UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SMALL-SCALE RANKINE CYCLE

(FOR USE OF UE CALOOCAN STUDENTS AS LABORATORY EQUIPMENT)

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of

Project Study 1 for ME (NME 514-1ME) for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

GUIMBAOLIBOT, TYRON C.
SAQUING, ROD-RYAN L.
SERRANO, KING FELIPE IV

March 3, 2019
 Chapter 1- The Problem and its Background

1.1. Introduction

Steam power plants play a key role in electric power generation and other vast

applications in the country. With this, knowledge in steam power cycle, such as Rankine, is

important study of mechanical engineering and to aspiring engineers such as students in the

University of the East (UE) - Caloocan.

This problem pushes the researchers to establish the aforementioned subject project with

the aim to design and fabricate a small-scale Rankine cycle model to be used as a laboratory

equipment in the Mechanical Engineering (ME) Department of the UE - Caloocan. The small-

scale model can help not just ME professors but students as well, who are dealing with

thermodynamic related courses and aims to physically visualize the rationale of the subject

matter. This will help them easily in demonstrating and learning the Rankine cycle and other

cyclic processes in relevance. An example of this is the function of a boiler, principles and

concepts that are needed to create a good boiler for the plant and how steam at the condenser

become a water at the exit, why pump is needed and a lot more that can discover.

The small-scale of Rankine Cycle consisted of a heat exchanger and mechanical machine.

The heat exchanger is composed of a boiler that will supply heat and a condenser that will reject

the heat. While the mechanical machine involves turbine that will create rotary shaft inside and a

pump that will help to increase the water pressure for the cycle.

Furthermore, this design is a small-scale model that can produce only a small amount of

energy, but with further research and study, the researcher can improve the efficiency of the

model that can produce a little bit of energy which can be use in some ways like in laboratory

reports. Likewise, this model needs only a small space and it is designed to move one place to
another so that it can be displayed at the ME laboratory or machine shop for the students to see

it.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1. A better foundation for ME students that will help in thermodynamic related courses.

2. Students that are dealing in comprehending theoretical principles regarding the project will

be explained better through actual simulations.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

 General Objective

To be able to design and fabricate a small-scale steam power plant model having

components such as boiler, turbine, condenser and pump that can determine the parameters such

as pressure and temperature.

 Specific Objectives

To be able to design a small-scale model of Rankine Cycle that can demonstrate

functions of each components and how it produces electricity.

To be able to provide a reference to other researchers who are interested in the project by

which an experiment manual can be devised.

1.4 Assumptions of the Study

In designing and fabricating the small-scale Rankine cycle, the following assumptions

were made:

1. Steam turbine, DC motor, lightbulb, and other materials that is required to fabricate a small-

scale Rankine cycle which are commercially available.

2. The parameters conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure) are based on standards.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research study shows a lot of significance in terms of the following matter:

1. To the University

This project can help produce quality ME students through providing a workable

laboratory equipment for use in ME Department.

2. To Students

This project is just only to design and fabricate a small-scale model. This can help

students not just visualize the actual model but also, they can first-hand experience in

getting the actual values like for example, changes in pressure and temperature to compute

for the power or efficiency. Aside from computation, the model will also help students to

think beyond on what the project can do more. The incoming mechanical engineering

students who are interested on this project can innovate and make it better or improve for

the laboratory equipment purposes.

3. To the community

This project provides quality Mechanical Engineers that can able to analyze critically to

produce another project in relevant to the research.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The major focus of this research is to design and fabricate a small-scale Rankine Cycle

model that can be used for small applications relevant to thermodynamic principles for UE-ME

students.

The aim of this project is to determine cycle efficiency by getting the temperatures and

pressures. Additionally, the test that will measure temperature and pressure. Furthermore, the
project will also consider getting the output power that can create an electricity (e.g. light bulb,

LED). Also, it is for the comparison of the parameters for the other researcher who are doing an

experiment that is relevant to the project.

1.7 Conceptual Framework

BOILER FEED WATER

TURBINE GENERATOR

CONDENSER COOLING WATER

PUMP

Figure 1.1. Components of Rankine Cycle

There are four significant components that is needed to be able to build this model.

Those are boiler, turbine, condenser, and pump. The boiler heated by the solar heat converts
water to superheated steam. This steam is used to run the turbine which powers the generator.

Steam leaves the turbine and becomes cooled to liquid state in the condenser. Then the liquid is

pressurized by the pump and goes back to the boiler. And the cycle continues. 

In order for the working model to operate, the feed water must be supplied at the

steam boiler. The heating process will undertake inside the boiler where heat is supplied to the

feed water through conduction using fire as heat source, thus water will become vapor. A copper

pipe will connect the boiler to the turbine. The vapor leaving the boiler will enter the turbine via

pipe and the vapor will expand in the turbine, thus the work produced through rotational motion

is used to drive an electric generator which can create a small amount of electricity as a result.

Furthermore, a condenser will be attached at the outlet side of the turbine and the vapor leaving

the turbine is to be cooled down until completely condensed. A pump will be connected between

the outlet of the condenser and the inlet of the boiler using pipes. The liquid condensate leaving

the condenser is pumped to the operating pressure of the boiler to be used again for another

cycle.

1.8. Definition of Terms

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to

energy and work.

Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into

mechanical work while undergoing phase change.

Feedwater is a water to be supplied to a boiler from a tank or condenser for conversion into

steam.

Boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. 

Turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into

useful work. 

Condenser an apparatus or container for condensing vapor

Pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. 

Wet Saturated Vapor is a substance in the gaseous state which does not follow the general gas

law.

Power refers to source or means of supplying energy.

Shaft is the cylindrical bar that rotates and transmits power.

Heat transfers refers to the transmission of energy from one region to another as a result of

temperature gradient.
 Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter provides information and related studies conducted to the project. The

following reviews are obtained from different sources such as books, journals, reports and other

related works:

In today’s modern world, all societies are involved to various degrees with technological

breakthroughs that are attempting to make our lives more productive and more comfortable.

Some technologies include electronic devices that are very prominent around the world and one

of the most prominent technology today is computer system. These systems and other electronic

devices in our modern world depend on a reliable and most prominent energy source and that is

electricity. In fact, reliable electricity is critical in sustaining economic growth and security for

some rich countries like United States, China and also for the rest of the world.

Availability of electricity provides a very high degree of comfort for most of the

industrialized world and because of that the source of this electricity and the means for its

production are often forgotten. (Woodruff, et. al., 2005)

Steam power plants play a key role in electric power generation. Therefore, the Rankine

steam power cycle is one of the most important cyclic processes used in industry. The efficiency

of electrical power generation has been increased in the last few years due to process

optimization. Nowadays a total efficiency of approx. 45% can be reached. For this reason, the

steam power cycle plays an important role in engineering education. The behavior of steam

power plants at different operating conditions can be investigated. Due to the use of real
components aspects such as maintenance, repair, measurement and control technology can be

addressed.

Steam power plant is fundamental to what is by far the largest sector of the electricity-

generating industry and without it the face of contemporary society would be dramatically

different from its present one. We would be forced to rely on hydro-electric power plant,

windmills, batteries, solar cells and fuel cells, all of which are capable of producing only a

fraction of the electricity we use. Steam is important, and the safety and efficiency of its

generation and use depend on the application of control and instrumentation. (Lindsley, 2000)

Rankine cycle is the primary vapor power cycle in thermodynamics. It is named for

William Rankine, a Scottish engineer who developed a thermodynamic cycle that describes a

steam engine that contained an external condenser. Some power plants use Rankine cycle to

generate the mechanical power transmitted to an electrical generator to produce electricity. In

some countries, steam power plant is one of the biggest sources of electricity.

The basic Rankine cycle consists of four processes, which are performed in four pieces of

equipment: a pump, a steam generator or boiler, a steam turbine, and a condenser. Water (steam)

is the most common working fluid used in the Rankine cycle. Other substance that undergo

phase changes at appropriate temperature and pressures can also be used. (Reisel, 2016)

Resiel, In his writings discussed the four process in a Rankine cycle:

Process 3-4: Isentropic compression.

The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump. Because of the low specific

volume of liquids, the pump work is relatively small and often neglected in thermodynamic

calculations.
Process 4-1: Constant-pressure heat addition.

High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump and is heated to the saturation

temperature. Further addition of energy causes evaporation of the liquid until it is fully converted

to saturated steam.

Process 1-2: Isentropic expansion.

The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work which may be converted to

electricity. In practice, the expansion is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium and by

the erosion of the turbine blades by liquid entrainment in the vapor stream as the process moves

further into the two-phase region.

Process 2-3: Constant-pressure heat removal

The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine is condensed at low pressure, usually in a

surface condenser using cooling water. In well designed and maintained condensers, the pressure

of the vapor is well below atmospheric pressure, approaching the saturation pressure of the

operating fluid at the cooling water temperature.

Thermodynamics can be defined as a science dealing with energy and it is considered to

an engineering science. Thermodynamics is largely concerned with the conversion of heat into

work. Energy comes in many forms and it is possible to have mechanical energy that is totally

independent of thermodynamics. It forms an essential part of the education of an engineer since

conversion and use of energy are essential for any modern society.

The application of thermodynamics knowledge takes place within engineering. It is

engineers who design and manufacture steam plant for power stations or turbo-fan engines to
propel modern airliners. And in order to design and fabricate these devices or machines they

must have a sound knowledge of, and be able to apply, thermodynamics. (Sherwin, 1993)

There are four components that are used in a Rankine cycle. Each of it has different

functions for the plant. These four components are being describe below.

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or

vaporized fluid exits the boiler for the use in various processes or heating applications. A boiler

or which is also called steam generator is a device used to produce steam by applying heat

energy to water. It is used wherever a source of steam is required. Forms and size of the boiler

depends on its application. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels,

such as wood, coal, oil, or natural gas.

In the boiler furnace, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat, and it is the

function of the boiler to transfer this heat to the contained water in the most efficient manner. A

boiler must be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released in the process of

combustion. This heat is transferred to the boiler water through radiation, conduction and

convection. Two most common type of boilers are fire tube boiler and water tube boiler which is

used for industrial application. (Kaiser, 2012)

One of the most important power generating turbomachine is the steam turbine. It is the

principal prime mover in the field of electric power generation. The role of the steam turbine as

one of the components in the steam power plant is that when steam enters to the turbine, it will

expand that will lead to create work inside the turbine which is called a rotary shaft work. A

shaft will be connected to the electric generator to the turbine that will produce electricity.
Advantages of steam turbine against some reciprocating engine. (Wu, 2015)

1. Thermal Efficiency of a Steam Turbine is higher than that of a Reciprocating Engine.

2. The Steam Turbine develops power at a uniform rate and hence does not require

Flywheel.

3. No internal lubrication is required for Steam Turbine as there are no rubbing parts inside.

4. No heavy foundation is required for Turbine because of the perfect balancing of the

different parts.

5. If the Steam Turbine is properly designed and constructed then it is the most durable

Prime Mover.

6. Much higher speed may be developed and a far greater range of speed is possible than in

the case of Reciprocating Engine.

Various types of steam turbines can be classified in the following manner. (Yahya. 2011)

a) On the basis of flow direction. (Axial, Radial, and Tangential)

b) On the basis of expansion process. (Impulse, Reaction, Combined impulse and reaction)

c) On the basis of number of stages. (Single stage and Multi-stage)

d) On the basis of steam entry configuration. (Full admission and Partial admission)

e) On the basis of number of flows. (Single flow, Double flow, Divided flow and Tandem or

Cross compounded)

f) On the basis of relative motion of the rotor. (Single rotation and Double rotation)

g) On the basis of rotational speed.

h) On the basis of applications. (Electric power generation, Industrial and Marine)

 i) On the basis of steam condition. (High pressure non-condensing, High pressure

condensing, Back pressure, Regenerative, Reheating, Extraction, Mixed pressure and

Exhaust turbine)

The steam condenser is one of the essential components of all modern steam power

plants. A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and where the

pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as a condenser. The efficiency of

the steam plant is considerably increased by the use of a condenser. In large turbine plants, the

condensate recovery becomes very important and this is also made possible by the use of

condenser. Surface is one type of a condenser wherein in surface condensers there is no direct

contact between the steam and cooling water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler: In

such condenser even impure water can be used for cooling purpose whereas the cooling water

must be pure in jet condensers. (Raja, et. Al., 2006)

The various advantages of a surface condenser are as follows:

1. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water.

2. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does not come

in direct contact with steam.

3. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser. This

increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.

The various disadvantages of' the surface condenser are as follows:

1. The capital cost is more.

2. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high.

3. It is bulky and requires more space.

The requirements of ideal surface condenser used for power plants are as follows:

1. The steam entering the condenser should be evenly distributed over the whole cooling

surface of the condenser vessel with minimum pressure loss.

2. The amount of cooling water being circulated in the condenser should be so regulated

that the temperature of cooling water leaving the condenser is equivalent to saturation

temperature of steam corresponding to steam pressure in the condenser. This will help in

preventing under cooling of condensate.

3. The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes should be prevented. Passing the

cooling water through the tubes and allowing the steam to flow over the tubes achieve

this.

4. There should be no air leakage into the condenser because presence of air destroys the

vacuum in the condenser and thus reduces the work obtained per kg of steam. If there is

leakage of air into the condenser air extraction pump should be used to remove air as

rapidly as possible.

The function of a pump is to add to the pressure existing on a liquid an increment

sufficient to the required service. This service may be the production of a velocity or the

overcoming of friction or external pressure. Pumps are used for condensing water, condensate,

boiler feed, heater drain, booster flows, sumo drain, and other services. (Morse, 1953)

Deciding what type of material should be used in a particular design application is very

important in engineering. A wide variety of material is available for engineering products, and

choosing the correct ones is an important aspect of the design process. Some classes of materials

encountered in mechanical engineering are metals and their alloys which is common in the

industry, ceramics, polymers and composite materials.

 Engineers select materials based on their performance, cost, availability, and past track

record in similar applications. In selecting the materials to be used in a product, an engineer first

needs to decide on the class of material to use (for instance, metals and their alloys). Second

thing to considered is to determine which material within the class is most appropriate (for

instance, steel or aluminum). (Wickert et. al., 2017)

In real life condition, when building a steam power plant, engineers also need to know

the factors that determine the cost to build a new power plant. These factors includes

construction costs, fuel expenses, environmental regulations, and financing costs. But all these

factors can be affected by government power and economic policies. (Kaplan, 2008)

Potter, on his writings cited that the piping system of a power plant is an important item

in the total cost of the station. Piping cost can reach almost 13% of the station cost. Thus, proper

design and selection of the piping system used are utmost importance and may well mean the

difference between an economical station and one that is uneconomical. (Potter, 1959)

In selecting various types of pipes, there are some factors to be considered and these are:

1. Correct pipe diameter for the service conditions.

2. Flexibility of the system to absorb thermal expansion.

3. Materials required for satisfactory performance under the service temperature.

4. Wall thickness needed to withstand the stresses that will be imposed on the pipe.

These are some types of materials that commonly used in steam power plant:

Mild Steel. — The greater portion of the piping in the average steam power plant is of mild steel,

lap or butt welded for high pressures and riveted for very low pressures and large diameters.
Steel pipe is considerably cheaper than that manufactured from other material and fulfills

practically all requirements for general service. (Gebhard, 1917)

Wrought Iron. — Wrought-iron pipe in a commercial sense refers to mild-steel pipe and unless

stress is laid upon the term 'Spuddled iron" mild steel is ordinarily furnished. Puddled-iron pipe

is not much in evidence in steam power plant work since mild steel is cheaper and fulfills all

requirements. Wrought-iron pipe appears to resist corrosion to a greater extent than mild-steel

pipe.

Cast-steel Pipe. — Cast-steel headers are sometimes used in power plants for highly superheated

steam, since the material is not affected by temperature variations to the same extent as mild

steel. High first cost and the difficulty of securing castings free from blowholes have prevented

its more general use.

Copper Pipes. — Copper steam pipes were in common use for many years in marine service on

account of their flexibility. To increase the bursting strength, pipes above 6 inches in diameter

were generally wound with a close spiral of copper or composition wire. In recent years

wrought-iron and steel pipe bends have practically superseded copper for flexible connections.

As a rule the use of copper pipes should be avoided on account of the rapid deterioration of the

metal under high temperatures and stress variations. Copper expansion joints are occasionally

used in low-pressure work. Copper is commonly used in the condenser.

Brass Pipes. — Brass is little used in the construction of pipes on account of its high cost. It

withstands corrosive action much better than iron or steel and is sometimes used in connecting

the feed main with the boiler drum. Special alloys, nickel steel, ''ferrosteel," malleable iron, and

the like have been used in the manufacture of pipes, and possess points of superiority over
wrought iron and steel for some purposes, but the cost is prohibitive for average steam power

plant practice.

Factors and parameters affecting the selection of steam power plant capacities and sites: (Khalil,

2008)

1. Types of service (base load or peak load).

2. Location (relative to water and fuel).

3. Space available (each power plant has a certain area/unit energy produced).

4. Reliability (each component needs to be reliable).

5. Environment: because there are some chemicals that used in combustion that will affect

the people in the surroundings.

6. Cost (capital cost and maintenance cost).

Combustion of fuels is used for firing the electricity industry boilers to make steam, or as

in using petrol to make a car engine work. It can be applied to reaction between any material

which result in significant heat release. Commonly, the word combustion is used for reactions

between fuels and air. To create good combustion there are some conditions to follow. First is

the temperature, second is that it takes time then last is turbulence. (Horsley, 1993)

There are three types of fuel that can be used in combustion:

Solid - coal, charcoal, briquette, coke etc.

Liquid – diesel, gasoline, kerosene etc.

Gas – LPG, biogas, propane etc.

 Yadav in his writings explains that “Heat” is when two systems at different temperatures

are placed in thermal contact with each other and isolated form of all other systems, a change in

the temperature of other thermodynamic property is both systems will always occur due to

energy transfer. Heat can be identified only as it crosses the boundary of a system, hence heat is

a form of energy in transit. Heat is therefore not an energy contained in a system and thus it is

not a property of the system. When heat enters a system, it gets converted into potential or

kinetic energy of the molecules of the system. (Yadav, 2006)

Heat transfers refers to the transmission of energy from one region to another as a result

of temperature gradient. It helps to predict the temperature distribution. Heat transfer also helps

to determine the rate at which energy is transferred across a surface of interest due to temperature

gradients at the surface, and the temperature difference between the different surface.

The design of the heat exchange equipment such as boilers, heaters, refrigerators, and

heat exchangers depend not only on the amount of heat to be transmitted but rather on the rate at

which heat is to be transferred under given conditions. (Kumar, 2016)

Feed water control system is needed to supply enough water to the boiler to match the

evaporation rate. For the subcritical plant, because the separation of steam from water always

happens at the drum, maintaining the drum level naturally represents the balance between the

feedwater supply and steam generation.

Controlling the drum water level within a given tolerance is important for the safe

operation of the plant: a high level will increase the risk of water being carried over into the

steam circle, which may not only lead to a fluctuation of steam temperature, but also cause

fouling and damage of the superheaters; conversely, a low level will cause the water wall piping
to be damaged from insufficient cooling. Both can result in catastrophic failures. The drum water

level is determined by both the volume of the water in the drum and the volume of the steam

bubbles under the water level. Thus, the drum water level can be influenced by feedwater flow

rate, steam flow rate, heat quantity generated from combustion and many other variables, and its

control presents a complex problem due to the large inertia behavior of these disturbances and a

‘swell and shrink’ effect. (Wu, 2015)

Engineers needs to know how to reduce cost and one of the ways to decrease

consumption in a power plant is to Increase efficiency even at a very small scale, there has a

remarkable impact on pemissions reductions and on fuel consumption. Its efficiency is decided

by parameters of this cycle. The changes of efficiency of different power plant attributes mostly

to different temperature pressure, superheat steam and Reheat steam temperatures. (Kruger, et.

al., 2003)

According to Hendershot, when designing a machine or plant, questions of quality,

safety, health, and environmental impact arise. Designers begin imagining things that can go

wrong with the system. Focusing here on process safety systems, we suggest that designers begin

thinking like risk analysts, asking: (Hendershot, 1998)

 What can go wrong? What failure scenarios can we realistically expect with this process?

 What impact can those failure scenarios have? Can we live with such consequences?

 Do we need to worry about these potential failure scenarios actually happening? How

likely are they to occur?

 What is the risk? Can we tolerate the potential consequences at the estimated likelihood?
The review of these related literatures and studies provided the author the importance, function

and characteristics of a power plant. It has given me ideas on how to design and build properly a

steam power plant. And how important it is to know what you are doing as a engineer.
 Chapter 3: Methodology

This chapter presents the methods on how the data from the experiment are gathered

and analyzed. It also explains how the Small-Scale Rankine Cycle Model will be fabricated.

Lastly, the system design is briefly discussed with the use of different diagrams.

3.1 Research Methodology

This study uses an experimental methodology. Experimental research is known to be

a true research where researchers manipulate some variables to produce data. It examines

specific set of circumstances and its ultimate goal is to relate the results to a particular situation.

It uses data directly to the actual application and seeks immediate solution to the problems. This

research aims to fabricate Small-Scale Rankine Cycle Model which helps the students to

visualize the actual presentation of the said project.

3.2 Design and Fabrication of Small-Scale Rankine Cycle Model

Figure 1. The Small-Scale Rankine Cycle Model (Isometric View)

Figure 2. The Small-Scale Rankine Cycle Model (X-Ray View)
3.3 Components
 Figure 3. Boiler

Figure 4. Turbine
Figure 5. Condenser (Isometric View)
Figure 6. Pump (Isometric

View)
Figure 7. Dynamo (Isometric View)
 Figure 8. Bulb (Isometric View)

Estimated Cost
 Materials Quantity Dimensions/Capacity Cost (PHP)

Turbine blade with DC 1 1V to 9V capacity 1554.51

Motor

Copper Metal Sheet Plate 2 100 mm x 100 mm 1012

Copper Tubes 1 2 m Length 441

Water Pump 1 12V, 4.5 x 2.5 cm 483

Zinc Sheet 2 100 mm x 100 mm 432

Light Bulb 1 ******* 200

Miscellaneous (Welding ******* ******* 2000

rods, Couplings, Copper
tapes, etc.)

Total PHP 6122.51