“Poesia, Mursaesu TENAGA RASIORAL sea ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM Institut Latihan Sultan Ahmad Shah (LS:Table of Contents LNT ee CHAPTER, PAGE + BASIC FUNCTION OF MAIN ELECTRICAL 1 COMPONENT INTHE POWER PLANT. 1.1 Electic power system. 1 4.2. Component ofan electric power sytem. ‘ 4.3. Power station 1 4.4 Transformer 2 1.5 Power transformers 2 1.6 Transmission ine 2 4.7 Supplementary equipment. 3 1.8 Power quality. 3 1.9 Voltage regulation 4 2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF THE ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS 5 24 -egends 5 22 Symbols 5 23° Linkages 5 24 Acircuit diagrams. 6 25 Switch types, 68 2.8 Switch contact designe 8 2.7 contact "normal state and makeforeak 10-13 sequence 28 Time delay relays 13644 29 Protective relays. 6 2.410 Wires and connection. 18 2.11. Power source. 16 sass Oe212 243 2a4 2.48 2.16 Switches, electrically actusted (relays) Connectors. Electrical symbols-contactor cail-general Electrical symbole-contacts and field devices Electrical symbols ~ connectors 3. ELECTRIC SCHEMATIC SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM. 34 32 33 34 35 36 Ladder diagrams Permissive and interiock ckeuits Motor contol circuits. Falt-safe design ANSI protective relay designation numbers Power system devices function IEEE 4, PLAN ELECTRCAL LAYOUT SAS naa 16 7 1819 20 2 2 2.23 23.24 24-25 25-28 26-27 28-30 30-41CHAPTER 1 a Basic Function of main electrical component in the power plant. 4.4 ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS Electic Power Systems, components that transform other types of energy into tlectical energy and transmit this energy fo a consumer. The production and franemission of electioty ig relatively eficient and inexpensive, altrough unlike bier Torme of energy, electricity ie not easly stored and thus must generally be Used as It is being produced. 4.2 COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM ‘A modem electric power system consists of six main components: 4) The power station, 2) A set of transformers to on the transmission ines, ise the generated power to the high voltages used 3) The transmission tines, 44) The substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the distribution lines, 5) The distribution nes, and 66) The vansforers that lower the distribution voltage to the level used by the consumer's equipment 4.3 BOWER STATION ‘The power station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such a8 @ turbine driven by water, Steam, of combustion gases that operate 2 system of tlectrie motors and jenarators. Most of the world's electric power is generated in steam plants driven by coal, ol, nuclear energy, or ges. A smaller percentage of {he wont's olostfe power is generated by hydracloctric (waterpower), diesel, and internal-combustion plants uses eemseeeai ounCHAPTER 1 44 TRANSFORMER Transformer, electrical device consisting of one coil of wire placed in close proximity ta ‘one or rore other coils, used to couple two or more alternating- ‘current (AC) circalts together by empioying the induction between the coils (see Electricty). The coll connected to the power source is called the primary coil, and the other colle are known as secondary. A transformer in which the secondary voltage is higher then the primary is called a step-up transformer, if the secondary vollage is lass than the primary, the device is known as a step-down transformer. The product of current time's voltage is constant in each set of coils, so that in a step-up transformer, the voltage increase in the secondary is, ‘accompanied by a coresponding dacrease in the current. 1.5 POWER TRANSFORMERS Lerge devices are used in electric power systems, and small units in electronic, Gevioes Industrial and residential power transformers that operate at the line frequency may be single phase or three-phase, and are designed to handle high voltages and currents, Efficient power transmission requires a step-up transformer at the power-generating station to raise voltages, with a corresponding decrease In current, Line power losses are proportional to the ‘square of the current times the resisiance of the power line, so that very high voltages and low currents are used for long-distance transmission lines to reduce losses, At the reoaiviig end, step-down transformers reduce the voltage, and increase the current, to the residential or industrial voltage level, usually 220 to 418, 1.8 TRANSMISSION LINES The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper, aluminum, oF copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall laticawork towers of steel by stings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers, the distance between towers can be increased, and the cast of the transmission line thus reduced, In modem. installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as, few as six towers t2 the Kllometer. In some areas highwvoltage lines are suspended from tall wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage distribution lines, wooden poles are generally used rather than steel {owers. In cities and cther areas where open lines create a sefety hazard or are considered unattractive, ineulated underground cables are used for distribution. sas rennin AlaCHAPTER 1 Se 1.7 SUPPLEMENTARY EQUIPMENT ‘Any electic-distibuton system Involves @ large amount of supplementary fequioment fo protect the generators, transformers, and the transmission lines “The system offen includes devices designed to regulate the voltage or other ‘characteristics of power delivered to consumers. ‘To protect all elemens of a power system from short circuits and overloads, and {for normal switching operations, circuit broakers are employed. These breakers re large switches thst are activated automatically in the event of @ short circut ‘of other condition that produoas a sudden rise of current, Because @ current orme acrovs the terminals ofthe croult breaker at the moment when the current is interupted, some large breakers (such as those used to protect a generator ar '3 section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid that is a poor Conductor of electicty, such as ol, fo quench the current In large ai-type circuit breakers, as well as in oll breakars, magnetic fields are used to break up the current. Small ai-cireult breakers are used for protection In shops, factories, and in modem home installations, In residential electic wing, fuses were onos Commonly employed for the same purpose. A fuse consists of a piece of alloy tuth a low mating point, inserted in the creat, which melts, breaking the ciroult it the current rises above @ certain value. Most now use eit-circult breakers 4.8 POWER QUALITY In recent years electricity has eeen used to power more sophisticated and technically complex manufacturing processes, computers and computer networks, and & variety of other high-technology consumer goods. These products and provessee are sensitive not only to the cortinuty of power supply but also to the corstanoy of electrical frequency and voltage. Consequently, Ulties are taking new measures to provide the necessary reliability and quality Of electrical power, such as by providing additional electrical equipment to assure that the voltage and other characteristics of electrical power ere constant, ee susasonneatebatmat ou alaCHAPTER 1 1.9 VOLTAGE REGULATION Long transmission ines have considerable inductance and capacitance. When ‘ourrent flows through the line, inductance and capactance have the effect of varying the voltage on the line as the current varies, Thus the supply voltage varies with the load, Several kinds of devices are used to overcome this Undesirable veriation In an operation called regulation of the votage. The devices Include incuction regulators and three-phase synchronous motors (called ‘synchronous condensers), both of which vary the effective amount of inductance ‘and capacitance in the transmission cicut. Inductanee and capactance react with a tendency to nulify one another. When a load cireuit has more inductive than capactive reactance, as almost invariably ‘cours in large power systems, the amount of power delivered for a given voltage: {and curtent is less than when the two are equal. The rato of these two amounts ‘of power is called the power factor. Secause transmissionline losses sre proportional to current, capacitance is added to the circuit when possible, thus bringing the power fsctor as neerly a6 possible to 1. For this reason, large ‘capacitors are frequerly inserted as a pat of power-tansmission systems. sas rerannsnraseBosCHAPTER 2 ae 2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS: 2.4 .LEGENDS (On a citcut ciagram, the components are-given with 2 descriptor matching that fon the list of parts. Fer example, C1 is the frst capacitor, Lis the frst inductor, it is the first ransistar, and RI is the fst resistor. The leters that precede the phumbers go back wel before even the vacuum tube (thermionie valve), s0 "O" twas the only one available for semiconductor devices in the mié-twentieth Century, Often the value of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed partculars would go on the parts list 2.2 SYMBOLS Circuit diagrams have differed from county te country and have changed over time. The symbol for @ resistor shown here dates-back to the days when that ‘component was made from a long piece of wire wrapped in such @ manner as to fot produce inductance, which would have made it a coll. These. wirewound Fosistors are now used only in high-power applications, smaller resistors being Cast from carbon composition (a mixture of carbon and file) or fabricated as an Insulating tube or chip coated with @ metal fim. To llustrate this, European circut diagrams have replaced the zig-zag symbol by a simple oblong, sometimes with the value In ohms written Inside, A less comman symbol ie simply @ series of peaks on one side o°the line representing the conductor, rather than back-and- forth @s shown here, Also, the bulb symbol has had many variatons over the past years. 2.8 LINKAGES. The linkages betwesn leads were once simple crossings of lines; one wire insulated from and “jumping over" another was indicated by it making aa litle semicircle over the other line, With the arrival of computstized drafting, @ annection of wo intersecting wires was shown by a crossing with dot or "Slob", and a crossover of insulated wires by a simple crossing without a dot However, there was a danger of confusing these two representations if the dot was drawn foo small or omited, Modern practice is to avoid using the "erossover, ‘vith dot" symbol, and to draw the wires meeting at two points instead of one. Se c 2 aie SeinoCHAPTER 2 ————————— 2.4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM, {A circuit dlagram (alse known as an electrical diagram of electronic schematic) is ‘2 pictorial representation of an. electrical circuit It shows the different ‘components of the cinuit as simplified and standard pictograms, and the power, ‘and signal connections: (buses) between: the. devices: Arangement of the Components and interconnections on the diagram does not usually correspond to ‘hair phyeieal locatians inthe finished device, Unlike a block diagram oF layout diagram, a circult diagram shows the actual wire intorconneets baing used, The picture does not have to correspond to what the ccroult actually looks lite ~ the type of drawing which would depict what the circuit ‘actualy looks lke is calleg "artwork" or “ayout 2.5 SWITCH TYPES ‘An electrical switch fs any device used to interupt the flow of electrons in a Circuit. Switches are eseentially binary devices: they are either completely on (elosed") or completely of (fopen"), There are many diferent types of switches, Toggle switch a “Toggle switches are actuated by @ lever angled in one of two or more positions ‘The common light switch used in household wiring Is an example of a toggle snitch. Most toggle evitches will come to rest in any of their lever positions, wile thers have an intemal spring mechanism returning the lever to @ certain normal postion, allowing for what is called "miomentary* operation. Pushbutton switch ae Pushbutton switches are two-positon devices actuated with a button that is pressed and roleoted, Moct puehbutton switches have an intemal spring Imechanism retuming the button to ts “out,” or "impressed," position, for momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches wil latch alternately on of off vith every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in their “in,” or ae inet sas opcctenatestasCHAPTER 2 a “pressed," postion unt the bulton is pulled back out. Ths last type of pushbutton switches usually has a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action, Selector switch = Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select ‘one of two or more pasitons, Like the toggle switch, selector switches can either fest in any of their postions oF contain spring-returm mechanisms for momentary operation, Joystick switch 2 ‘A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on whion way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far itis pushed. ‘The circe-and-det notation én the switch symbol represents the Firection of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact, Joystick hand ‘switches are commonly used for cane and robot conto. Lever actuator limit switch NS ‘These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selactor hand switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Often, tne levers are tipped with 2 small roller beering, preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated contact with the machine pat Proximity swrttoh Ape 42s Yy 7 hsascemeaenemal soe aneCHAPTER 2 eee, Proximity switches serse the approach of @ metallic machine part elther by a magnetic or high reqvency electromagnetic field, Simple proximity switches use 2 permanent magnat to actuate a sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets cose (typically 1 inch of less). More complex proximity ‘Switches work like a metal detector, energizing a coll of wire with a high: frequency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that ‘Speed switch 4 i “These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft ether by a centrifugal weight mechanism mounted on the shat, or by some kind of non-contact detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic. Pressure switch Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied toa piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure fa mechanical force. Temperature switch ‘An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the "bimetali strip:" a thin strip of two metals, ined back-to-back, each metal having a diferent rate of thermal expansion. When the stip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal expansion between fhe two metals causes i to bend. The bending of the strip an then be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism, Other temperature Switches use a brass bulb filed witn either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube Connecting the bulb 1 a pressure-verisiny switch. As the bub is heated, the goo or liquid expands, generating a preseure increase which then actuates the switch mechanism, 8 ans renertniaisAe BoaCHAPTER 2 Liquid level switch -s ‘A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid level nan tank rises past a certain point. If the liquid Is electrically conductive, the iquié kseif can be used as a conductor to bridge between two metal probes inserted into the tankeat the required depth. The conductivity technique is usualy implemented witn @ ssecial design of relay tiggered by a small amount of current through the conductie bquid. In moat cases itis impractical and dangerous to switch the ful load current ofthe circuit through a quid Liquid flow switch ms Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in excess. of a certain threshold usually with a small paddle or vane which is pushed by the flow. Other flow switches are constructed as diferential pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop across a restriction buit into the pipe. + REVIEW: 2A such is an electical device, usually electromechanical, used to control ‘continuity between two points. + Hand ewitches are actuated by human touch 2 Limit ewhehes are actuated by machine motion. {Process switches are actuated by changes in some physical process emperature, level, flow, eta) 2.6 SWITCH CONTACT DESIGN ‘A switch can be constructed with any mechanism bringing two conductors into Contact with each other in a controlled manner. This ean be as simple as allowing ‘wo copper wires to touch each other by the matin of a lavar, nr by directly pushing two metal stipe into contact, However, a good switch design must be Fugged and relabie, and avold presenting the” oparator with the possibilty of Gledtric shock. Therefore industrial switch designs are rarely this crude. Se 8 sas. renaoi eu asCHAPTER 2 a «+ Heat generated by current through metal contacts (while closed). 1 Sparking caused when contacts ate opened or closed, 1 The voltage across open switch contacts (potential of current jumping ‘across the gap), + REVIEW: 1 The parts of a switch responsible for making and breaking electrical Continuity are called the "contacts." Usually made of corrosion-resistant metal alloy, cortacts are made to touch each other by a mechanism which helps maintain aroper alignment and spacing, + Metoury switches Use a slug of fiquid mercury metal as a moving contact, Seaiod in a glass tube, the mercury contact's spark is sealed from the ouside environment, making this type of switch ideally suited for ‘atmospheres potentially harboring explosive vapors. Reed switches are another type of sealed-contact device, contact being image by fwo tin metal “reads” Inside a glass tube, brought together by the influence of an external magnetic fe. + Switch contacis suffer greater duress switching DC than AG. This is primaniy due te the sel-extinguishing nature of an AC arc. « Ktecistor-capsctior network called a "snubber” can be connected in parallel with a switch contact to reduce contact arcing, «Wetting current isthe minimum amount of electric current necessary for 2 switch contact to camry in order for it to be sef-cleaning. Normally this value is far below the switch’s maximum current rating. 2.7 CONTACT "NORMAL" STATE AND MAKEIBREAK SEQUENC! [Any kind of switch covtact can be designed eo that the contacts “close” (establish ‘continuy) when actuated, of “open (interrupt continuity) when actuated, For Switches that have a spring-retum mechanism in them, the direction that the Spring relums it to with no applied force is called the normal postion. Therefore, oniacis that are open inthis position are called normally open and contacts that ‘are closed inthis poston are called normally closed. The schematic symbol for switches varles according to the switch’s purpose and actuation, A normally-open switch contact is drawn in such a way Be fe signify an open connection, ready to close when actuated. Conversely, 2 ormally.cosed swith drawn as a closed connection which will be opened ‘when actuated, Note the folowing symbols: — 10 susie Aoprar(emtnay ASDACHAPTER 2 Pushbutton switch Normally-open Normally closed = _ ‘There is also a generis symbology for any switch contac, using a pair of vertical lines to represent the contact points in a switch. Nomally-open contacts. are designated by the lines not touching, white nomally-closed contacts re designated with a diaconal ine bridging between the two lines. Compare the two: Generic switch contact designation Normaily-open Normally-closed 4h aa ‘The switch on the let will close when actuated, and will be open while in the “normal” (unactuated) postion, The switch on the right wil open wien actuated, and is closed in the “normal” (unactuated) position. If switenes are designated wth these generic symbols, the type of switch usualy will be noted in text immediately beside the symbol Single-pole, single-throw (Pst) we Here are a few common ulich configurations and their abbreviated designations: Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) “e 4 Leas eerennsha As BleCHAPTER 2 ee Double-pole, single-throw (PST) he we Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) = ~ Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) Four-pole, double-throw (PDT) eee eee 55 a E08 sss nigga beCHAPTER 2 SS + REVIEW: 2 The normal sleto of a switch is that where it is unactuated. For process ssutches, his isthe condition isin when sitting on a she'f, uninstalled. + Avswiteh that is open when unactuated is called nommally-opan. A switch that is closes when unactuated is called normally-closed. Sometimes the terms ‘normall-open" and "normally-closed” are abbreviated N.O. and NC, respectively. 1+ The generic eymbology for N.O. and N.C. switch contacts is as folows: 2 Multiposition svitches can be either breaicbeforewmake (most common) or make-before-break + The "poles" ofa svitch refers to the number of moving contacts, while the “throws” of a uitch refers te the number of stationary contacts per moving contact. 2.8 TIME-DELAY RELAYS Some rolays are censtucted with a kind of "shock absorber" mechanism atiached to the armalure which prevents immediate, ful motion when the col is {ther energized oF de-energized. This action gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay relays can be constucted to delay armature mation on col energization, de-energization, or bth, Normally open, timed-closed 5 see. Closes 5 secords atter coil energization Qpens immediately upon coil de-energization Normally-open, timed-open — 500. Closes immediately upon coil energization pene 3 seconce chet coll de-energization 13 \LsAs-pijesanserlA BokeCHAPTER 2 Leone eee Normally-closed, timec-open = 3 seo. Opens 5 seconds atter ooil energization, Closes immediately upon coll de-energization Normally-closed, timed-olosed = Sec. Opens immediately upon coil energization eee'3 seconds ater coll de-energization + REVIEW: + Tine delay relays are bul in hese four basic mades of contact operation: 1 Ti Nommatlropon, lmed-closed. Abbreviated "NOTC", these relays open immediately Upon col de-nergizalon and close only it the coil is ‘oninuovely energized forthe time duration period. Also called normaly ‘open, on-doley lays «2 Nemmaly-osen, tmed-open. Abbreviated "NOTO", these relays close immediately upon col energization and. open after the coll has been de- tharlzed for he time duration petod. Also called normal}y-opon, of lay relays. «5 Nermally-cosed, tmed-open, Abbreviated "NCTO", these relays close immediately upon coll de-energlzation and open only # the coil is ominously energized for te tne duration period. Also caled narmally- ‘hosed, on-deay relays. + Nomelly-cosed, tmed-losed. Abbreviated "NCTC, these relays open immediately upon coll energization and close ater the coll hes been de tneroized forthe tne duraton period. Also called normaly-closed, off Seley relays + Gnershot tenets provide @ single contact pulse of specified duration for teach col ena-gizaton (anston from coil off to colon) «+ Recycle times provide a repeating sequence of on-off contact pulses as tong as the cal fe maintained in an energized state eee cas costtscon vases ectleCHAPTER 2 ne ae "+ Wetchdog timers actuate their contacts only if the coll fais to be continuously sequenced on and off (energized and de-energized) at a minimum frequency. 2.9 PROTECTIVE RELAYS {A special type of relay is one which monitors the current, voltage, frequency, or ‘any other type of eledric power measurement ether from a generating source er {a & load for the purpose of triggering a circuit breaker to open in the event of an fbnornal condition. These relays are referred to inthe electrical power industry fae protective relays. + REVIEW: 2 Large electric circuit breakers do not contain within themselves. the necessary mechanisms to automatically tip (open) in the event of over Current condtions. Thay must be “il 1 tip by external devices. + Protective releys are devices built fo automaticaly trigger the actuation Cols of large elactc creat breakers under certain concitions 12.40 WIRES AND CONNECTIONS ____ Older ccnvention | Connected Not connected Newer convention Comected —_Notoonnacted | I+ +4 nl Cider electrical schematics showed connecting wires crossing, while non- connecting wires “jumped” over each other with litle half-cirle marks. Newer electrical achemalies show connecting wires joining with a dat, while non- 1 sas pansesanlamal A DakeCHAPTER 2 ‘connecting wites cross with no det. However, some people stil use the older Convention of connecting wires crossing with no det, which may create confusion. 2:11 BOWER SOURCES 0 voiege pores acvenege = b & T Vanatio eee Boerne A diagonal arro qn A SZ pe ares is 7 feprermarceny emer “5 sia Sure, ELECTRICALLY ACTUATED (RELAYS Fel comoorate, acer gk oto ae AWS a dh PD DS Generic Electronic: Relay coil, Relay coll, ae ; as electromechanical electronic ee =e Te al 3 a sesascenensen(sana olaCHAPTER 2 2.13, CONNECTORS > »> > Plug Jack Plug & Jack (male) female) connected 6 Receptacle Household [= Mutti-conductor (female) “power I~ plugjack set connectors sil e i> Plug~ ~ Jack PA ral vCHAPTER 2 2.44 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - CONTACTOR COIL - GENERAL ‘Leas Pomeranian BaCHAPTER 2 ed 2.45 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - CONTACTS AND FIELD DEVICES “The following able provides the IEC and BS Electrical Symbols for contacts. We have included the Normally Open and Normally Closed status for each contactCHAPTER 2 SS 2.46 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - CONNECTOR: “Tho following table provides the commanly used electrical wiring schematic symbols for connedare which comply with the IEC and BS Electrical ‘Symbols, These connectors include plug and socket, coaxial, terminal and earth ‘connectors,CHAPTER 3 ee 3. ELECTRIC SCHEMATIC SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM, 3.1 "LADDER" DIAGRAMS Ladder diagrams are specialized schematics commonly used to document industrial control logic systems, They are called “ladder” diagrams because they esemble a ladder, wih two vertical rails (supply power) and as many "rungs" (horizontal lines) a there are control circaits to represent, ifwe wantod to draw a ‘Simple ladder diagram showing a lamp that is conirallad by @ hand switch, t ‘would took ike this: ‘The "Li" and "Le" designations refer to the two poles of a 120 VAG supply, unless otherwise noted, L; the “hot” conductor, and Le is the grounded (*neutral) Conductor. These designations have nothing to do with inductors, just to| make things confusing. The actual transformer or generstor supplying power to this ‘Great is omitted for simply In realy, the circuit looks something lke this: To 480 volt AC power source (typical) ‘use’ fuse step-down ‘control power” | transformer 720 VAG Typically in industial lay logic circuit, but not alwaye, the operating voltage for the switen contacts and relay cols wil be 120 volts AC, Lower voltage AC. and. even DC systems are sometimes buit and documented according to "ladder" diagrams ‘so-reteentenet teu SlaCHAPTER 3 24,V0e Ly fuse {i la ‘Switch Lamp Low i 7 So long as the switch contacts and relay colls are all adequately rated, it really doesnt matter what level f votage is chosen for tre system to operate with, + REVIEW: Ladder diagrams (sometimes called "ladder logic") are a type of electrical notation anc symbology frequently used to ilustrate how blectromacharical swiches and relays are interconnected. «+ The two vertical lines are called "rals" and attach to opposte poles of a power supply, wsually 110 /120 volts AC. L; designates the "hot" AC wire {nd Ls the "neutral (grounded) conductor. + Horizontal fines ina ladder diagram ‘are called "rungs," each one representing a unique parallel circuit branch between the poles of the power supply «Typically, wires in control systems are marked with numbers and/or letters Jor identifeatin. The rule is, all permanently connected (electricaly ‘common) points must bear the same label. 3.2 PERMISSIVE AND INTERLOCK CIRCUITS, AA practical application of switch and relay logic is in control systems where Several process conditions have to be met before a piace of equipment is allowed fo start. A good example of this is burner control for large combustion furnaces. In order for the burners in a large furnace to be started safely, the control system requasts “permission” from several process switches, including high and low fuel pressure, alr fan flow check, exhaust stack damper postion, ‘access door position, ete. Each process condition is called a permissive, and teach permissive swtch contact is wired in serie, so that if any one of them dotects an unsafe condition, the circuit wll be open:CHAPTER 3 Lu Ly low fuel high fuel-minjmum damper foe Meese alow" Soper" ORY [ cr green oR: red Geen light = conditions met: safe to start Red light = conaitions not met: unsafe to start + REVIEW: 1 Switch contacts installed in a rung of tadder logic designed to interrupt @ Sirout H certain physical condone are not met are called permissive Contacts, because the system requires permission from these inputs to activate + Switch contacss designed to prevent @ control system from taking two incompatible actions at ance (euch as powering an electric motor forward ‘and backward simultaneously) are called interlocks. 3.3 MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS “The intertock contacts installed inthe previous section's motor control ciroult work fine, But the motor wil run only as long as each pushbutton switch is held down, Ite wanted to Keep the motor running even after the operator tekes his or het hand ‘off the contel switch (es), we could change the cicut in a couple of “ferent ways: we cculd replace the pushbutton switches with toggle switches, or Wwe could 208 some more relay logis to "atch" the contol crcut with a single, momentary actuation of either switch, Let's see how the second approach is implemented, since itis commonly used in industry: see 1USAE PenjnaanEeiat-Abs BakeCHAPTER 3 forward typ ut we 4 1 3 YF Mt reverso mt “es ME oR 5 Me + REVIEW: {Motor contactor (or "starter coils are typically designated by the latter "Mt" in ladder logic diagrams, + Continuous motor operation with a momentary "start switch fs possible fa nommally-open "seal" contact from the contactor is connected in parallel with the start switch, so that once the contactor is energized it Taintaine power to itself and keaps isl "latched on, + Time delay relays ate commonly used in large motor control circuits to prevent the motor from being started (or reversed) until a ceriain ammount ff time has elapsed from an event. 3.4 FAIL-SAFE DESIGN Logie circuits, whether comprised of electlomechanical relays or solid-state ‘gates, can be buil in many different ways to perform the same functions. There is usually na one "correct" way to design a complex loge cireuit, but there sre usually ways that are better than others, In control systems, safety is (ar atleast should be) an important design prion, I there ate multiple ways in which a digital control circuit can be designed to perform a task, and one of those ways happens to hold certain advantages in Safety over the others, then that design is tne better one to choose, ‘sas eonaroncbann tou BataCHAPTER 3 i L switch 1 siren | +/+ switeh 2 {| “4 switch 3 }—4—} switch 4 REVIEW: 1 The goal of fai-safe design is to make possible fo likely wiring or component ‘control system as tolerant as ‘The most common type of wiring and component failure is an "open" circuit oF broken connection. Therefore afal-safe system should be designed to defauit to its safest mode of operation in the case of an open eircut, 3.5 ANS! PROTECTIVE RELAY DESIGNATION NUMBERS. ‘There are many types of protective relays, some with highly specialized functions. Not all monitor voltage of current, either. They all, however, share the fommon feature of outputing a contact closure signal which can be used to Switch power to a breaker tip coll, close col, or operator alarm panel. Most protective relay functions have been categorized into an ANSI standard number ode. Here are a fev examples from that code lst 12.= Overspeed 24 = Overexcitaton 25 ~ Syncrocheck 27 = BudLine undewvoltage 32 = Reverse power (ant-motoring) 138 = Stator overtems (RTD) OO ec spsgonse iste reeset tt aaCHAPTER 3 a 40 = Loss of excitation 48 = Negative sequence undercurrent (phase current imbalance) legative sequence undervoltage (phase voltage imbalance) searing overtem> (RTD) 4 50 = Instantaneous overcurrent S0FL = Voltage transtormer fuse faiure PhaselGround drectional current Autoreslose ‘Bus overfunderfiequency 3.6 POWER SYSTEM DEVICES FUNCTION JEEE 4, Master Element 2. Time-Deiay Stating or Closing Relay. 3. Checking or intalecking relay. 4. Master contactor. 5, Stopping devices. 6, Starting cicult breaker, 7. Anode circuit breacer 8. Control power disconnecting devices. 9, Reversing devices. 40. Unit sequence switch. 11, Reserved for future application. 12. Overspeed devices. 13, Synchronous-spead devices. 14. Underspeed devees. 18. Speed or frequency matching devices. 46, Reserved for future appiiction. 47, Shunting or discharge switch, 48. Acceterating or cecelerating device. 419, Starting-o-running transition contactor. 20. Electrically operated valve. 21, Distance relay. 22, Equalizer creuttbreaker. 22 Tamparahira control devices. 24. Reserved for future application, 25. Synchronizing o”synchronism-check device. 26. Apparatus thermal device. 27, Undervotiage reay. 28, Flame detector. iy ssisocnaentarat stoneCHAPTER 3 ES 28. leolating contactor. 30. Annunciator relay. 341, Separate excitation devices. 432, Directional power relay. 33, Position switch, 34, Master sequence devices. 235. Brush-operating o lip-ring shor-ciculting device, 36, Polarity or polarizing voltage device, 837, Undercurrent or underpower relay 28. Bearing protective device. 39. Mechanical condition monitor. ‘ 40, Fd relay. 41. Field circuit breaker. 442, Running circuit breaker. 43. Manual transferor selector device. ‘44, Unit sequence staring relay, 445, Atmospheric condtton monitor. 46, Reverve-phase or phase-balance current relay 147, Phase-sequence voltage relay. 48, Incomplete sequence relay. 449. Machine or transformer thermal relay. 50, Instantaneous overcurrent oF rate-ol-ise relay. 51, Ac time overcurrent relay. 52, Ac cicult breaker. 53, Exciter or de generator relay. ‘54, Reserved for future application 55, Power factor relay '58. Field application rsay. 57. Shor-crcuiting or rounding device. 58, Rectification failure relay. 59, Overvotage relay, 60, Voltage or curren! balance reiey. 61. Reserved for future application. 662. Time-delay stopping or opening relay. 68, Pressure switch 64, Ground detector relay 65. Governor. 688. Notching or jogging device, 67. Ac directional overcurrent relay. £88, Blocking relay. 69, Permisswe control device. 70, Rheostat 71. Level switch, 72, Be cireuit breaker. 73. Loadt-resistorcortactor. aJ—eeeee sas osersotrha en BosCHAPTER 3 Leone 174, Alarm relay. 75. Position changing nechanism. 70. De over current ret. 77, Pulse transmitter. 78. Phase-angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay. 79. Ae enclosing relay, 120, Flow switch. Bt, Frequency rey. £2. De enclosing reay. 183, Automatic selective contol or transfer relay. 4. Operating mechanism 85. Carrier or pilot wire receiver relay 16. Lockout relay. 87. Differential protecive relay '86. Ausliary mator or motor generator. 49. Line switch. 90. Reguiating device. 81. Voltage directional relay. 92, Voltage and power directional relay. 98, Fiekd-changing contactor 184, Tripping or ti-fee relay. 86.96. deed only for pectic applications in individual installations where none of the assigned numbered function from 1 to 84 is suitable. ccc sponses ‘Leas panacea aCHAPTER 3 Nene ae The following codes which vary slightly from the American codes are in common use in Eurozean & Australian standard electrical circuit diagrams. (ks) A. Assemblies B- Transducers (Photo cells, Inductive Proximity, Thermocouple, Flame Detection) . C+ Capaciors D- Storage Devices E - Wiscellaneous F- Fuses G- Generator, Battery Pack H.- Indicators, Lamps (not for iluminaton), Signaling Devices K-Relays, Contactors L- Inductors and Filters M- Motors N- Analogue Devices P- Measuring/Tast Equipment Q- Circult Breakers, Isolators, Re-closers R- Resistors, Brake Resistors S~ Switches, Push Butons, Emergency stops and Limit Switches T= Transformers U- Power Converters, Variable Speed Drives, Soft Starters, DC Power Supplies V- Semiconductors W- Wires, Conductors, Power, Neutral & Earthling Busses X- Terminal Sips, teminations, joins Y- Solenoids, Electrical actuators 2—Fitters sas pegaraanEtal Ab BakaCHAPTER 4 4. 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