertilisation methods that allow access to
genetically sperms, eggs, and embryos before or immediately after fertilisation.
engineered normal
genes are delivered
The intention is to replace a defective gene with a healthy one. The
to target organs e.g. healthy copy of the gene will be passed on to all other cells of the
lungs in cystic
fibrosis, muscle
embryo as it grows by mitosis and since it will form part of the
tissue in muscular genetic makeup of the adult it can be inherited by future genera-
dystrophy or blood
cells in SCID
tions of that parent. The controversy relates to the perception that
(Severe combined geneticists are tampering with nature.
immunodeficiency).

This technology offers hope for the genetic disorders such as those
described in Unit 3. Go back and look at the effects of sickle cell
anaemia, cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. Now you can
understand the excitement of the possibilities offered by gene
therapy!

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 ACTIVITY

1. How far should we go in the matter of gene therapy? Should

nature’s mistakes be corrected?

2. Mutations, that is, accidental changes to genes or chromo-

somes of reproductive cells, can result in inherited disorders.
Many of those afflicted die young before they reach repro-
ductive age and can pass on the defect. When we correct
such defects, are we “playing God”?

Stem cell research

There are about 220 different types of cells in the human body, for
example, muscle cells, blood cells and bone cells. Early in the devel-
opment of an embryo, cells are present which have the potential to
become the various types of specialised cells. These “primitive” cells
are called stem cells. In the orderly development of the embryo, cells
like these from different regions of the embryo will mature into
particular types. The aim behind stem cell research is to harvest and
grow these immature cells and use them to replace tissues lost by
injury or incurable diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease,
multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and others.

The technique for harvesting stem cells and maintaining their

growth in the laboratory is now available. To mid-2001, they have
been used to produce about 110 different kinds of cells. Embryos
used for this research are obtained from stored unused embryos left
from in vitro fertilisation procedures. The problem is that harvesting
the stem cells results in the death of the embryo. In any case, this
source of embryos is not nearly enough for the desired scope of stem
cell research. Embryos would have to be deliberately produced for
this specific purpose. Are there any other possibilities?

There are within our bodies, sites at which new cells are being made
all the time and from which stem cells can be harvested. They have
been obtained from the brains of cadavers, from living bone marrow,
and from human placental tissue. However, extracting the cells from
these sources is difficult and supplies fewer cells of limited potential.
For example, stem cells which will produce cardiac cells or pancreatic

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 islet cells have not yet been found in adult tissue. (The special
patches of tissue that make insulin in the pancreas are known as the
islets of Langerhans.)

The difficulty of obtaining useful stem cells in sufficient quantity to

increase the pace and range of stem cell research has given rise to
another controversy: the cloning of human embryos. In cloning,
new individuals are produced from a single “parent”, without the
fusion of gametes. These individuals therefore have a genetic make-
up that is identical to the one “parent” and to each other if several
of them are made. (When we make several cuttings from a favourite
plant to get many plants, all of which have the same characteristics
of the original “parent”, we are also producing a clone).

Adult mammalian cells do not have the capacity to grow into

complete new organisms on their own. However, scientists have
discovered that transferring the nucleus from an adult cell into an egg
cell, after removing its nucleus, will produce a cell that is able to grow
into an embryo. When the cell starts to multiply, the new cells can be
separated and each one continues growing, multiplying the number of
available embryos. Stem cells from these embryos would then be avail-
able in larger quantities for research. An animal that is a replica of the
parent that donated the nucleus can develop from each embryo.

Britain has been considering making this source legal, with the
proviso that all such embryos must be destroyed after 14 days. This
precaution would prevent the development of cloned foetuses or
babies. One consideration driving the British interest in this proce-
dure is the possibility of using it to produce replacement tissues that
are of the correct genetic makeup of a patient that needs these
tissues. If the patient’s own DNA were to be placed in an egg cell
stripped of its DNA, and the stem cells from this embryo then used
in the patient’s treatment, there would be little risk of rejection,
since stem cell and patient DNA would be identical. Therapeutic
cloning is the term being used to describe the process. Many people
have reservations about these procedures. Those against the use of
embryonic stem cells from whatever source regard the unavoidable
destruction of the embryo in the process as taking a life. This
brought research in the United States to a standstill for some time.
However, limited permission to continue the work has been granted
by the present administration.

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 Figure 3.1.3 Gene cloning

Medicine has already reaped many benefits from biotechnology, and

the potential is there for many more. But the use of the techniques
and products poses many questions and raises many issues. You
should now have enough information to form your opinions on the
issues surrounding this topic.

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 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. In your opinion, is it acceptable to clone human embryos for

research?

2. In stem cell research, embryos have to be deliberately

destroyed, for the good of another person. Is it morally right
to do this?

3. What are the implications of human cloning from adult

cells?

The Human Genome Project (HGP)

What is a genome?

A genome is simply all the genetic material, the DNA, of an organ-

ism. If you have forgotten about DNA or its description this would
be a good time to revise it.

We are reminded from Unit 3 that the DNA molecule is made of

two strands of phosphate and sugar units twisted together into a
spiral. The two strands are linked together through a sequence of
four special substances – adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
Each link is made up of a pair of these substances. But adenine is
always linked with thymine (A-T or T-A), and cytosine with
guanine (C-G or G-C). The sequencing of the pairs is precise, and
acts as a code for the making of a particular protein. The arrange-
ment of these pairs is unique for each species. In other words, it
differs from one species to another. That is why species differ!

The human genome is believed to have about three billion of these

pairs. Genes are portions of DNA molecules. It is estimated that
there are about 30,000 to 35,000 genes in humans. (How many base
pairs are there in one gene?)

Objectives of the project

The Human Genome Project aims to identify all the pairs and genes
in the human genome and use this information to create a genetic
map that would allow researchers to locate a particular gene, when
necessary. (Producing this map could take more than one lifetime! It

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 has become possible by developing super computers programmed to
sequence genes.) At the same time, they intend to address the ethi-
cal, legal, and social issues which may arise from the project. Non-
human organisms commonly used in research, are also to be studied.
These include the bacterium Escherichia coli, commonly found in the
gut, the fruit fly, and mice.

Participants and the timeframe

The Project is international. Participating countries include

Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, the European Union,
France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Netherlands,
Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Originally scheduled to last 15 years from 1990, the expected
completion date is set at 2003. In June 2000, the first working draft
of the genome was published (See Nature, February 15, 2001 and
Science, February 16, 2001.) It should be noted that this is not the
only project in the race to map the human genome.

Possible applications

The research has applications for molecular medicine. For example,

clearer identification of the genes associated with genetic disorders
should lead, not only to improved diagnosis, but also to greater
control in gene therapy. Can you think of any other possibilities?

232 FD12A
 ?
? ACTIVITY

For each of the procedures listed in the table, consider the

applications to which it could be put and possible drawbacks of
using the techniques involved or the resulting implications for
humans. You may include practical, biological or ethical
considerations .

Procedure Possible Possible

applications drawbacks

Artificial
insemination

In vitro fertilisation

Production of
hormones using
recombinant DNA

Manufacturing
vaccines using
recombinant DNA

Gene therapy

Stem cell research

Mapping the human

genome

FD12A 233
234 FD12A
 Session 4.2
Biotechnology and Agriculture

Plant and animal breeding

The story is told of a European explorer in South America who had

heard legends of great treasure hidden in caves by one of the
Amerindian tribes of the region. He and his group went to great
lengths to find this treasure and were sorely disappointed when it
turned out to be large jars of seeds. What he did not appreciate was
that these seeds were the result of years of work. They had been
carefully selected from the most productive plants season after
season and were indeed a treasure. Plant and animal breeding is not
new. Farmers have been using these biotechnological techniques to
improve their crops and animals for thousands of years. Deliberate
cross-breeding was introduced much later. Farmers sought to
produce plant crops that were more resistant to disease, or animals
that gave more milk.

In Trinidad and Tobago at the Cocoa Research Unit (CRU) of the

University of the West Indies (UWI) is the world’s most important
gene banks for cocoa plants. The CRU are keepers of the interna-
tional Cocoa Germplasm Collection, preserving some 2,500 genetic
varieties from all over the world. Collection started in the 1920s by
the Imperial College of Agriculture, which in 1962 became the
Faculty of Agriculture of the UWI. Professor John Spence headed the
unit for many years. The plants are carefully nurtured and main-
tained as a source of breeding material for researchers, plant geneti-
cists and commercial breaders. Cross-breeding in cocoa in Trinidad
and Tobago has resulted in the production of much sought after
hybrids that are resistant to some diseases, but maintain a high
flavour. Within recent years, modern biotechnological approaches
are being used to maintain and upgrade the collection, for example,
the collection is now being genetically fingerprinted.

Also in Trinidad and Tobago, selection and breeding from different

breeds of water buffaloes (not by crossing cows and buffaloes as is

FD12A 235
 commonly thought) over many years have produced the Buffalypso.
This buffalo type is much in demand as it produces good quality
beef and milk on very poor quality feed, making it ideal for coun-
tries that spend large sums importing animal feed or beef. Similarly,
in Jamaica, work by Dr. Thomas Lecky gave rise to the Jamaica
Hope breed of cattle, a great milk producer and all round animal
that is well suited to tropical conditions such as ours. Both these
types of cattle have been exported to many different countries in
the world.

Tissue culture

Another biotechnological technique of great interest, is tissue

culture. Using this technology, very small portions of a plant can be
stimulated to produce hundreds of new plants that are all of the
same quality as the original parent plant? What is most interesting
about this method is that complete plants can be grown from a few
cells from virtually any part of a plant: stems, roots or leaves!

These techniques were developed in the 1930s with the knowledge

that all cells have a complete set of genetic information to make a
whole animal or plant of the same species. Normal cells usually
confine their activities to whatever the particular set of tissues to
which they belong, should be doing. Muscle cells for example, make
new muscle cells and use energy to contract. The rest of the genetic
information is switched off and lies dormant for the rest of the
organism’s life. Researchers found out that they could switch on the
rest of the genes in many plant cells by using a careful mix of water,
minerals, sugars, vitamins, and plant growth substances (sometimes
called plant hormones). Tissue culture is carried out under sterile
laboratory conditions where light and temperature are also
controlled.

In order to produce enough food for a growing world population

and to make agriculture commercially viable, farmers have tended to
cultivate staple crops, over extensive areas. This is how bananas,
sugar, and coconuts are grown on estates in the Caribbean. This is
termed monocrop agriculture, in contrast to the mixed cultivation
that is characteristic of small farmers and home gardeners who
often grow many different crops together, which is how plants
grow in nature.

236 FD12A
 n FIND OUT MORE! One of the problems of monocrop cultivation is obtaining a suffi-
What are the ciency of young plants for crops that do not reproduce from seed.
additional
advantages of One answer has been to use tissue culture techniques. The tech-
growing crop plants nique makes it possible to get large numbers of the same plant easily
by using tissue
culture methods?
and quickly. Dr Lloyd Coke of the then Botany Department,
University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, in the early 1960s
made a significant contribution to the successful use of this tech-
nique for obtaining banana plants. At the St Augustine Campus
Professor Julian Duncan did similar work until very recently.

?
? QUESTION

Are the products of tissue culture procedures clones?

Newer methods of obtaining new plant varieties

Genetic engineering is now used in agriculture to make direct modi-

fications of the DNA molecule. This means that scientists are now
working at the molecular level. Traditional cross-breeding is at the
level of the whole organism, and tissue culture at the cell level. It is
now possible to enhance the characteristics of food crops by intro-
ducing copies of genes for desired traits into the DNA of the plant.
This has several advantages:

l Plant breeders can now develop varieties that were not possible
using traditional cross-breeding methods because genes can be
copied from different species of plants, from animals, and
microbes. Traditional cross-breeding was between varieties of the
same species.

l There is greater control over what is copied. The gene that is

copied is usually one with characteristics that are well
understood. Transferring single genes is superior to cross-
breeding as it is highly selective. With cross-breeding, it is
possible that both desirable and undesirable traits would be
inherited since whole chromosomes are involved in fertilization.

l New varieties of crops can be developed more quickly. Older

methods of cross breeding could take many years or even
decades.

FD12A 237
 These new techniques have already been used to develop food crops
that:

l are more resistant to pests, disease, and poor soil and weather
conditions,
l tolerate chemical herbicides better,
l can be processed more easily,
l exhibit improved nutritional content,
l have better physical characteristics such as appearance, texture,
and size.

The tomato plant has been injected with a gene for an insecticidal
protein, with the result that when an insect eats the transgenic
plant, the protein is released and the insect dies.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

New strains are produced very quickly by genetic engineering.

As a result, fewer field trials are done. This means less time to
evaluate plant/environment interactions.

1. What effect might this have on the stability of ecosystems

in the regions where these plants are used?

2. What might be the consequences of upsetting ecosystem

stability?

The Biotechnology Centre on all three campuses of the University

of the West Indies (UWI) has been making valuable contributions to
agriculture. For example, work done in Barbados was effective in
bringing back into economic production in that island and in several
others belonging to the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
(OECS), onions, tomatoes, peppers, and yams which had declined as
a result of disease. Genetic engineering techniques were used to
produce disease-resistant varieties. In Jamaica, farmers were faced
with the problem of drastically reduced yields of papaya due to the
prevalence of ringspot, a virus disease. At the Mona campus
Biotechnology Centre, genetic engineering techniques were success-
fully used to develop a variety of papaya which is resistant to the
virus.

238 FD12A
 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Parasites that cause plant disease become tolerant to pesticides

very quickly. This necessitates using more and more
concentrated or new pesticides all the time.

Do you think the parasites will become tolerant to the toxins in

GM plants and if so, what next?

At the St Augustine campus, there is a project underway which is

aimed at using bioengineering to modify bloom colours in one
species of anthurium, as well as to produce disease-resistant strains
of the plant. The anthurium is an attractive export ornamental
crop, and the production of novel colours in plants that are highly
resistant to disease can boost significantly the foreign exchange
earnings of Caribbean anthurium growers. In addition, the
Biotechnology Centre is poised to mass propagate anthurium plant
materials. These can be sold to Caribbean anthurium growers at
reduced cost. These are only examples of the work being done at
UWI. You might like to find out more about these and other
programmes, especially those on the campus to which you are
attached.

ACTIVITY

1. For each of the crop improvements mentioned above give

one reason why it would be beneficial to the farmer and or
the environment.
2. Using genetically modified plants raises a number of ques-
tions. Consider the ones asked below and any others that
come to mind.

(a) Should we be concerned about the unknown effects of

introducing “foreign” genes into crops?
(b) What would happen if they spread through pollen to
nearby plants, making them resistant as well, or killing
useful insects?
(c) Is it possible that we could produce “super-weeds” by
accidentally cross breeding weeds with resistant GM
plants?

FD12A 239
 Developing substitutes for existing plant products

For several years now the sugar industry has been in crisis through-
out the Caribbean. As wages and transport costs increased locally
the market price for our sugar became less attractive. However, this
is not the only reason. Countries that used to purchase our sugar
can now make their own sweeteners, thanks to genetic engineering.
Corn-based fructose sweeteners are now available cheaply and have
all but killed the market for the sucrose produced from sugar cane
and beet. This research was spearheaded in the first world countries
that previously provided us with markets. Perhaps we need to
consider using genetic engineering to develop a new variety of sugar
cane that can produce a different and more marketable product.

A MATTER OF CONCERN

In the past, farmers were basically responsible for producing

good quality seeds to be used in subsequent crops. Now, large
corporations own patents for the genes of improved varieties.
The seeds carrying these genes often come at a high price,
making it difficult for small farmers to afford them. In addition,
they are sometimes genetically engineered to ensure that the
seeds from the next generation of the crop cannot grow. Thus
farmers must purchase seeds every season, as they cannot use
from their own supply. This shift in ownership to the large
corporations and the resulting disempowerment of small
farmers are viewed as negative spin-offs of the genetic
engineering revolution. The large corporations respond that
they spend large sums developing the new varieties and must
protect their investment. What is your opinion of this
situation?

Developing animal varieties

The emergence of genetic engineering has also impacted signifi-

cantly on animal production and animal health. As is the case with
plants, the technology can be used to improve the quality of animal
stock. In the traditional forms of breeding, only animals that are
closely related could be cross-bred. Mention was earlier made of the
Buffalypso and Jamaica Hope cattle, bred for meat and higher milk

240 FD12A
 production respectively. Selection and cross-breeding took place at
the level of the whole animal.

The new technology allows for individual genes to be swapped

between unrelated species, the exchange taking place at the molecu-
lar level. The resulting transgenic animals carry desirable genes that
were not initially part of their make-up. For example, transgenic
pigs have been produced which have a higher growth rate and better
quality meat than previously.

The gene of the growth hormone, bovine somatotropin (BST) from

cattle has been inserted into bacteria which then reproduce, making
large quantities of BST. In this case the bacteria are the transgenic
organisms. The hormone is then extracted and injected into cows to
stimulate greater milk production.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Cows treated with BST have a higher than normal

concentration of BST in the milk they produce. Some people
have expressed concern about a possible association between the
use of milk with the hormone, and uterine and prostate cancer.
In addition, recent studies show that cows given artificial BST
are 79% more likely to get the disease mastitis. What is your
reaction to this information, given the benefits mentioned
above?

The health of animal stock can be improved with the help of geneti-
cally engineered vaccines. Microbes are made to produce large
amounts of the specific antigens associated with particular diseases.
Vaccines are then made from these antigens (see Session 1). In
Australia, animal vaccines have been produced to counteract diar-
rhoea in piglets and parasites that affect sheep.

Genetically modified foods

The first genetically modified food (GMO) to be sanctioned by the

Food and Drug Administration in the United States of America was
the “Flavr Savr” tomato. It was sanctioned in May 1994. The
tomato has been genetically designed so that it does not soften

FD12A 241
 easily and can, therefore, be left on the plant until ripe. This ensures
that its flavour is properly developed. This contrasts with “natural”
tomatoes which must be picked at the onset of ripening to prevent
softening; such tomatoes do not stay on the tree long enough to
develop their full flavour.

It has been estimated that gene-altered corn and soybean products

are being used to make about 4000 food products that are sold in
American supermarkets, including corn flakes, potato chips, veggie
burgers, fresh garden produce and cooking oil with reduced satu-
rated fat. It is highly likely that many of these products can be
found on the shelves of any Caribbean supermarket.

Concerns and issues

Many individuals see the development of foods that have been

genetically modified as the route to providing large yields to meet
the world’s demand for food. Farmers and produce merchants also
benefit commercially and there are others who think this is the driv-
ing force behind the research. Concerns about the safety of geneti-
cally modified foods have been expressed all over the world. Recent
standards adopted in the USA for labelling foods as organically
grown include certifying that they do not contain products from
genetically modified organisms.

The concerns that have been expressed include the following:

l Food that contains products from GMOs does not always carry
labels that would alert the public to its nature and/or method of
preparation. Policies for labelling GMOs are not uniform. The
European Union and countries such as New Zealand and
Australia are pursuing mandatory labelling of these products.
However, the United States is using a system of voluntary
labelling as the main strategy. In the Caribbean, both Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago have begun drafting relevant policies
and other territories are now discussing this issue. Should there
be a regional policy?

l Though some testing of genetically modified foods has been

done, the testing is not as extensive as it should be and
appropriate testing procedures have not been developed in
some instances.

242 FD12A
 l Some persons have suggested that the increase in children of
hypersensitivity diseases such as allergies and asthma may be
due to genetically modified foods to which they are exposed.

l Although there are perceived advantages such as tastier fruit,

there may be unintended changes in the plant and if such plants
are cross bred with other varieties, a harmful variety may result.

Clearly, we must inform ourselves so that we can consider these

issues very carefully.

FD12A 243
244 FD12A
 Session 4.3
Biotechnology and Industry

Introduction

Rum has been made in the Caribbean since about 1750. The prepa-
ration of rums, wines and beers is one example of the early use of
biotechnology in industry. The alcohol base of these beverages came
from the fermentation of plant material by yeast, a living organism.
Yeasts, like all other living things, need energy to live. Unlike us
they can survive by obtaining energy from sugar (glucose) in the
absence of oxygen. When they do this they produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide as waste products. We could represent the process
like this:

Glucose à carbon dioxide + alcohol + energy

One important aspect of the new biotechnology is that it does not

only focus on making products for human use; it also focuses on
promoting and maintaining the health of the physical environment.

Some current uses of biotechnology in industry

Preventing and remedying environmental degradation

Chemical industrial processes tend to produce waste materials that

may be hazardous to the environment. In contrast, biotechnology-
based manufacturing tends to produce wastes that are recyclable
and biodegradable. For example, producing the antibiotic
cephalosporin using methods from modern biotechnology instead of
chemical methods is cost effective because less is spent on the meas-
ures previously needed to protect the environment. Similarly, it has
been estimated that there could be energy savings of up to 30%
when biotechnological methods are used to treat wood pulp instead
of thermo-mechanical methods, for example in making animal feed.

FD12A 245
 Besides preventing environmental degradation, biotechnological
methods can also be used to remedy damage that has already taken
place. Living organisms have been used to modify and destroy chem-
ical wastes making them harmless to the environment. Typically,
bacteria or fungi that can digest the waste are genetically engineered
to produce more effective strains that can get rid of the waste
quickly. In the case of oil spills, genetically engineered bacteria have
been produced and used to clean up waterways. This contrasts with
previous methods, for example, using detergents that often did more
damage than the oil spills.

Enzyme technology

Older methods of making cheeses and alcoholic beverages relied on

the enzymes produced by micro-organisms to convert milk or sugar
into the products to be sold. The enzymes can now be made and
extracted from genetically engineered bacteria in large quantities for
use in industry. One familiar use of enzymes is in washing powders.
Believe it or not, the world’s first enzyme detergent was patented in
1913 but it was not very successful. Enzymes from genetically engi-
neered micro-organisms are now used in manufacturing cheeses, in
brewing, making biscuits, and sweets. They are also used in the
textile and leather industries.

Creating new products

In manufacturing, biotechnology has led to the creation of a wide

range of products including biodegradable plastics, biopolymers, and
biopesticides. Also, an additional source of alcohol is now available.
Normally in the manufacture of alcohol, yeast acts on glucose after
it is broken down from more complex sugars like cane sugar. Yeast
now exists in a genetically altered form, which can break down a
different sugar, lactose or milk sugar. Whey, a waste product in the
manufacture of cheese, contains lactose. So this waste product can
now be used for making alcohol.

246 FD12A
 Considering issues in biotechnology

In the remainder of this Session we would like to raise a number of

issues that concern biotechnology as a whole. Many of these issues
arise because commercial interests now provide the driving force for
biotechnological development and many of the concerns are directed
at the use of biotechnology on a large scale. Some of these are legal
issues, others social, environmental or economic. It is at this level
that the average citizen must interface with the technology.

For each issue that is raised there are a number of pertinent ques-
tions. Consider them all carefully and discuss your opinions with a
class member or a friend or at your next tutorial. Use the informa-
tion provided in this and other units to inform your discussion but
your final opinions are personal. Write down your answers to the
questions for future reference.

The ownership of knowledge

Biotechnology has become an industry; it is now big business and

growing rapidly. One of the most contentious issues surrounding
the industry is the fact that most of the research in the area is no
longer in the public domain. This is to be expected. When large
pharmaceutical corporations spend millions on research in the hope
that the outcome will benefit them they are within their rights to
protect their discoveries. However, this goes against all that we have
said about the nature of scientific scholarship. Science has
progressed because researchers across the world have always shared
their knowledge. In this way scientists were able to build on what
others had accomplished. This is no longer the case.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Who should own new knowledge? Is the privatisation of

knowledge to the disadvantage of mankind as a whole?

FD12A 247
 Patenting

In 1980, a patent was granted in the United States for a genetically

engineered “oil-eating bacterium”. The organism was to be used for
cleaning up oil spills. It was said to be a “non-natural man-made
microorganism”. Since then, several patents have been given, for
example, for genetically modified bacteria, viruses, plants, and
hormones. In 1988 a transgenic mouse to be used in cancer research
was patented. Herman, the world’s first transgenic bull was created
in Europe. The issue of patenting Herman’s new genes that would
make his female offspring less likely to get mastitis, has not yet
been settled. Some companies afraid of exposing what they have
discovered to their competitors, refuse to file patents for their
discoveries. They consider them trade secrets.

Already there have been attempts to patent human genes by the

scientists working in the Human Genome Project. Some are of the
view that the scientist who identifies a gene should “own” it.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Is it appropriate to grant patents for living things? Are there

appropriate guidelines for granting these kinds of patents?
Should there be internationally agreed criteria or guidelines to
control research in this area? Is patenting a gene (a piece of
DNA) any different from patenting a particular brand of milk?

Biosafety and environmental hazards

The rate of effects of the new technology

The rate at which new biotechnology processes produce results

allows little time for observing environmental interactions at any
level, molecular, cellular or whole organism. Therefore there is no
time to correct or defuse errors that may have disastrous results.

248 FD12A
 ?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

The rate at which results are produced is one of the greatest

assets of the new technology. Since we do not yet know where
much of it will lead, should we put a brake on development in
this field?

The dangers of release

Many pharmaceutical and other companies use genetically engi-

neered organisms to make their products. There is concern for the
workers in these facilities should these organisms escape. Adequate
safeguards seem to be in place in these fermentation plants. In some
cases the micro-organisms are also genetically engineered so that
they cannot survive outside the specific conditions of the fermenta-
tion vats in which they live.

The greater danger is the use of genetically engineered micro-organ-

isms that are deliberately released into the environment. For exam-
ple, strains of bacteria that can fight certain diseases in crop plants
can be sprayed on them for this purpose. Scientists post materials to
each other around the world. These might escape from a torn pack-
age. The fear is that some previously unknown and dangerous effect
might follow. There is no way to recall or destroy these bacteria
once they enter the environment.

International policy as laid out in the Cartegena Biosafety Protocol,

adopted at a Conference of Parties to the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1999, and the Codex Alimentarius
of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), address these
concerns. These can help to prevent misuse and accidents arising
out of genetic engineering that could have irreversible effects but
they do not remove the danger altogether.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do these steps put your mind at rest? Even field trials are
hazardous; should we wait until we know more?

FD12A 249
 Competition with natural species

Another concern is that genetically engineered organisms may

escape into the wild and flourish at the expense of natural organ-
isms, wiping out whole varieties. This is a major concern with
respect to genetically engineered plants, many of which are in use
now. Plants spread their genes in pollen grains and seeds that are
difficult to confine to one area.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Is enough being done to assess the risk to the environment? Is

the risk worth taking in order to produce cheaper, more
nutritious foods in greater quantities for a growing world
population?

Social and economic issues

Are genetically modified organisms the new economic weapon?

Developing genetically modified organisms is expensive business.

Large companies with great economic resources stand to gain most
from technologies such as genetic engineering. GMOs can become a
new economic weapon in a number of ways. Patents are being taken
out on genes from tropical crops or plants with medicinal qualities.
Farmers in developing countries will derive no benefit from these
discoveries and stand to lose some of their markets (as happened
with sugar) as the products made by these methods can be cheaper
and more effective, thus more competitive.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Will we have the legal right to continue growing the crops from
which the genes have been patented? Is there any way of
protecting Caribbean countries from these activities? Should we
be doing more of our own biotechnology research?

250 FD12A
 Large companies, because of their economic strength, can force
poorer governments to accept their genetically modified exports,
affecting the livelihoods of farmers and farm workers. Reduced earn-
ings mean a lowering of the quality of life of these individuals and
of the economic circumstances of the countries to which they
belong.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do Third World countries have laws and regulations that would

protect them from this kind of occurrence? Can any laws on the
labeling of genetically modified foods really be strictly enforced,
particularly since these organisms may be developed in secret?

Can the developing world afford the new technologies?

Cuba has successfully entered the field of biotechnology. An existing

excellent health service is the base on which their enterprise has
been built. The UWI has biotechnology centres on its three
campuses, where research is being carried out and on the university
campus in Trinidad and Tobago the tissue culture facility is commer-
cially viable. It is not impossible or unrealistic for institutions and
governments like ours to follow Cuba’s lead. Although we may not
have individual companies and corporations in the region with the
wherewithal to pursue such research our governments and institu-
tions like the university can work together on selected projects of
mutual benefit.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Can we enter the field of biotechnology successfully? How can

we strengthen the already existing biotechnology centres?
Should the region consider developing appropriate policies to
support work in the area and protect the population from the
less desirable effects of biotechnology? What might be the
prerequisites for developing an economically viable
biotechnology sector?

FD12A 251
 Ethical considerations
The right to modify life

Humans have been modifying living things for hundreds of years.

Many breeds of dogs provide pleasure to their owners no matter
how ridiculous they appear to us. These have all been “created” by
humans. Breeding plants and animals for pleasure or profit has not
raised many questions but many feel the new technology is going
too far.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do we have the right to modify the genetic material of living

organisms at will, knowing that we do not yet have the
technology to reverse the changes produced?

Lack of privacy in data banks

Scientists working on the Human Genome Project and others in

public and private institutions discover and locate precisely genes
that cause or predispose individuals to certain diseases. As more and
more of these genes are found information is piling up in data banks
that are like libraries. The information is important for other
researchers but use of the banks can be abused. It is feared that
employers or insurance companies, for example, can use information
about a person’s genetic make-up to discriminate against them. An
insurance company may refuse to insure someone with a predisposi-
tion to heart disease. An employer may fire a 23-year-old worker
carrying the gene for Huntington’s chorea although he may not
become ill for another 25 years.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

If employers are paying health or life insurance for their

employees, should they have access to the employees’ genetic
records if they are available? This may be one of many
questions that we have to deal with in the future. The future is
not very far away.

252 FD12A
 It should be clear to you that to begin thinking about these ques-
tions at all, people need to have some basic information about what
is going on. We hope you are now in a better position to make more
objective decisions should you be asked to contribute to a debate on
any of the issues raised.

?
? A FINAL QUESTION

Should as many of our citizens as possible, be exposed to this

kind of scientific information?

SUMMARY

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms to make useful products

for humans. Modern biotechnology refers to genetic engineering and
its associated technologies.

Biotechnology and medicine

Techniques covered included artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisa-

tion, genetic engineering, and gene cloning. Some of the uses of
genetic engineering discussed include making safe vaccines, cheaper
production of hormones, prenatal diagnoses for genetic defects in
foetuses, and pregnancy tests. In forensic medicine the use of DNA
fingerprinting was seen to be a useful tool for making positive iden-
tifications and matching tissues of donors and recipients for trans-
plant surgery. In medical research genetic engineering centred on the
development of transgenic animals with human genes making
experiments possible that cannot be done on humans. The contro-
versial areas of gene therapy and stem cell research were also
discussed. The mapping of the human genome and the many possi-
bilities it offered were described briefly.

Biotechnology in agriculture

In this section the main focus was on examples from the Caribbean
of work done to enhance the characteristics of some commercially
important plants and animals. Methods used include plant propaga-
tion by tissue culture and genetic engineering of new varieties. The

FD12A 253
 “old” technologies of plant and animal breeding were also seen to
have made an important contribution to Caribbean agriculture

Biotechnology in industry

In industry genetic engineering has contributed bacteria with genes

for making a wide range of products in ways that are cleaner and
more environmentally friendly than the older technologies. Products
include foods, enzymes for washing powders, and bacteria for clean-
ing up oil spills.

Issues and concerns

Several issues concerning the safety of the new technologies for

humans and the environment were discussed as well as possible
social and economic effects on the developing world. The ethical
issue of “tampering with life” was also raised.

254 FD12A
 REFERENCES

Fransman, Martin. Biotechnology: Generation, diffusion and policy. The

Netherlands: The United Nations University, 1992, pp. 45–78.
Lowe H., Y. Brown, and K. Magnus. Discovering the future: The
emergence, development and future of science and technology in
Jamaica. Kingston: Canoe Press, University of the West Indies,
2000.
Tzotzos, George T. Biological risk assessment: The limits of
scientific certainty. BINAS News 5 (3 & 4), 1999.
http://binas.unido.org/binas/Library/binasnews/99issue3-4.shtml
Umaharan, P. Diverse Perspectives of genetically modified
organisms: Pros and cons and international perspectives on
GMOs. Paper presented at the symposium Genetically Modified
Organisms: Implications for Sustainability. Ministry of Trade,
Industry and Consumer Affairs, Trinidad and Tobago, 15–17
March, 2000.

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